PSYC 305 Midterm 1
Gustav Fritsch and Eduard Hitzig
support for cerebral localization of motor control electrically stimulated motor cortex (dog) found 5 sites that when electrically stimulated produced distinctive contralateral body movements
Aristotle's mind-body dualism
Same idea as Plato, w/o negative connotation to info gained via senses Soul needs the body, it is what allows the soul to act in the world the body receives info at primitive level & gives existence to soul soul = life-giving element of all things. it has a will/volition Hierarchical graduation of souls Vegetative = soul that plants have Sensitive = soul that animals have Rational = soul that humans have, gives them capacity to reason the body & mind together can attain knowledge. you can generally trust your senses to yield an accurate representation of the world
Theory of Forms
(Plato) -everything in the natural world is a manifestation of a pure form (idea) that exists in the abstract -what is experienced thru the senses is the interaction of matter (percepts) with pure form >> percepts: Info we get thru senses. these corrupt the capacity to reason and grasp pure forms -pure form can be grasped thru rational thinking -(going against pragmatic orientation) -ex: You can't perceive the ideal, perfect cat thru your senses. All your senses can see are the imperfect cats. Thru rational thinking, you can reach the perfect cat (attaining cat-ness)
Allegory of the Cave
(Plato) Knowledge you gain thru rational thinking, vs knowledge you gain thru the senses The inside of the cave represents what can be perceived thru the senses > This is where everyone is The individual that ventures out acquires this knowledge >>He acquires it thru rational thinking (reasoning is how he gets out of the cave) >>The philosopher is the one who comes out of the cave, attains true perm knowledge >>His duty now is to educate others Trustworthy permanent knowledge gained thru reason
theological explanations
-the self and the world are explained thru spiritual causes >> thought that when you're asleep, the spirit temporarily leaves the body. when you die, the spirit permanently leaves -there is no clear separation b/w the individual & environment --theological explanations don't differentiate b/w animate & inanimate why were such explanations used? >> humans needed to understand, predict, and control nature >> trying to explain & find a solution to problems ex: god is angry at humans and won't give rain to their crops -- Try to behave better, give sky a gift
in early Ancient Greece, (5th - 6th cent BC), explanations were still very religious what were the 2 major theologies? --for the next 2 flashcards, know how they differed in viewing the soul
1. Olympian religion Upper class 2. Dionysiac-orphic religion The general people (laborers, slaves, peasants)
Renaissance
14th-17th cent Church dogma consisted of fixed truths. when these "unquestionable" truths were challenged, the questioning escalated rapidly. the Church tries to discourage these challenges this leads to the breakdown of Church authority we see more science & philosophy goes from God-centered to human-centered observation of nature without the intervention of theological considerations return to an open-minded method of inquiry that characterized early Greek philosophy -- critical thinking
Syllogism
A form of deductive reasoning consisting of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. (aristotle) ex: All men are mortal Socrates is man Therefore, Socrates is mortal
L4-5: Origins of a Science of Mind
After Aristotle ...
the Middle Ages (talk about the Crusades, and Thomas Aquinas)
After fall of Roman Empire, the writings of the early Greek & Roman philosophers are lost during this time the following centuries saw little progress (the middle ages) lasts from 5th to 15th cent uncertain times Christian church becomes more powerful science, phil >halted during this period in many places As the Church is gaining power, the 8 Crusades against Muslims are taking place >>church wants to halt expansion of Islam During the Crusades, the works of the ancient Greeks & Romans are recovered >>Aristotle's works are v important - they are going to be accepted by the Church to a certain extent. Will be modified to fit the Church's truth Thomas Aquinas --He wants to sell the importance of reason --Reason and faith & can go together --They take us to the same final objective of finding God
what is Anthropomorphism? what kind of explanation sees the world this way?
Anthropomorphism: the projection of human attributes onto nature ex: People blaming natural disasters on angry gods
Laws of Association -who proposed this? -what did this later become?
Aristotle law of contiguity (things that remind you of past events) law of similarity (similar experiences) law of contrast (think about opposite) law of frequency (2 things need to be presented together many times - like classical conditioning) will later be known as associationism - explaining how complex ideas come from simple ideas
what 3 thinkers thought there were 4 basic elements
Empedocles, Hippocrates, Anaxagoras
Johannes Müller (1801-1858)
Expanded the Bell-Magendie Law examined nerves & their response to stimulation Studied how different nerves could respond differently to similar types of stimulation, or how similar nerves could respond differently to diff types of stimulation doctrine of specific nerve energies: different types of sensory nerves each respond in different ways to the same type of stimulation --ex: stimulation = pressure .... On eye, visual sensation. On skin, tactile sensation --The nerves involved in a specific system will respond the same even if presented w diff stimuli Ex: skin will always have tactile sensation, no matter the stimuli You have diff structures in the nervous system that react to the outside world in diff ways, and that is what you experience, despite your external world Believed that the velocity in which the nervous system communicated (neuroconduction) was instantaneous, and cannot be measured >> Was he trying to bring a divine force into the picture again?
PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS IN ANCIENT GREECE
L2-3
Before, we were looking at questions like, "how do we acquire knowledge?" now, what kinds of questions are being asked?
Less abstract, more concrete What should we do to live the better life? (Rather than "how can we gain knowledge?")
what differentials the mathematical orientation from naturalistic and biological orientations?
Mathematical focuses on the non-physical (But all orientations are trying to find ways to generalize)
Pythagoras (what orientation, and what did he believe?)
Mathematical orientation DUALISTIC UNIVERSE --we know the world thru our senses - but this world is distorted (Knowledge gained thru senses can't be trusted) --permanent reality exists, but can only be discovered thru intuitive reasoning (bc the soul resides there) places importance on relationships b/w numbers and by finding these relationships is how we attain this permanent knowledge about the universe MIND-BODY DUALISM: --proposed existence of immortal entity (soul) as the life-giving principle. it has functions of feelings (heart), and intuition & reasoning (brain) --animals: feeling & intuition --humans: + reasoning
Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894) -law of conservation of energy -measurement of nerve impulses -Theory of Perception -Trichromatic theory of color vision
Müller's student law of conservation of energy: energy cannot be created nor destroyed; it can only be transformed from one kind into another >> found that the amount of energy that frogs spend is equal to the amount of energy they ingest measurement of nerve impulses --stimulated the nerve fiber of frog's leg at various distances from the muscle & noted the time to react > saw that it was NOT instantaneous (differs from Müller - Takes away idea of higher divine power involved) ---- Theory of perception: --there is sensation: the basic elements that we receive from outside objects, raw information --And perception: has to do with those sensations we receive interacting with our past experiences, with knowledge we've acquired from before --Ex: man walking towards you as a sensation is a tiny man who is growing. But your perception is not that that is happening, but that a far away man is advancing towards you --so, past experience of the observer is what converts sensation into perception!! (Unconscious inference) found support for this in people who had been blind since birth, but then gained capacity to see --Individuals who have never seen but then gain sight don't have the past experience of sight. Von Helmholtz believes that these people can't see right away, but after time and experience they will be able to also ran experiments w distortion glasses --People couldn't perceive at first, but after time with it they could --This also supported his theory (same idea as with the blind people) Trichromatic theory of color vision --suggested that color vision resulted from stimulation of specific receptors in the retina --3 primary receptor types (red, green, blue-violet) --other colors result from stimulation of more than one receptor --ex: When mostly red receptors were stimulated, people would see mostly red, if a combo then they would see a combo, if all then they would see white ---- what is physically present is not the same as what is experienced psychologically. He explained this discrepancy in terms of the properties of the receptor systems and the unconscious inferences of the observer
René Descartes (1596-1650) -method of doubt -his argument for the existence of God -context: mechanic zeitgeist -his mind-body dualism
Philosophers seek truth, but can't agree on anything Method of doubt --Started from premise that everything should be doubted - was only certain that he was doubting > doubting is thinking > thinking needs a thinker --Slowly came to conclusion cogito ergo sum --Because he's doubting, he's thinking, which means he, as a thinker, exists made argument for the existence of God --though Descartes was imperfect, he could entertain ideas that were perfect > those ideas must not be his own --There must be a perfect being that's putting those perfect ideas in my head and that must therefore be God --since God exists, is perfect, and wouldn't deceive us, we can usually trust sense info --however, sensory info must be clear (you're actually consciously thinking about it) & distinct (you've looked at that info thru diff angles to make sure it's actually what you're sensing) before it can be accepted as valid --you can decide whether the info is reliable after consulting these ^ 2 requirements Thus, Descartes concluded: 1. natural processes = valid & knowledge of the physical world gained thru the senses could be accepted 2. sensory info must be analyzed rationally in order to determine its validity context: mechanic zeitgeist --William Harvey discovered that the heart caused blood circulation. Before, it was believed that the heart created blood, and brought it to diff parts for it to be consumed. now people know it works like a pump, a machine --automaton: Hydraulic system that allows doll to move in a certain way --The body of humans, and animals, operate in this machine-like way according to Descartes. their behavior & internal processes can be explained mechanically interactive mind-body dualism: there is an interaction b/w the human body that operates according to physical principles and a mind/soul that does not --mind = non physical, it can reason --body receives sensory info --the mind and the body influence each other thru the pineal gland (center of brain, not duplicated, thought it was only found in human brains, believed it was surrounded by animal spirited, which we now know as CSF). The pineal gland would open and the animal spirits would flow thru certain regions and the human would act in a certain way Descartes was a a. rationalist (method of doubt, reasoning) & a b. nativist -We're born w certain capacities, ideas (like the belief in God) -But during life we can acquire other ideas as well -This is seen in the nature-nurture debate
Plato
Plato fled Athens and went to Italy due to his mentor (Socrates) dying Greatly influenced by the mathematical orientation - "Let no one w/o an understanding of mathematics enter here" wanted to find something permanent that could be the object of knowledge knowledge can only be attained thru reason ----------------- Theory of Forms The Allegory of the Cave know these!^^ ---------
The Apology by Plato
Plato highlighted one of the key characteristics of Socrates As Socrates is awaiting his sentence, he recalls his friend asking Oracle at Delphi if Socrates was the wisest man. Oracle says he is To refute this, Socrates went around to talk to all the wise men. Found that many of them were ignorant but thought they knew everything Concluded that the Oracle thought he was the wisest bc he didn't know much, but he didn't think he knew much either
in early Ancient Greece, (5th - 6th cent BC), explanations were still very religious describe one of the 2 major theologies, the Dionysiac-orphic religion
The general people (laborers, slaves, peasants, poor, uneducated) based on legend of Dionysus (god of wine & sexual frenzy), and his disciple Orpheus -- Dionysus results from Zeus & a human finding liberty is encouraged belief in transmigration of the soul -- soul starts in the heavens > then it does something bad and is sent to live in a body as a punishment > it does this until it redeems itself -- the body is viewed as prison
what differentiates the Naturalistic & Biological Orientations? What do they have in common?
The naturalistic view looks in external environment, whereas biological view adds component of the internal human system Both seek to explain life in the physical/material realm
theory of mind -how might this be evo helpful?
ability to reason about what other people know or believe Evolutionary speaking, this may be useful for socializing, or to avoid certain individuals as well As humans, we're all kind of psychologists Coined by David Premac - Wanted to know if this theory held true w/in other animals
Charles Bell and Francois Magendie
These 2 individuals never met each other, but in ~11 years, they made similar findings --Bell first presented his findings in a pamphlet --11 years later, Magendie published his findings. He conducted various experiments Bell-Magendie Law demonstrated separate tracts in spinal cord, and separate functions suggested distinct brain regions They found that the nerves that are imp in conducting info (sensory & motor) take on different paths ---Dorsal route receives sensory info ---Ventral route sends out motor info Before it was believed that the same nerve fibers were involved in these 2 types of info Magendie is responsible for separating these 2 paths ---Severed dorsal route (imp for sensory info) > dogs couldn't feel, but they could still move ---Severed ventral route > dogs couldn't move, but they could feel Suggests that in the brain sensory & motor info is also processed in diff regions
in early Ancient Greece, (5th - 6th cent BC), explanations were still very religious describe one of the 2 major theologies, the Olympian religion
UPPER CLASS consisted in belief of Olympian Gods. -- these Gods were characterized as amoral, easily angered, don't care about human rational thinking -- similar qualities to members of Greek upper class personified orderliness & rationality valued intelligence believed that the breath-soul survived death -- when body dies, the soul leaves and goes on to other body without any memory of past life -- this belief: live life to the fullest. the soul should try to gain glory in this life
John Locke (1632-1704) -according to him, how do we gain knowledge? how do we move from simple to complex ideas?
according to Locke, how do we gain knowledge? --thru human experience --NO innate ideas, like God --considered father of empiricism --we're born with a tabula rasa. all knowledge & ideas are acquired thru the senses. these ideas can then be acted upon & rearranged by the operations of the mind thereby giving rise to new ideas >> Over time, we acquire info and we can develop complex ideas >> Did believe that we were born w basic capacities (like to think) but NOT born w ideas according to Locke, how do we move from simple to complex ideas? --thru association. complex ideas form combinations of simple ideas (associationism - this goes back to Aristotle). all of these complex ideas at some point came from the senses --when operations of the mind are applied to simple ideas, complex ideas can be formed -- human experience is central to knowledge complexity could be understood by analysis of its simpler, component parts the environment directly shapes the mind & behavior
Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
advocated for an inductive approach -From a specific example, you then go on to explain by generalizing further trusted only the direct observation we receive from our senses > then you can make general laws using reason believed that reason should be used as a tool Stressed using science to not only understand but CONTROL the world (and nature)
Skepticism
against dogmatism (which holds that there is no indisputable truth) promoted to suspend beliefs about everything What we believe in can turn out to be incorrect, why spend time believing in anything at all? (this theme of doubt is like pragmatic - no generalizable knowledge that can be applied to everyone)
Pragmatic Orientation
aka Sophists --Go arounds from town to town and charge for conferences --Badly viewed by other philosophers no first basic principles emphasis on observation a person's knowledge depends on their experience --so, no objective truth > SUBJECTIVE --don't believe in permanence People -Protagoras -Gorgias Operational level + skepticism = scientific method -operational level: to understand the world you're living in, you should study it We can only discuss and speculate what we can observe --Imp for behaviorism
what is animism? what kind of explanation sees the world this way?
animism: looking at all of nature as though it is alive ex: rocks and trees are living this is a theological explanation -theological explanations don't differentiate b/w animate & inanimate
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
astronomer who posited a heliocentric universe in place of a geocentric universe. Tried to debunk the "truths" that had been proposed by the church Before this theory, it was believed that it was earth was at the center of everything > God had made humans as a presentation of God. He put them on this plant that was the center of everything Copernicus delayed publication until right before his death
Early Greek Explanations: Mathematical Orientation
attempts to extrapolate from material level to a general principle for all life --the physical world is untrustworthy/illusion -truth can be found thru our ability to reason Dualistic universe: 1. the empirical & changing ---you can know this world thru your senses 2. the abstract & permanent --you can gain knowledge about this world thru reason People -Pythagoras
Charles Darwin (1809-1882) voyage in Galapagos struggle for survival individual differences adaptive features fitness theory of evolution key contributions
before his voyage, he was a believer in argument from design (idea of God & divine plan still present) voyage in Galapagos - found that w/in the same species, depending on the environment, they don't look exactly the same (Darwin's finches - he even thought some were diff birds - Beak size) struggle for survival --Also noticed that organisms have more offspring than can actually survive --Not all can survive bc resources = limited Also notices that there are individual differences b/w the offspring --Individual differences make it so that some survive and others don't (he did not coin survival of the fittest) adaptive features: features that allow adequate adjustment (survival & reproduction) to an organism's environment --Ex: environment A has tall trees. Giraffe's long neck is an adaptive feature. Environment B has short trees. Giraffe's long neck is NOT an adaptive feature fitness: an organism's ability to survive & reproduce thought that as environments change, what features used to be adaptive may no longer be evolutions just happens. there is no direction or purpose evolved theory of evolution: evolution is a slow process that results from natural selection of adaptive characteristics. --Features that are adaptive thru process of natural selection are less likely to be passed on to following generation. Features that are maladaptive are less likely to be passed on KEY CONTRIBUTIONS 1. convincing evidence that humans are part of nature, subject to the same natural laws 2. importance of considering the function of attributes & behaviors 3. study man in comparison with other animals (comparative psyc) and understanding the development of humans (developmental psych) 4. emphasis on individual differences
Hippocrates (what orientation, and what did he believe?)
biological orientation emphasized the BRAIN, not the heart, in psychological processes referred to as the father of medicine Theory of Humors --earth (black bile), air (yellow bile), fire (blood), water (phlegm) --an imbalance results in illness --body has capacity to heal itself, physician facilitates (think: similar to Empedocles with the 4 basic elements)
Alcmaeon (what orientation, and what did he believe?)
biological orientation emphasized the BRAIN, not the heart, in psychological processes the body seeks an equilibrium of its mechanisms - there needs to be a balance b/w diff states in order to maintain health Ex: warm & cold, moist & dry, etc. Ex: have fever - put someone in cooler environment
what did Alcmaeon & Hippocrates both emphasize?
both being from the biological orientation, they both emphasized the BRAIN, not the heart, in psychological processes Prior to these individuals, emphasis on the imp of the heart in regards to what is necessary for perception, sensation, consciousness also emphasized an equilibrium inside the body
Franz Joseph Gall
brain organ of mind its workings could be empirically demonstrable Gall demonstrated that there were 2 substances that made up the brain: White matter (myelin sheath - mostly made up of myelinated axons) Grey matter (the cell bodies and dendrites of the neurons, not myelinated) Also demonstrated that there was a bundle of axons that joined the 2 hemispheres together - the corpus collosum argued for a physical, innate, foundation for organizing knowledge coming thru the senses >> Believed that we were born with innate faculties (specific structures) - yet no innate ideas (Like John Locke) Organology specific regions of brain are involved in diff functions (later called Phrenology) >> discerning mental abilities by reading bumps on the skull >>proposed the diagram of the brain regions (which are involved in unique functions...localization of function in the brain) This analysis of the skull led people like Lombroso to study the skulls of murderers, to see if there was a specific region involved in these tendencies materialist basis of mind >> brain = mind higher mental functions are NOT due to God emphasized empirical & experimental approach
Paul Broca
case of Monsieur Leborgne --Lost capacity to speak, then lost other capacities --As he was deteriorating, Broca was asked to examine him --Noted that physically there was nothing wrong w this indivudal --After Leborgne died, Broca could then study the brain. He saw that Leborge had a chunk of his brain that was damaged in left frontal lobe - this is now known as Broca's area
Empiricists supported ...
change (you can gain knowledge thru experience)
Jean-Baptise Bouillaud
collected 100+ clinical cases supporting the localization of function believed that loss of articulate speech was assoc w frontal lobe Noticed that damage to specific regions of brain in humans led to specific functions --Ex: speech capacity --First to present this (Like Broca!)
Jean-Pierre-Marie Flourens
committed to Cartesian position - mind = divine influence >>As we're moving away from the idea of the soul & God, there is still emphasis on it divisions of cerebral function DONT exist >> in response to Gall's ideas, Flourens was against localization of function. the mind works as a WHOLE he needed proof for this, so he started removing parts of the brain. All he saw was overall loss of function, rather than a localized loss of function. This helped him prove his point, but he was taking huge chunks this view was accepted in French medicine & physiology for many years
Socrates
concerned with what it means to be human, including its problems humans = separate from the rest of nature the immortality of life-giving soul defines humanity goal in life = gain knowledge --a big part of this is to "know thyself" --one can know thyself thru experience (bit of influence from pragmatic) Gain knowledge thru logic & reasoning. do this by finding the essence of things --inductive definition: find general concepts by examining specific examples --Definitions of things can be acquired by attaining the definitions of many individuals, and then trying to assemble one definition that encompasses all the indiv definitions truth can be generalized & is not personal (Diff from pragmatic) knowledge & morality = related proper knowledge leads individual to proper action --ex: knowing the definition of justice, altruism, etc. --Ignorance leads people to act in an improper manner (evil) downfall of Socrates: -accused at 70 for disrespecting the gods & corrupting the youth of Athens > found guilty for both -death penalty The Apology by Plato (know this!)
origins of a science of mind: part 2 Physiology & Medicine
efforts to equate mind & brain Before, the mind was believed to be immaterial soul, nonphysical. Now, efforts to say the mind is physical observation, laboratory, experiments
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
embraced Copernican theory proposed 3 laws trying to explain the motion of planets >>During this time, people thought the planets moved in a perfect circle. He found that this was not the case >>Found that the velocity at which the planets were moving depended on their distance >> demonstrated that different planetary motions could be described by a single mathematical statement >>He proved his thinking using mathematical equations thought that true reality was the mathematical harmony that existed beyond the world of appearances
Early Greek Explanations: Humanistic Orientation
emphasis on human beings & their unique characteristics --ex: capacity to use lang, self-reflect --the soul is the essence of these capacities (in humans) a soul defines the humanity of people --the soul is responsible for intellect & will side note: In this same orientation, it thinks that all living animals have a soul (contradictory) People -Anaxagoras
Early Greek Explanations: Biological Orientation
emphasis on internal state & physiology (contrast to naturalistic) importance on equilibrium -- when it is lost, disease ensues People -Alcmaeon -Hippocrates
Early Greek Explanations: Naturalistic Orientation
emphasis on physical environment (external to people) unifying substance (physis) in nature that serves as basis for everything speculated change & how it relates to matter examined laws of nature & generalized these laws to causes of human activity People Ionians: -Thales -Anaximander -Anaximenes -Empedocles -Democritus -Heraclitus -Parmenides
David Ferrier (1843-1928)
experimented on many various species. used electrical stimulation in other parts of the cortex found 15 areas of motor control Saw specific movements on contralateral side of the body Influenced by Gall > referred to his work as scientific phrenology
importance of Greek Philosophy
first detailed, recorded hypotheses about the causes of human activity methodological approaches willingness to engage in critical discussion (Thales was the first to stress this)
Emphasis on Spirit -what is Neoplatonism? -St-Paul -St-Augustin -what does this transition into?
focus on the spiritual Neoplatonism: --revival of Plato's ideas slightly tweaked to follow this shift towards the more spiritual --distrust the sensory world --body = soul's prison --Only God has true knowledge. By believing in God you can acquire true knowledge St-Paul --the good life = our willingness to surrender our existence to God's will St-Augustin --faith & emotional union with God = most important this transitions into the Middle Ages
Luigi Galvani (1737-1798)
suggested that neural impulses are electrical demonstrated that application of electrical current causes a dead frog's leg to twitch The way individuals move has to do with the electric signaling - the nervous system uses electricity
Christine Ladd-Franklin (1847-1930)
interested in evo theory and the physiology of visual system proposed a theory of color vision: 1. achromatic vision 2. then blue-yellow 3. then red-green sensitivity evidence supporting this theory comes from studies on color blindness: -the problems present right now are in systems that have evolved lastly -Bc if not, you wouldn't see those systems anymore -In color blindness, you mostly see red and green > blue cones evolved first -Structures evolving first would perfect themselves over time
Cynicism
like skepticism, cynics questioned an indisputable truth, but went further Question the value of intellectual pursuits characterized by the quest for simple, independent, natural life nature should guide behavior nothing natural can be bad (extremists) argued that nonhuman animals provide the best model for human conduct >> they have simple needs, no religion
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) he is considered 4 things (4 "ist's")
materialist believed that all that existed was physical mechanist believed that everything functioned like machines. >> like machines, we follow natural laws that can be studied Everything in the universe is made of matter, and also function as a machine >> Similar to Descartes in this sense. But Descartes also brought component of rational thought, which does not play a role here in contrast to Descartes, Hobbes is mainly considered empiricist >> believed that all knowledge derived from sensory experience Hedonist believed that all behavior was motived by the seeking of pleasure & the avoidance of pain (the outcome) .... there is no place for free will here
Anaxagoras (what orientation, and what did he believe?)
orientation: Humanistic the world evolved from 4 elements (water, earth, fire, air) --inspired by Empedocles (naturalistic), but adds the idea of soul to the story the essential nature of people is determined by the nous (mind or soul) Nous --nous is involved in rationality & intentionality --comes to restore order --Made it so that these 4 basic elements were on earth, and that everything on earth is made of these elements besides the nous
Gorgias (what orientation, and what did he believe?)
orientation: Pragmatic (Sophist) nothing exists beyond what the senses perceive sense info is the ONLY source of knowledge (sense info = knowledge)
Protagoras (what orientation, and what did he believe?)
orientation: Pragmatic (Sophist) sense information is a guide to knowledge against generalizations & extrapolating beyond the physical "man never steps into the same river once" --it's a diff river for everyone
Heraclitus (what orientation, and what did he believe?)
orientation: naturalistic everything is in constant change -- FIRE plays a role in this "it is impossible to step twice into the same river" -- when you step the first time, you've created change interested in the becoming. we should focus on this as philosophers
Parmenides (what orientation, and what did he believe?)
orientation: naturalistic thought that there is a permanent world that is NOT in constant change -- change = illusion -- this leads into mathematics "what is, is" Interested in the being (differ this from Heraclitus)
Democritus (what orientation, and what did he believe?)
orientation: naturalistic (Ionian) Elementism: trying to divide something up into its simpler components -- thought that everything in the world was made up of atoms
Thales (what orientation, and what did he believe?)
orientation: naturalistic (Ionian) considered first philosopher thought that the basic element that makes up everything is water Placed importance on the critical tradition -- There needs to be debate, discussion. We should be able to present our ideas
Anaximenes (what orientation, and what did he believe?)
orientation: naturalistic (Ionian) pneuma: the basic element is air for all life on earth
Anaximander (what orientation, and what did he believe?)
orientation: naturalistic (Ionian) student of Thales thought that there must be a more basic material than water
Empedocles (what orientation, and what did he believe?)
orientation: naturalistic (Ionian) thought the basic elements were earth, water, air, fire
Rationalists supported ...
permanency (through rational thinking, you can acquire permanent knowledge)
Aristotle
rationalist AND empiricist --one way to gain knowledge is from experience. yet, this is not the only way, and it is not sufficient. you also need to gain knowledge from reasoning --Plato saw sensory info as evil. Aristotle does not mind-body dualism law of association the soul's 10 categories for classifying knowledge of ourselves & enivronment methodological approach (two processes in logic) know all these!! ^
According to Aristotle, the soul utilizes 10 categories to classify knowledge of ourselves & the environment. what are these categories?
substance -an object (ex: doll) Quantity -amount (ex: 1 doll) Quality (ex: companionship) Relation gives reference to other things (that doll is my sister's) activity Category of action coming from one agent/substance to another Ex: running, jumping, fighting passivity when Places a substance in time where Reference to place position Assumption of a specific posture Ex: sitting dress Uniquely human category (not anymore) Attire > suit, makeup, being armed
Stoicism
shift to more religious ideas the world is ruled by a divine plan everything has and will happen(ed) for a reason good life = accepting one's fate >> The individual is reacting, passively. The individual has no free will, no control of life Why compatible w Roman Empire? --People are more geared to follow what they're told --Justifying bad circumstances
Zeitgeist
the general spirit or context of the time
Epicureanism
the philosophy of Epicurus of Samos nature of atoms & their activity gave humans their freedom (NOT the soul) >> everything is made up of atoms (like Democritus) goal in life = HAPPINESS (but not to an extreme) good life = absence of pain >> it is free, simple, moderate, and rational no after life per se
Isaac Newton (1642-1727) -law of gravitation
the universe is a complex, lawful machine created by God universal Law of gravitation: objects are attracted to e/o. the strength depends on the weight & distance of the objects thus, operations of machine followed principles that humans could discover God is a mathematician Influenced by Pythagoras & the Mathematical orientation
Jean-Baptise Lamarck (1744-1829) -inheritance of acquired characteristics
thought that from non-living matter emerged living matter. over time, the simple forms progressed into more complex forms. believed that the root of this cause was the environment > these changes in the environment had led to the organism changing in a certain manner. Those changes could be passed on to its offspring -essentially, environmental changes were responsible for structural changes in plants & animals Inheritance of acquired characteristics: idea that certain features are changed within an organism as it's living in an environment, and those changes can be passed on to next generations ---Acquires these characteristics from living in a certain environment ---Ex: giraffe needs to stretch out its neck to reach food on taller trees. This stretching of the neck during its living life will be passed to its offspring. The offspring will have the muscle of the neck slightly more stretched **note: the environment can't change your genetic code, but it can change the genes that are expressed... Epigenetics. But at this time they didn't know of genes example: you're a predatory animal, but there is not enough prey --Running more and the fastest makes it so that you're the one to catch the prey --The reality of the environment makes it so that those who move their muscles more are more likely to survive & reproduce, and thus pass this capacity down to their offspring
so, according to Plato, how does one come to know the forms if they can't be known via the senses?
transmigration of the soul >> the immortal soul dwells in the realm of forms Plato believed that the souls, at the beginning of time, were living on the world of pure form; permanent truth >>They can acquire this knowledge back thru rational thinking The indiv w the soul can regain the knowledge of pure form thru reason (Has been contaminated, but can be regained still) the soul brings knowledge from previous incarnations, responsible for innate ideas (forms) knowledge is innate (nativist) and can be attained thru introspection (trying to think about the previous lives, and the pure form) the soul = mobilizing force in humans (nutritive, sensitive, rational-immortal) Plato believed that there was a conflict b/w these 3 types of souls (like Freud) >>diff souls can dominate over one another >>sensitive = more emotional beginning of theory of personality !!
Plato's mind-body dualism
true knowledge can be contemplated by only the SOUL or MIND (PERMANENT) the body is limited to imperfect contributions of SENSATIONS (changing)
Aristotle's methodological approach -syllogism -what are the 2 processes in logic
uses logical argument (syllogism) syllogism: A form of deductive reasoning consisting of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. ex: All men are mortal Socrates is man Therefore, Socrates is mortal 2 processes in logic: -deductions: general proposition > proceed to a particular truth (start general, get specific) -inductions: particular observation and conclude with a general statement that applies to all observations (start specific, get general) -ESSENTIAL procedure in empirical science
how is the history of psychology both progressive & cyclical?
when the field of psych first emerged, there was a big focus on the mind and consciousness then, this subject matter is no longer of interest because it's not scientific or tangible; it's infallible thus, people started focusing more on behavior But then, with emergence of new technologies, we see a moving back to past interests (mind, learning, memory) - this is cyclical (progressive is straightforward)
what were the Early Greek Explanations? How were they different from the preceding Theological explanations?
with the Early Greek Explanations, -- there is a transition away from theological explanations --there is a focus on nature, the environment, and the generalization of principles from natural laws --marks the beginning of philosophy 1. naturalistic 2. biological 3. mathematical 4. pragmatic 5. humanistic
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
wrote a book accepting heliocentric theory (observations via telescope) discovered that there were at least 11 bodies in the solar system believed that experimentation is important until you find your general laws. believed in a mathematical reality that exists beyond appearances >> there is a permanent reality that we can achieve thru math >> Influenced by Pythagoras & the Mathematical orientation
