PSYC 3082: Exam 2

Describe the symptoms of bipolar I disorder.

-Alternations between full manic episodes and major depressive episodes, i.e. A person can experience 3 days of manic symptoms and 3 months of normal mood and 3 months of a depressive episode. -Bipolar I disorder can be diagnosed after just one manic episode (i.e., the patient does not have to have a depressive episode to meet the diagnostic criteria). In the vast majority of cases, however, a depressive episode inevitably follows. -Previously known as manic depression in the DSM-IV

Describe the symptoms of bipolar II disorder.

-Alternations between major depressive and hypomanic episodes -It is a different diagnosis because it is a different group (onset is approximately 5 years later than bipolar I)

Describe the symptoms of persistent depressive disorder.

-At least two years of depressive symptoms less intense than major depressive disorder -Depressed mood most of the day on more than 50% of days -No more than two months symptom free -Symptoms can persist unchanged over long periods (≥ 20 years) -May include periods of more severe major depressive symptoms: major depressive symptoms may be intermittent or last for the majority or entirety of the time period -Known as dysthymic disorder in the DSM-IV

Describe the treatment of illness anxiety disorder.

-Challenge illness-related misinterpretations -Provide more substantial and sensitive reassurance and education -Stress management and coping strategies -CBT is generally effective -Antidepressants offer some help

Describe the symptoms of cyclothymic disorder.

-Chronic, low-grade version of bipolar disorder -Alternating between periods of mild depressive symptoms and mild hypomanic symptoms -Episodes do not meet criteria for full major depressive episode, full hypomanic episode or full manic episode -Hypomanic or depressive mood states may persist for long periods - those who suffer from cyclothymic disorder rarely spend time in a normal mood state -Must last for at least two years (one year for children and adolescents)

Describe a manic episode.

-Elevated, expansive mood for at least one week - the opposite of depression -Inflated self-esteem, decreased need for sleep (hallmark symptom), excessive talkativeness, flight of ideas or sense that thoughts are racing, easy distractibility, increase in goal-directed activity or psychomotor agitation, excessive involvement in pleasurable but risky behaviors, may become delusional (often grandiose idea, paranoia, or special powers) -Severe impairment in normal functioning -The one case in which a manic episode can be diagnosed lasting less than a week is if the person is hospitalized (which involves limiting their activities in such a way that manic symptoms are reduced)

Describe a major depressive episode.

-Extremely depressed mood and/or loss of pleasure, especially in things that they used to find pleasure in (anhedonia) -Lasts most of the day, nearly every day for at least two weeks minimum -At least 4 additional physical or cognitive symptoms: i.e., indecisiveness, feelings of worthlessness, fatigue, appetite change, restlessness or feeling slowed down, sleep disturbance (often too much) -The average span of an untreated depressive episode is 9 months and can either be a single episode or recurrent episodes (known as major depressive disorder); 80% of those with untreated episodes will go on to experience another depressive episode

Describe the symptoms of dissociative identity disorder.

-Formerly known as multiple personality disorder -Defining feature is dissociation of personality - develop additional identities -Adoption of several new identities (as many as 100; may be just a few; average is 15) -Identities display unique behaviors, voice, and postures: different sexual orientations, names, maybe even genders -Unique aspects of DID include alters - different identities or personalities; "alter ego," host - the identity that keeps other identities together; "the original," and the switch - quick transition from one personality to another; often goes through the host; alter --> host --> alter -Very common in instances of unspeakable abuse -Often have gaps in memory and lose the sense of time

Describe the symptoms of dissociative amnesia.

-Includes several forms of psychogenic memory loss, which is psychological memory loss due to trauma, heavy stress, unconscious conflicts, etc. -Can be generalized vs. localized or selective type -----> Generalized type - inability to recall anything, including their identity -----> Localized or selective type - failure to recall specific (usually traumatic) events -May involve dissociative fugue: during the amnestic episode, person travels or wanders, sometimes assuming a new identity in a different place and is unable to remember how or why one has ended up in a new place; often occurs when a person is solitary and lose sight of who they are or what they are doing

What are some of the causes of PTSD?

-Intensity of the trauma and one's reaction to it (i.e., true alarm, fear for one's safety: traumatic events change the brain chemistry, and the more intense the trauma, the increased likelihood of PTSD -Learn alarms - direct conditioning and observational learning -Biological vulnerability: in one study, they looked at twins exposed to combat. In dizygotic twins, their correlation of symptoms was 0.11-0.24. In monozygotic twins, their correlation of symptoms was 0.28-0.41. This proves that there is a genetic disposition to PTSD. -Uncontrollability and unpredictability -Social support post-trauma reduces risk

Describe the three major types of PDD.

-Mild depressive symptoms without any major depressive episodes ("with pure dysthymic syndrome") -Mild depressive symptoms with additional major depressive episodes occurring intermittently (previously called "double depression") - double depression: dysthymic depression persists and becomes major depressive disorder - occur concurrently; you typically treat the major depressive disorder so those symptoms go away while they remain dysthymic -Major depressive episode lasting 2+ years ("with persistent major depressive episode"

Describe the symptoms of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (PTSD).

-Obsessions - intrusive and nonsensical thoughts, images, or urges -Compulsions - thoughts or actions to neutralize anxious thoughts -Vicious cycle of obsessions and compulsions -Cleaning and washing or checking rituals are common

Describe the symptoms of major depressive disorder.

-One or more major depressive episodes separated by periods of remission -Single episode - highly unusual: minor/major depressive disorder single episode -Recurrent episodes - more common: minor/major depressive disorder recurrent -Major goals in treatment: treat the current and treat the future

Describe the causes of OCD.

-Parallels the other anxiety disorders: genetic predisposition -Early life experiences -Learning that some thoughts are dangerous/unacceptable -Thought-action fusion - the thought is similar to the action; thinking something will make it more likely to happen: just having the thought is just as bad as doing the action

Describe the symptoms of illness anxiety disorder.

-Physical complaints without a clear cause - shared with somatic symptom disorder -Severe anxiety about the possibility of having a serious disease: misinterpret their symptoms to think they have a serious or life-threatening illness -Strong disease conviction -Medical reassurance does not seem to help -*Very similar to DSM-IV hypochondriasis*

Describe the symptoms of conversion disorder.

-Physical malfunctioning of sensory or motor functioning: i.e., blindness or difficulty speaking (aphonia), pseudo-seizures -Lack physical or organic pathology -Persons may show "la belle indifference," or an indifferent attitude that may or may not be present in people with CD. May also be present in those with actual medical disorders. -Retain most normal functions, but lack awareness -After a traumatic experience or acutely, a person may lose their sight or voice with no physical cause - with blindness, their pupils will not react to light; with hearing loss, individuals will not respond to sounds

Describe the symptoms of somatic symptom disorder.

-Presence of one or more medically unexplained symptoms -Substantial impairment in social or occupational functioning -Concern about the symptoms: almost obsessive-like - talk a lot about their symptoms -In severe cases, symptoms become the person's identity -Somatic symptom disorder is rare, and prevalence rates range from about 4% (in a large city) to over 20% of a large sample of primary care patients.

Describe the symptoms of factitious disorders.

-Purposely faking physical symptoms -May actually induce physical symptoms or just pretend to have them -No obvious external gains: distinguished from "malingering", in which physical symptoms are faked for the purpose of achieving a concrete objective (i.e., getting paid time off, avoiding military service)

Describe the symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorders (PTSD).

-Re-experiencing (i.e., memories, nightmares, flashbacks): intrusive and unwanted memories, vivid flashbacks - reliving the trauma, all of which can be chronic or triggered -Avoidance -Emotional numbing and interpersonal problems -Markedly interferes with one's ability to function -Hypervigilance -Exaggerated startle response -PTSD diagnosed when reaction persists for one month or more: acute stress disorder looks similar to PTSD, but it is the term used when the reaction has persisted for less than a month

Describe a hypomanic episode.

-Shorter, less severe version of manic episodes -Last at least four days -Have fewer and milder symptoms -Associated with less impairment than a manic episode (i.e., less risky behavior) -May not be problematic in and of itself, but usually occurs in the context of a more problematic mood disorder

Describe the symptoms of premenstrual dysphoric disorder.

-Significant depressive symptoms occurring prior to menses during the majority of cycles, leading to distress or impairment -PMDD is not just your typical "PMS" symptoms experienced by many women; rather, it is reserved for symptoms that are unusually severe, numerous persistent, interfering, and distressing -Can be treated and controlled by birth control

Describe "mixed features."

-Term for a mood episode with some elements reflecting the opposite valence of mood -Example: Depressive episode with some manic features -Example: Manic episode with some depressed/anxious features

Describe the causes of dissociative identity disorder.

-Typically linked to a history of severe, chronic trauma, often abuse in childhood: DID is thought to occur as a result of repeated traumatic experiences in early life. As a kid, you have no way of coping with severe recurrent trauma, especially abuse. So the best way to deal with it is sometimes to pretend or feel like you aren't there, which may happen involuntarily -Closely related to PTSD, possibly an extreme subtype -Mechanism to escape from the impact of trauma -Biological vulnerability possible

Describe the subtypes of PTSD.

1. Acute - may be diagnosed one to three months post-trauma 2. Chronic - diagnosed after three months post-trauma 3. Delayed onset - onset six months or more post-trauma 4. Acute stress disorder - PTSD immediately post-trauma (0-1 month post-trauma)

What are the causes of illness anxiety disorder?

1. Cognitive perceptual distortions 2. Familial history of illness

Describe some medications used to treat mood disorders.

Antidepressants are typically used to treat mood disorders. SSRI's are by far the most common. Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRI's) specifically block reuptake of serotonin so more serotonin is available in the brain. An example of an SSRI includes Fluoxetine (Prozac). SSRI's pose some risk of suicide particularly in teenagers. Some research supports this theory while other research shows that depression already increases the risk of suicide. However, negative side effects are common. Tricyclic antidepressants are also heavily used to treat mood disorders. They include Tofranil and Elavil. The mechanisms of how tricyclic antidepressants work is not well understood; however, they do block reuptake norepinephrine and other neurotransmitters. Negative side effects are common (i.e., drowsiness, weight gain). Discontinuation is very common since they tend to be very sedating. They may be lethal in excessive doses. Monoamine Oxidase (MAO) Inhibitors are also used to treat mood disorders. They block monoamine oxidase, an enzyme breaks down serotonin/norepinephrine. MAO's are as effective as tricyclics, with fewer side effects, but still often sedating. They are dangerous in combination with certain foods containing thyronine such as beer, red wine, and cheese and in combination with cold medicine. Mixed reuptake inhibitors (i.e., serotonin/norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors) are also used and block reuptake of norepinephrine as well as serotonin. The best known is venlafaxine (Effexor). Mixed reuptake inhibitors have fewer side effects than SSRI's. Lithium is the treatment of choice for bipolar disorder - first line of treatment, targeting the mania. It is considered a mood stabilizer because it treats depressive and manic symptoms; however, it can be toxic in large amounts, so the dose must be carefully monitored. Why lithium works remains unclear.

Describe the symptoms and characteristics of binge eating disorder.

Binge eating disorder is a new disorder in DSM-5 and is defined as binge eating without associated compensatory behaviors. BED is associated with distress and/or functional impairment (i.e., health risk, feelings of guilt). Many persons with binge-eating disorder are obese. Some, but not all, have concerns about shape and weight. Those who suffer from BED are often older than bulimics and anorexics.

Describe the symptoms and characteristics of bulimia nervosa.

Binge eating is the hallmark symptom of bulimia nervosa. Binge eating is eating excess amounts of food in a discrete period of time. Eating is perceived as uncontrollable, and binging may be associated with guilt, shame or regret. Bulimics may hide behavior from family members. The foods consumed are often high in sugar, fat or carbohydrates. Bulimics often participate in compensatory behaviors, which are designed to "make up for" binge eating. The most common method is purging, typically through self-induced vomiting, but could also occur through laxative and diuretic abuse. Excessive exercise and fasting or food restriction could be methods of compensatory behaviors as well. Most are within 10% of normal body weight, but purging methods can result in severe medical problems such as erosion of dental enamel, electrolyte imbalance, kidney failure, cardiac arrhythmia, seizures, intestinal problems, and permanent colon damage. Most are overly concerned with body shape and experience a fear of gaining weight. Most have comorbid psychological disorders such as anxiety and depression.

Describe the psychosocial treatments for depression.

Cognitive-behavioral therapy is used to treat depression and addresses cognitive errors in thinking. CBT also includes behavioral components. Interpersonal psychotherapy is used as well and focuses on improving problematic relationships. Prevention is also a major focus where preemptive psychosocial care is provided for people at risk. CBT has longer-lasting effectiveness than medication.

Describe the treatments for somatic symptom disorder.

CBT is the best treatment. Treatment also includes reducing the tendency to visit numerous medical specialists "doctor shopping" and assigning "gatekeeper" physician. A gatekeeper physician is responsible for determining whether each new complaint merits additional medical advice. Treatment also focuses on reducing supportive consequences of talk about physical symptoms. Sometimes this disorder is maintained by the secondary gains of frequent complaining (i.e., sympathy from others). So a clinician might discourage a patient's family from checking in about physical symptoms, offering to help with tasks, etc., in order to eliminate the positive consequences of focusing on one's symptoms.

Describe some biological treatments of OCD.

Clomipramine and other SSRI's benefit up to 60% of patients; however, relapse is common with medication discontinuation. Psychosurgery (cingulotomy) is used in extreme cases.

Describe the psychological treatments of PTSD.

Cognitive-behavioral therapies (CBT) are highly effective. CBT may include: -Graduated or massed (i.e., flooding) imaginal exposure, where the patient would reimagine the trauma while using relaxation techniques; -Developing a narrative of traumatic event to process understanding -Challenging maladaptive beliefs about the world (i.e., that interpersonal relationships are unsafe) and changing their beliefs about the situation - rid them of the self-blame. *CBT changes measurable brain function for the better.*

Describe the medical and psychological treatments of bulimia nervosa.

Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is typically the treatment of choice for bulimia. The basic components of CBT include identifying maladaptive thinking patterns and behavioral habits, then initiating a gradual practice of new habits. Medical and drug treatments include the use of antidepressants. Antidepressants can help reduce binging and purging behavior such as tricyclics and SSRI's (Prozac); however, they are usually not efficacious in the long-term unless paired with CBT.

Describe some psychological treatments of OCD.

Cognitive-behavioral therapy is most effective. CBT involves exposure to anxious cues and prevention of ritualized response ("Exposure with Response Prevention"), where a therapist would expose the individual to the obsession and the person is not allowed to engage in the compulsion, like for example, touching door handles and not washing hands afterward or saying blasphemous phrase and not engaging in ritualized prayer afterward. Combining CBT with medication is no better than CBT alone. *CBT changes measurable brain function for the better.*

Describe the various treatment methods of sexual disorders.

Education alone can be surprisingly effective and is the most effective form of treatment. Masters and Johnson's psychosocial intervention includes education about sexual response, foreplay, etc.. The intervention focuses on sensate focus and non-demand pleasuring - couple is given homework - don't engage in sex and find two to three times to lie down, get mood right, and find places on other's body that feels good - please the partners body non-sexually. It is sexual activity with the goal of focusing on sensations without trying to achieve orgasm. Its goal is to decrease performance anxiety. Additional psychosocial procedures include the squeeze technique to treat premature ejaculation, masturbatory training to treat female orgasm disorder, the use of dilators to treat vaginismus, exposure to erotic material to treat low sexual desire problems. Medical treatment includes Viagra to treat erectile dysfunction, the injection of vasodilating drugs into the penis, testosterone, penile prosthesis or implants, vascular surgery, and vacuum device therapy. However, few medical procedures exist for female sexual dysfunction.

Describe the symptoms and characteristics of erectile disorder.

Erectile disorder is characterized by a difficulty of achieving or maintaining an erection. Sexual desire is usually intact and is the most common problem for which men seek treatment. Prevalence increases with age. 60% of men over 60 experience erectile dysfunction.

Describe some social and cultural causes of sexual disorders.

Erotophobia, or learned negative attitudes about sexuality, could induce a sexual disorder. Negative or traumatic sexual experiences as well as the deterioration of interpersonal relationships and a lack of communication could contribute to a sexual disorder.

Describe excoriation.

Excoriation is repetitive and compulsive picking of the skin, leading to tissue damage. The disorder has a 1-5% prevalence rate, and behavioral habit reversal treatment is the more effective treatment.

Describe the symptoms and characteristics of exhibitionistic disorder.

Exhibitionistic disorder is characterized by the exposure of genitals to unsuspecting strangers. The element of thrill and risk is necessary for sexual arousal.

Describe the symptoms and characteristics of anorexia nervosa.

Extreme weight loss is a hallmark of anorexia. The restriction of calorie intake below energy requirements partnered with binging and purging can result in this extreme weight loss. Anorexis is defined as 15% below expected weight. Anorexics have an intense fear of weight gain and losing control over eating. People suffering from anorexia show a relentless pursuit of thinness and it often begins with dieting. Most show marked disturbance in body image. Most are comorbid other psychological disorders as well. Anorexia is the deadliest mental disorder. A starving body borrows energy from internal organs, leading to organ damage. The most serious consequence is cardiac damage which can lead to heart attack and death.

Describe the symptoms of factitious disorder imposed on another.

Factitious disorder imposed on another is a type of factitious disorder. More commonly known as Munchausen syndrome by proxy, the disorder involves the inducing symptoms in another person, typically a caregiver (typically a mother) induces symptoms in a dependent (i.e. child). The symptoms induced are typically physical symptoms. The purpose is to receive attention or sympathy - secondary gain. The diagnosis applies to the perpetrator, not the person in whom symptoms are induced.

Describe the symptoms and characteristics of female orgasmic disorder.

Female orgasmic disorder is characterized by a marked delay, absence or decreased intensity of orgasm in almost all sexual encounters. Women can engage in sexual intercourse and not achieve an orgasm. They could even be sexually aroused, but in this condition, they cannot achieve an orgasm. The condition is not explained by relationship distress or other significant stressors. 1 in 4 women has significant difficulty achieving orgasm.

Describe the symptoms and characteristics of female sexual interest/arousal disorder.

Female sexual interest/arousal disorder is characterized by a lack of or significantly reduced sexual interest/arousal typically manifesting in reduced sexual interest, reduced sexual activity, fewer sexual thoughts, reduced physiological arousal to sexual cues and reduced pleasure or sensations during almost all sexual encounters.

Describe the symptoms and characteristics of fetishistic disorder.

Fetishistic disorder is characterized by a sexual attraction to nonhuman objects. Objects can be inanimate and/or tactile. They may masturbate with the object and if they reach orgasm, it makes the fetish much stronger. Some examples may include rubber, hair, feet, objects such as shoes.

Describe the symptoms and characteristics of frotteuristic disorder.

Frotteuristic disorder is characterized by the persistent pattern of seeking sexual gratification from rubbing up against unwilling others - the victim is typically unaware. It often occurs in crowds and/or confining situations from which the other person cannot escape. What makes it exciting to the perpetrator is that the victim does not know about it and the large of risk of getting caught.

Describe hoarding disorder.

Hoarding disorder was previously considered a type of OCD. It is characterized by excessively collecting or keeping items regardless of their value and difficulty discarding items, usually due to a fear that one will need them later. Hoarding causes clinically significant distress or impairment (i.e. house too cluttered to live in, arguments with family members).

Describe the symptoms and characteristics of genito-pelvic pain/ penetration disorder.

In females, difficulty with vaginal penetration during intercourse, associated with one or more of the following: pain during intercourse or penetration attempts - feelings of tearing and ripping despite adequate lubrication, fear/anxiety about pain during sexual activity, and tensing of pelvic floor muscles in anticipation of sexual activity.

Describe the causes of dissociative amnesia.

Little is known about dissociative amnesia. Trauma and stress can serve as triggers.

What are the causes of somatic symptom disorder?

Little is known about what causes the disorder. Some causes may include familial history of illness, stressful life events, sensitivity to physical sensations, and experience suggesting that there are benefits to illness (i.e., attention).

Describe the symptoms and characteristics of male hypoactive sexual desire disorder.

Male hypoactive sexual desire disorder is a condition characterized by little or no interest in any type of sexual activity. Masturbation, sexual fantasies, and intercourse are rare. It accounts for half of all complaints at sexuality clinics and affects 5% of men - 1/20 males.

Describe some social and cultural causes of mood disorders.

Marital dissatisfaction is strongly related to depression. This relation is particularly strong in males. Women account for 7 out of 10 cases of major depressive disorder. Women are socialized to have stronger perception of uncontrollability. In addition, parenting styles make girls less independent. Lastly, women are more sensitive to relationship disruptions (i.e., breakups, tension in friendships). Women also ruminate more than men. The extent of social support is related to depression. The lack of social support predicts late onset depression. A substantial social support predicts recovery from depression.

Describe the causes of anorexia and bulimia.

Media and cultural considerations must be taken into account when depicting the cause of eating disorders. The media portrays thinness as linked to success and happiness. There is a cultural emphasis on dieting as well as standards of ideal body size. However, the ideal body changes as much as fashion and is difficult or impossible to achieve. Biological considerations are linked to eating disorders as well. There is a partial genetic component, and deficits in serotonin may contribute to binging. Psychological and behavioral considerations must be taken into account as well. A low sense of personal control and self-confidence, perfectionistic attitudes, a distorted body image, a preoccupation with food, and mood intolerance may contribute to eating disorders. Lastly, one must consider interacting factors such as dietary restraint, family influences, biological dimensions, and psychological dimensions.

Describe psychosocial treatments for bipolar disorders.

Medication (usually lithium) is still first line of defense, but psychotherapy helpful in managing the problems (i.e., interpersonal, occupational) that accompany bipolar disorder. Family therapy can be helpful as well.

Describe the drug treatment of paraphilic disorders.

Medications are the equivalent of chemical castration and are often used for dangerous sexual offenders. The types of available medications include cyproterone acetate, which reduces testosterone, sexual urges and fantasy, medroxyprogesterone acetate, and depo-provera, which also reduces testosterone. Relapse is common after discontinuation.

Describe the medical and psychological treatments of binge eating disorder.

Medications for obesity were previously used, but are now not recommended because it does not reduce the binges. Psychological treatment includes CBT that is similar to that used for bulimia. CBT appears efficacious. Interpersonal psychotherapy is equally as effective as CBT. Self-help techniques are used as well and draw from CBT and interpersonal therapies. They also appear effective.

Describe the treatment of dissociative amnesia.

Most get better without treatment. Most remember what they have forgotten.

Describe the psychosocial treatment of paraphilic disorders.

Most treatments are behavioral. They target deviant and inappropriate sexual associations and requires a lot of honesty on the patient. Covert sensitization is used, where the patient imagines aversive consequences to form negative associations with deviant (i.e., pedophilic) behavior - i.e. imagine getting caught. Orgasmic reconditioning is also used, where masturbation is linked to appropriate (adult) stimuli. Family/marital therapy is also used to address interpersonal problems. About 75% to 95% of cases show improvement. The poorest outcomes are rapists/multiple paraphilias. Paraphilia runs a chronic course with a high relapse rate.

Describe some cognitive causes of mood disorders.

Negative coping styles could contribute to mood disorders. Depressed persons engage in cognitive errors. They have the tendency to interpret life events negatively. Some types of cognitive errors include arbitrary inference, where individuals overemphasize the negative aspects of a mixed situation (i.e. You go on a first date. The date went great, so you ask the person out again. The person said that they had plans for the proposed date. A person using arbitrary inference would focus that the person could not see them on the proposed date, placing focus on the negative aspects of the situation.) and overgeneralization, where these negatives apply to all situations. These cognitive errors contribute to the depressive cognitive triad: think negatively about oneself, think negatively about the world, and think negatively about the future. In short, the depressive cognitive triad is "I suck, the world sucks, and everything will continue to suck." For example: self: "I'm way too shy," world: "People go for outgoing guys...Guys like me don't get any attention," and future: "I'll never find a life partner".

Describe obsessions and give examples.

Obsessions are intrusive and nonsensical thoughts, images, or urges. Some examples of obsessions include doubting thoughts (did I lock the door?), thoughts about contamination/germs, unwanted sexual, aggressive or religious thoughts; nonsensical thoughts or urges (i.e., undressing in public), or thoughts about accidentally harming others (i.e., did I hit someone with my car?).

Describe some psychological causes of sexual disorders.

People with sexual dysfunction are more likely to experience anxiety and negative thoughts about sexual encounters. They may actively avoid awareness of sexual cues, so not in touch with their own sexual response. For example, men with PE tend to distract themselves purposefully to avoid orgasm, leading to even lower ejaculatory control. Psychological profiles associated with sexual dysfunction.

Describe the symptoms and characteristics of pedophilic disorder.

Pedophilia is the sexual attraction to prepubescent and postpubescent children. The vast majority of sufferers are males. Pedophilia is rare, but not unheard of, in females. In some cases, pedophilic urges are limited to incest (i.e., young members of one's own family). Many sufferers do not act on desires and suppress them even though they spend a lot of time fantasizing. Some engage in compensatory moral behavior. Incestuous males may be aroused by adult women. Male pedophiles are usually not aroused by adult women. Some rationalize the behavior and consider pedophilic activity to be an act of affection or a teaching experience. They often engage in other moral compensatory behavior such as priesthood and teaching. They manifest in fantasies, urges, arousal or behaviors. Paraphilia is not always disordered and is only considered disordered when the individual experiences clinically significant distress or impairment (can only become sexually aroused in presence of inappropriate object) or acts on urges with a non-consenting person.

Describe the symptoms and characteristics of premature ejaculation disorder.

Premature ejaculation disorder is characterized by ejaculation occurring within 1 minute of penetration and before it is desired. It may occur in certain situations, but it has to happen consistently to be diagnosed. Premature ejaculation is the most prevalent sexual dysfunction in adult males and affects 21% of all adult males. It is most common in younger, inexperienced males. Problem tends to decline with age.

Describe some neurobiological causes of mood disorders.

Serotonin and its relation to other neurotransmitters can cause mood disorders. Serotonin regulates norepinephrine and dopamine, which are also related to a person's mood. Mood disorders are related to low levels of serotonin. The permissive hypothesis states that low serotonin "permits" other neurotransmitters to vary more widely, increasing vulnerability to depression and a dysphoric mood. Elevated cortisol can also be found in individuals diagnosed with a mood disorder. Stress hormones decrease neurogenesis in the hippocampus, which means individuals are less able to make new neurons. Sleep disturbance is the hallmark of most mood disorders. Depressed patients have quicker and more intense REM sleep. They dream in this stage of light sleep. Sleep deprivation may temporarily improve depressive symptoms in bipolar patients.

Describe the classifications of sexual dysfunctions.

Sexual dysfunctions can be lifelong or acquired, meaning that a person could have had a problem their whole life or it is a new problem. They can also be generalized or situational, where the problem can happen all the time or only in certain situations.

Give an overview of sexual dysfunctions.

Sexual dysfunctions involve desire, arousal, and/or orgasm. Pain associated with sex can lead to additional dysfunction. Sexual dysfunction must now be present for 6+ months in order to make diagnosis and must lead to impairment or distress in order to be considered a disorder. Males and females experience parallel versions of most dysfunctions.

Describe the symptoms and characteristics of sexual masochism disorder.

Sexual masochism disorder is characterized by suffering pain or humiliation to attain sexual gratification.

Describe the symptoms and characteristics of sexual sadism disorder.

Sexual sadism disorder is characterized by inflicting pain or humiliation to attain sexual gratification. The person can retain sexual gratification if inflicting pain or humiliation. Some rapists are sadists, but most are not. Most rapists do not show paraphilic patterns of arousal. Rapists tend to show sexual arousal to violent sexual and non-sexual material.

Describe some biological causes of sexual disorders.

Some biological contributions of sexual disorders include physical disease, medical illness, or prescription medications, the use and abuse of alcohol and other drugs, and anti-hypertensive medication.

Describe the psychological causes of mood disorders.

Stress is strongly related to mood disorders. Stress causes a poorer response to treatment and a longer time before remission. The context of life events matters. The gene-environment correlation model states that people who are vulnerable to depression might be more likely to enter situations that will lead to stress. The relationship between stress and bipolar is also strong. Another theory is learned helplessness, which is the lack of perceived control over life events leads to decreased attempts to improve own situation. You take an immediate situation and try to place understanding and meaning into the situation. Learned helplessness was first demonstrated in research by Martin Seligman, where dogs were placed in a cage lined with electrical fencing. Once the shock occurred, the dogs jumped to another cage that wasn't lined with fencing. However, Seligman then placed electric shock fencing in both cages. When the dogs realized that they couldn't escape the electric shock, they just lied there and whimpered, knowing that they could not escape. His theory was that the dogs learned that they were helpless in their situation. Negative cognitive styles are a risk factor for depression.

Describe the causes of conversion disorder.

The causes of converion disorder is not well understood. The Freudian psychodynamic view is still common, though unsubstantiated. Past trauma or unconscious conflict is "converted" to a more acceptable manifestation, i.e., physical symptoms. Conversion disorder is caused by the unconscious when these things want to get out. Primary/secondary gains are also believed to play a role as well. Freud thought primary gain was the escape from dealing with a conflict - avoidance and that secondary gains are attention, sympathy, etc.

Describe the depressive attributional style theory.

The depressive attributional style theory states that we make three different types of attributions. Internal attributions are beliefs that negative outcomes are one's own fault. For example, "I'm worthless. I failed this test not because the test was hard or I didn't study, but because I'm stupid." Stable attributions are beliefs that future negative outcomes will be one's fault. Global attributions are beliefs that negative events will disrupt many life activities. For example, "I am not smart (internal attribution), I'll never be smart (stable attribution), so I'll suck at life (global attribution)." All three domains contribute to a sense of hopelessness.

Describe the medical and psychological treatments of anorexia nervosa.

The first focus of treatment in anorexia is weight restoration in order to get the individual medically healthy. This is the first and easiest goal to achieve. Psychoeducation along with behavioral and cognitive interventions that target food, weight, body image, thought and emotion are utilized next. Treatment often involves the family. The long-term prognosis for anorexia is poorer than for bulimia unfortunately.

Describe the treatment of dissociative identity disorder.

The focus is on reintegration of identities in order to get the identities to become aware of each other. The psychologist must identify and neutralize cues/triggers that provoke memories of trauma/dissociation. The patient may have to relive and confront the early trauma. Some achieve these goals through hypnosis.

Describe some familial and genetic causes of mood disorders.

The rate of mood disorders is high in relatives of probands. Relatives of bipolar probands are more likely to have unipolar depression. Genes play major role in mood disorders, particularly bipolar disorders. In the twin studies performed, concordance rates are high in identical twins. They are two to three times more likely to present with mood disorders than a fraternal twin of a depressed co-twin. Severe mood disorders have a strong genetic contribution. Heritability rates are higher for females compared to males. Studies show a vulnerability for unipolar or bipolar disorder, but appears to be inherited separately. Some genetic factors are common for mood and anxiety disorders

Describe the treatment of conversion disorder.

The treatment of conversion disorder is similar to somatic symptom disorder. If the disorder's onset is after a trauma, the patient may need to process trauma or treat post-traumatic symptoms - or deal with the primary gains. Treatment can then focus on removing sources of secondary gain. In addition, treatment also includes reducing supportive consequences of talk about physical symptoms.

Describe the medication treatments of PTSD.

Those who suffer from PTSD generally use medications effective against anxiety and panic. The most common are SSRI's.

Describe the causes of pedophilic disorder.

Those who suffer with pedophilia have difficulty forming "normal" relationships and experience deficits in typical sexual experiences. Relationship difficulties in childhood or adolescence could contribute. Early experiences may lead to sexual associations by chance that are then reinforced through masturbation. Pedophiles often have very high sex drive, and suppressing unwanted fantasies may paradoxically increase them.

Describe the symptoms and characteristics of transvestic disorder.

Transvestic disorder is characterized by sexual arousal with the act of cross-dressing. Males may (rarely) show highly masculine compensatory behaviors. Most do not show compensatory behaviors. Many are married and the behavior is known to spouse. It is not inherently pathological - it is only considered disordered if it causes significant distress or impairment.

Describe trichotillomania.

Trichotillomania is the urge to pull out one's own hair from anywhere on the body. The disorder leads to noticeable hair loss on scalp, eyebrows, arms, pubic region, etc.. Behavioral habit reversal treatment is the more effective treatment.

Describe the symptoms and characteristics of voyeuristic disorder.

Voyeuristic disorder is characterized by observing an unsuspecting individual undressing, naked or engaged in sexual activity. The risk associated with "peeping" may intensify sexual arousal. It is often associated with pedophilia.