PSYC
The research suggests that our personalities are all shaped by a single early experience in our childhood
False. This is because human beings are shaped more by present than by past circumstances (freud)
Stage 2: Nurturing
Infancy, develop relationship w/ child and adapt
Primacy effect
Info that occurs first remembered better than info occurring later. (early list = can recall) effects: load-->inference, gets harder to encode but easier to store
Synapse
Information from one neuron flows to another neuron across a synapse. The synapse contains a small gap separating neurons.
Optic nerve
-where action potentials are generated back to brain back branch of brain
What are the five most diagnosed disorders? Which is more common - anorexia or bulimia?
1. Adjustment, Social anxiety, Major depressive, OCD, ADHD 2. Bulimia is more common
The cognitive model of mental illness is based on the idea that ___ cause distress.
Distortions
Olfactory epitheliums
Get trapped in mucus hair molecules then bind to receptor cells--> to brain , only neuron replaced
Active listening?
Paraphrasing & perception checking
Ex. of Image-Making
Worrying about whether I will be a good mother
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
comprised of automatic and somatic
High arousal negative valence
mild, frustrated, high- terror/panic
How does this concept relate to the cognitive-behavioral approach to therapy?
modifying behavior with rewards to get desired response/behavior
Schizophrenia
Delusions
Depressive
Dysthymia
Bipolar
Mania
1. Area
-Smaller of two overlapping figures is perceived as figure while the larger is regarded as ground.
Negative correlations
1 goes up 1 goes down
Types of Biases: (3)
1. nonresponse bias: (only few responded from survey), 2. undercoverage: (leaving a group during random sampling), 3. voluntary response bias: (only ppl with strong opinions answered),
By what age can roughly 50% of children pass the self-awareness test?
2
How many bones make up the middle ear?
3
4. How did Dweck demonstrate that changing our mindsets can change our performance?
4. - Students were given a mini-neuroscience course on how the brain works. By the end of the semester, the group of kids who had been taught that the brain can grow smarter, had significantly better math grades than the other group.
The essential feature of Dysthymia for adults is that a depressed mood is present for most of the day on at least __% of ___ years.
51%; 2 years
To be diagnosed with GAD a person must experience the symptoms for at least ___.
6 months
To be diagnosed with an Adjustment Disorder there must be excessive distress or impairment in functioning for ___ after the issue or its consequence:
6 months
Insufficient priming (LTM)-
A reason why we might forget something that was conceptually related to the accessibility of that info
What are some of the most influential trait theories?
Allport, Cattell, Eysenck and the Big Five
Dissociative
Amnesia
CNS
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM-- COMRPISED OF BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD
What is the best way to condition a response?
FORWARD SHORT DELAY---NS first then UNConditioned stimulus....present it at same time u will focus on sound and might not notice the rabbit, rabbit--> got (then it becomes predictable faster) -->backwards -->takes longer
Skinner's Pidgeons Idea of operant conditioning.
Giving reward for desired behavior; Skinner Box (a.k.a. an Operant Chamber), that controls rewards and punishment.
Convergence
How much your eyes cross can determine how far away something is.
Denial
Insisting on a second opinion when given an unfavorable diagnosis from your doctor... after all, there's a chance he or she is actually wrong... right?
Darwin described two component processes of sexual selection. ____ refers to the propagation of traits considered appealing by the opposite sex while ____ refers to propagation of traits that increase the likelihood of winning in direct confrontations with members of the same sex.
Intersexual selection, intrasexual selection
8. Ego integrity vs. Despair
Maturity, 65+, Success leads to WISDOM. Failure:unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, may lead to depression
COGNITION 1. What is cognition?
Memory and working memory
Clarke & Hatfield's (1989) study found that
Men tend to have more permissive attitudes towards casual sex
Stage 4: Interpretive
Middle childhood, help child interpret experiences w/ social world.
At rest, there are
More k ions inside the neuron, more Na neurons outside ( sodium pump)
synapse in process
Neurochemicals released from the terminal buttons of one nerve cell cross the cell membrane and then travel through the ___ before reaching the dendrites of another cell.
When person is high in BIG 5:My sister is very creative and enjoys trying new things.
Openness
Freud's Psyche: -ID -EGO -SUPEREGO
Personal unconscious: has to do w/ complexes Freud's ego: uses defense mechanisms develops early childhood conflicts w. ID's controls impulses. Focuses on childhood experiences. 1. ID- says grab burger 2. EGO- NO! can't take burger 3. SUPEREGO- Idealist, guides behavior, what is a good identity to have
Feeding and eating
Pica
Thorndike
Responses followed by pleasurable consequences are repeated (i.e. time for cat to escape puzzle box decreases with number of trials).
How one will act in front of others
Social phobia
Ex. Interpretive
Talking with the child about a time when he was bullied
Retina
The layer comprised of photoreceptor cells, contains rods and cones
Researchers concluded that rats were, in fact, dreaming about real life because....
Their brain activity at night reveals a meaningful pattern
What happened to rats deprived of ability to dream?
They failed tests of natural survival behaviors
There is now evidence that we can identify young babies at risk for developing ASD by?
Tracking eye movement
Animals
Zoophobia
When does action potential occur?
begins when Na enters the cell -always occur when a nerve reaches its threshold and that electrochemical signal is of the same exact intensity everytime
Axon
carries the cells impulses to the terminal
Soma
carries the genetic instructions for the function of the cell
UNDER EF automatic somatic
controls smooth muscles of internal organs and glands (involuntary) somatic- sensory and motor neurons from spinal cord to the rest of body
corpus collosum
forebrain, connects 2 parts of brain and lets them communicate with each other
Disorganization (STM)
info is somewhere in storage but we forget that in the sense we try hard no matter what can never recall it
Festinger and Carlsmith (1959)
investigated if making people perform a dull task would create cognitive dissonance through forced compliance behavior.
Why would satiation be a problem?
needs and desires being not only satisfied, but satisfied to a point of excess.
when receptors enable you to smell
olfactory
Split-brain patient
procedure involves severing the corpus callosum, the main bond between the brain's left and right hemispheres. After a split-brain surgery the two hemispheres do not exchange information as efficiently as before.
occipital lobe
process vision info
Vitreous body
rear chamber of iris and lens ("eyeball")
We perceive dim light with
rods
Incus
second of middle ear anvil amplify sound wave,small anvil-shaped bone in the middle ear, transmitting vibrations between the malleus and stapes
Canal
sound waves pass through
the phrase motivation determines allocation means:
the importance of information (sensory, like touch, or factual, like a set of statistics) determines what proportion of your available resources will be consumed about it -if you're running from a bear, the sensation of being thirsty is hardly important enough to pay attention to it
Why eagles have amazing ability to see?
two fovea, their eyes are about 4 times as sharp as a human eye
Stage 3: Authority
Toddler and preschool, create rules & how effectively guide child behavior
The term "apperception" relates most closely to the concept of.. (Apperception:mental process by which a person makes sense of an idea by assimilating it to the body of ideas he or she already possesses.)
Top-down processes
ASD is more common in males than females
True
Harlow's attachment research:
Two fake monkey mothers. -One monkey is made of wire and has a milk dispenser on it. -The other monkey was made of cloth. -The monkey, at first, goes to the wire monkey to get the milk but when the milk is gone, the monkey will return to the cloth monkey. -Biosocial- survival of the fittest, they don't love their mothers, they have learned through primary reinforcement . "babies want food, so their mothers give them food; therefore, they like to be in the presence of their mother." -attachment isn't in the reinforcement of food, innate biological drive for comfort -This test shows that children do not learn to love their mother due to primary reinforcement like food, rather, children have a desire to find comfort from their mother.
Depressants
-Alcohol, benzodiazepine, barbiturates, ketamine -Depressants decrease central nervous system (CNS) arousal and excitability levels, giving off a feeling of sedation.
CLASS OBJECTIVES MODULE 11
.
How have researchers tested whether a child has developed a theory of mind?
....
IN CLASS OBJECTIVES
....
Major symptoms of Bulimia Nervosa:
1. A sense of lack of control over eating 2. Consuming large amounts of food and then ridding their bodies of the excess calories 3. Recurrent, inappropriate compensatory behaviors to prevent weight gain
What are the three components of an attitude (ABCs)
1. Affective component: this involves a person's feelings / emotions about the attitude object. For example: "I am scared of spiders". 2. Behavioral (or conative) component: the way the attitude we have influences how we act or behave. For example: "I will avoid spiders and scream if I see one". 3. Cognitive component: this involves a person's belief / knowledge about an attitude object. For example: "I believe spiders are dangerous".
Which of the following are symptoms of schizophrenia?
1. Disorganized speech 2.Irrational beliefs 3.Perceptual experiences not caused by real sensory input 4. Disorganized or catatonic behavior
What does the acronym OCEAN stand for?
1. Extraversion 2 .Openness to Experience 3.Agreeableness 4. Conscientiousness 5.Neuroticism
WHAT MAKES A RESEARCH STUDY A TRUE EXPERIMENT 1. independent vs. dependent variables? 2. What does it mean to randomly assign participants to experimental conditions?
1. IV- manipulating, thing we are changing (control and experimental group to see if they cause changes to)--> DV- results from IV, affect by iv. responses in study 2. so that everyone has equal chance at being assigned to a group, needed in order to prove cause
Symptoms of Hoarding
1. Persistent difficulty discarding or parting with possessions, regardless of their actual value 2. Difficulty is due to a perceived need to save the items and to distress associated with discarding them 3. Results in the accumulation of possessions that congest and clutter 4. Causes clinically significant distress or impairment
Piagets: ex. potty training on reinforcement sensory motor preoperational concrete operational formal operational
1. Sensory motor- interested in some object and cover up and then child never picks up blanket, child can't think outside of sensory (see, touch, smell, hear) 2. Preoperational-everytime did something right on potty, rewarded to two jelly beans (but after awhile got bored- seriation (unable to place logical order); used peppermint paddie (he said he gets 2 b/c he got two jelly beans... so he breaks it in half and he eats)...his brain couldn't conserve this idea of mass
Sherif (1954) observed considerably hostility between two groups of boys at camp. Which of the following contributed to that hostility?
1. The boys competed to earn a group prize 2. The boys competed to earn individual prizes
DISTRACTION 1. What is inattentional blindness?
1. lack of attention that is not associated with any vision defects or deficits. It may be further defined as the event in which an individual fails to recognize an unexpected stimulus that is in plain sight.
Disadvantage of TATL
1.reliability (therapist can offer dif interpretations into persons story) 2. validity hard to distinct between normal and those with illness, little predicting behavior 3. depend more on mindset of a person going in to test
2. What is the difference between "fixed" and "growth" mindsets?
2. Fixed- "students start thinking of their intelligence as something fixed, as carved in stone,They worry about, 'Do I have enough? Don't I have enough?'" Growth-"intelligence is something you can develop your whole life,You can learn. You can stretch. You can keep mastering new things."
2. Why is distributed practice more effective than "studying a lot" for a test?
2. distributed practice allows u to remb more bc your practicing and implicitly learning (re-using that skill over and over )
2. What does it mean to say that a response has been classically conditioned?
2. learning that a stimulus that would otherwise have no biological association with something that does
RESEARCH BIASES & ERRORS 1. What are some of the most common ways that mistakes in research methodology can introduce errors and biases into the data? >Placebo effect > Rosenthal effect > Demand characteristics > Social desirability 2. How do researchers avoid making these errors? 3. How is the Clever Hans effect an example of a specific bias? How would you prevent the effect?
3. put blindfold over horse
5. What is the evidence that planning to teach can help you learn?
5. The immediate implication is that the mindset of the student before and during learning can have a significant impact on learning - Can positively alter a student's mindset can be effectively achieved through rather simple instruction---Study participants who expected to teach produced more complete and better-organized free recall of the passage and, in general, correctly answered more questions about the passage than did participants expecting a test, particularly questions covering main points.
Interference (LTM)-
A reason why we might forget something that was never adequately stored do to cognitive load.
2. A)exact vs. B) conceptual replication?
A) use same scientific method to see if results are same B) use dif set of scientific methods to test same idea (same hypo, but dif method)
Memory effects: A) semantic priming B) Conspicuity
A)b/c u were thinking about sleep, u were most likely to recall it bc it was related to the subject B) we notice unusual things, we tend to remb things unusual
Shadow
Exact shape and description of this cue changes depending on the direction of the light
Primary reinforcers=
Like Food, naturally desired, outcome reinforces (strengthens) the behavior that caused it.
Participants were most likely to experience the emotion similar to the confederate's behavior when they were
Misinformed about injection
Panic Disorder
Occasional moments of intense, crippling anxiety
Cornea
Outer layer that protects the eye
Lifelong development
Over a life time, as unique to cognition and behavior...laughter is lifetime development
Which neurohormone is connected to our social responses to stress?
Oxytocin
EX. of Vygotsky's theory:
Pointing a finger. Initially, this behavior begins as a meaningless grasping motion; however, as people react to the gesture, it becomes a movement that has meaning. In particular, the pointing gesture represents an interpersonal connection between individuals.
Research has demonstrated that (heterosexual) males
Preference for an age difference varies depending on how old the male is.
Why is it important that organisms are able to determine where a sound is coming from?
Prey so that they can avoid an incoming predator. It is also important for predators so that they can hear where potential prey may be.
Random sampling
Random sampling is necessary if we want to describe the characteristics, attitudes, or behavior of a population.
Cillary muscle
Relaxes and contracts to control the eye's focus
4. Industry (competence) vs. Inferiority
School age, 5-12, Balance between competence and modesty will lead to COMPETENCE. Failure: if parent/teacher restricts initiative--> child feel inferior.
Hypothetically, an animal can have ___ without having ___.
Self-awareness; theory of mind
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING 1. How might we describe what we can observe in terms of stimuli and responses?
Stimulus: something we feel/ hear/ see in environment Response: Something we do after detecting stimulus
Binocular disparity
Straight on view, 3D, close one eye in tense tiger appears to move - changing quality of light hitting cones - why are u perceiving depth ? - eyes are seeing dif things - cuz eye being 2 dif pics seeing finger similar from far away, when closer u see from each eye they are very different. (if far away= similar images if closer up= dif images)
Ex. Authority
Telling the child that she has to look both ways before crossing the street
somatosensory cortex
forebrain, sensory info from body
Hypothalamus
hindbrain, regulates body temp, hunger, sleep cycles, experience pleasure
Hippocampus
midbrain, Plays a significant role in the formation of long-term memories. first area affected when you get alzheimers
amyglada
midbrain, center of fear and aggression
pituitary gland
midbrain, controlling growth and development and the functioning of the other endocrine glands. releases melatonin
Low arousal negative valence
mild, bored, high- depression
Positive valence high arousal
mild, surprise high- winning lottery
post synaptic
nerve receiving neurotransmitters
sodium pump
returns neurons to negatively charged resting state
UNDER AUTOMATIC sympathetic ns parasympathetic ns
symp- tigers body fight or flight systems (increase heart rate) parasympathetic- relaxes during times of rest shifts activities to non vital systems (digestion)/ reproductive
Threshold
the level of excitement required to trigger an action potential
What is the difference between the interpsychological level and the intrapsychological level according to Vygotsky? Give an example of the distinction.
"Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological).
Bipolar 2
- One or more major depressive episodes and at least one hypmonia episode ( manic state is elevated) -Still have up and down -Hypomanic-->still elevated to extreme (intense focus, energized for up to days engaging in long periods of time, gambling)..but not to point of significant destruction - Requires history of depression
Ainsworth
"Strange situation" causing some type of stress, discovering the existence of "attachment behavior" - behavior manifested for the purpose of creating attachment during times when a child feels confused or stressed.
Spontaneous recovery
- A some point after a behavior has gone through extinction and stopped, it may suddenly reappear for a bit and then go away again. - That unexpected (spontaneous) reoccurrence (recovery) of the behavior is perhaps best thought of as a mechanism by which intelligent animals test out the environment in case the problem was only temporary and things are back to the way they used to be
Methods and schedules for modifying behavior
....
Phobias
---
4. Perceptual context
-Perceptual comparisons lead us to experience contrast effects
Why do we talk about this as a theory?
....
Different ways to respond to social influence: conformity, compliance, obedience, and internalization?
....
CORRELATION DOES NOT IMPLY CAUSATION 1. What does it mean to say that two variables are correlated? 2. How would you describe examples of -Positive correlations? -Negative correlations? -Curvilinear correlations?
.....
Personality
Borderline
Participants believed they were taking part in a study on
Learning
theory of mind
Sally-Anna test; false belief task
Anadamide
Slows down memory, brksdown fast and body and doesn't cause a perpetual high
How do subconscious motivations influence our attributions? Define, explain the cause of, and provide specific examples of: -The Fundamental Attribution Error -The self-serving bias -The confirmation bias
....
How does the brain use sensory input from the ears to localize sound? Arrival time Intensity Visual Capture
....
How might you operationalize an attitude using? -Behavioral observation? -Likert scales?
....
LEARNING OBJECTIVE 2 COGNITION, INTELLIGENCE, MEMORY
....
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 4 BEHAVIORISM
....
MODULES 10 SOCIAL THOUGHT
....
ORDER AND MEMORY EFFECTS 3. What are order effects? Define and describe why each of the following occur: -Primacy effect - Recency effect
....
According to ted talk, stress causes more deaths than
hiv, aids, homicides, skin cancer
2. Visual capture
---
a nerves threshold (mV)
-55
Erikson's Psychosocial Stages
Erikson's Psychosocial Stages
What is the evidence that even very young children prefer "good" people?
Ex. puppet, they choose the helpful character over the non helpful character, chooses nicer character, the understand dif between good and bad (may just come to world w/ understanding of difference)
The stage in Piaget in which children can think in hypothetical concepts:
Formal operational
Autism can be reliably diagnosed as early as age __.
2
3. What is amnesia?
3. Partial or total loss of memory.
What happens if you don't have enough belonging?
---Anxiety
Major symptoms of DID
1. Least 2 of these identities or personality states recurrently take control of the person's behavior. 2. Inability to recall important personal information
When participants do not participate in a second session of a study, this is a problem with:
Attrition
Vomiting
Emetophobia
MONOCULAR CUES accommodation familiar size interposition linear perspective motion parallax relative height shadow texture gradient
---ONE EYE
MAJOR DEPRESSION is to DYSTHYMIA as MANIA is to ___
HYPOMANIA
Master clock located? & produces which hormone
Hypothalamus, melatonin
Accommodation
When we try to focus on far away objects, our cilliary muscles stretch the eye lens, making it thinner, and therefore change the focal length
Good and bad, in Hamlin's first study, was established by..
Whether a shape helped another climb a hill
Adrenaline
Increases your heart rate, elevates your blood pressure and boosts energy supplies.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation
Young Adult, 18-40,Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of LOVE. Failure: Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness.
Fixed Interval
Set amount of time before you receive your reward. ex. scalloped and response pattern
Sensory memory:
Subconscious can still effect conscious someone says something to then u say what and then understand.
Decay (STM) -
When we truly forget something that in the sense was once encoded but no longer exists in storage (fades away with time)
Phobia What differentiates a normal fear response from a phobia?
Shear pain, fear (Phobia)
Placebo effect
What participants expect to experience (avoiding:) control group gets placebo (so blind)
Cerebellum
hindbrain, controls movement and balances as well as nonverbal and learning and perception of time (coordination and movement)
According to Jung, the personal unconscious is dominated by
Complexes
How do researchers use looking time to measure cognition?
Habituation
concordance rate
The probability of two genetic relatives having the same disease.
Which of the following is not a good example of culture affecting attraction?
Symmetrical faces are more attractive
2. Secure attachment style:
Will cry until mother returns
What is proprioception?
"one's own," and perception — is one of the human senses. -Refers to our awareness of where our body parts are in relation to the rest of our body
A person must experience at least ___ of the listed symptoms for at least ___ in order to be diagnosed with schizophrenia.
2; one month
___of infants demonstrated a preference for the good character.
80%
Ex. Nurturing
Cuddling, feeding, and caring for the baby
How does alcohol consumption influence sleep?
Causes less time spent in REM
Malleus
First of middle ear -hammer -amplify sound wave, transmits vibrations of the eardrum to the incus
Closure
-Related to good continuation -Tendency to close simple figures, independent of continuity or similarity Results--> in a effect of filling in missing information or organising information which is present to make a whole
Researchers such as DeCasper have tested the preferences of newborns using the rate at which they
Suckle
Pupil
The hole through which light enters the eye
Ex. Departure
Wondering "was I a good parent?"
How did writing down answers, rather than giving them out loud, affect conformity?
(b/c he arrive late he would have to write answers but they are immune from criticism of the group and this reduces pressure to conform).. reduces by 2/3 -reveals how ppl will deny what they see and submit to group pressure -study conditions why increase or reduce
Conformity -
(behavior that is influenced by our motivation to fit in with what appears to be normal, appropriate, or acceptable. Cultural norms determine what is appropriate and different situations) Ex. we choose to wear certain clothes based on what is considered normal, attractive; pick your nose in private
5. What are some possible explanations for why Autism diagnoses have increased dramatically in the past 20 years?
- 1 in 88, present but didn't have that label - Increase in awareness in 1980s w/ legislation and got access to resources and extended the definition of ASD
Results of Milligram:
- 26 maximum shock and continued to do so until the experimenter called a halt to the proceedings. -Participants felt nervous and tension - People were prepared to administer electric shocks to another person on the mere (albeit persistent) request of a man in a laboratory coat. They did so despite the protests from the 'victim' and continued even after the supposed recipient of the shocks went quiet. -At the end of the study, many of the obedient participants heaved sighs of relief or shook their heads in apparent regret. - before none of them said they would issue shocks. 35 in reality, issued the average voltage at which participants stopped shocking the 'learner' was 368 volts. Members of the public predicted that people would stop at around 140 volts.
Practice effects
- 2nd test, ppl know there is another test so ppl will know the out come. not knowing about test helps & stops fatigue effect (if u run a mile, then asked to run again-->likely to be more tired 2nd time.
Bipolar 1
- Random - Full manic episode: (proceeded by hypomanic or major depressive episodes, very high, mania, excessive energy, on top of the world, starts a lot of activities and doesn't finish), one day good/ next day bad results: hospitalizations, binge, can't function
Good continuation
- Seeing things as whole lines (sequential) is clearly important -Predicts the preference for continuous figures. Ex. We perceive the figure as two crossed lines instead of 4 lines meeting at the center.
Blind Spot
- nerve impulses generated in the retina travel back to the brain by way of the axons in the optic nerve (above). - 1 million axons converge on the optic nerve - no rods or cones. - insensitive to light.
How is Social Phobia different from GAD and Panic Disorder?
---->People with panic disorder experience a horrible anxiety attack accompanied by many physical symptoms that are originally interpreted as a physical, medical problem. ---> Socially-anxious people experience horrible anxiety in social situations that lead them to stay away from other people because of the anxiety it cause.
Criteria E Increased arousal symptoms
---> describe the ways that the brain remains "on edge," wary and watchful of further threats - Difficulty concentrating - Irritability, increased temper or anger - Difficulty falling or staying asleep - Hypervigilance - Being easily startled
2. What is mania?
--> Mania often involves sleeplessness, sometimes for days, along with hallucinations, psychosis, grandiose delusions, or paranoid rage. - In addition, depressive episodes can be more devastating and harder to treat than in people who never have manias or hypomanias.
Depression 1. What are the major symptoms of Major Depressive Disorder
-2 week period of debilitating behavior but then go back to normal ( DOEST NOT HAVE UPS AND DOWNS) -Significant weight loss when not dieting or weight gain -Insomnia -Feelings of worthlessness -Fatigue or loss of energy -Mood swings -Loss of appetite -Diminished interest in daily activities
Representative Heuristic:
-Categorizing objects or people based stereotypes. (We tend to make judgments according to how well the event matches our expectations.) EX. If trying to choose a brand of headache medicine from the brands you've never heard of, and you're in a hurry, you might be more likely to buy the one called Nelitol (which sounds like the name of some familiar medicines) instead of Poppers or Leafies.
4. What are some factors that contribute to autism? Include in your response the following: -Sex of the child -Age of a parent -Infection
-Genetic abnormalities inherited from parents -Some prescription drugs -Genetic mutations -Certain infections in the mother while she is pregnant -Older fathers -More males get it than females
Random sampling/ when we use it?
-How participants selected for study have equal chance at being selected . advantages: sample should represent the target population and eliminate sampling bias . disadvantage: difficult to achieve (i.e. time, effort and money). - When we use it: to describe the characteristics or experiences of an entire population
Similarity
-See groups which have the same characteristics so in this example -Visual characteristics such as shape, size, color, texture, value or orientation will be seen as belonging together
How have researchers tested for self-awareness in children? In animals? mirror test/ Mark test
-Self-recogition -Via mirror test (ANIMALS) -Recognize anomalies in their appearance in the mirror and investigate their bodies accordingly - Concept of one self--> that image is equivalent to this body (MARK TEST/ ANIMALS ) - child moves hand up to mark, he recognizes himself
How are perceived and received support different? Why is it important to have a social network?
-Similar to perceived support, receiving support can buffer people from stress and positively influence some individuals—however, others might not want support or think they need it. (For example, dating advice from a friend may be considered more helpful than such advice from your mom!)
Tympanic membrane
-Sound waves first cause this to vibrate,which vibrates in response to sound waves. In humans and other higher vertebrates it forms the eardrum
Sociocultural
-The group defines norm & true - WE do not like to feel abnormal or rejected - Norm determines thoughts and behavior -Factors are customs, lifestyles and values that characterize a society or group.
What is dissonance, what causes it, what does it feel like, and what makes it go away?
-What causes it? The imbalance causes a negative arousal, sort of like a subconscious fight-or-flight reaction. -How you feel? Uncomfortable -How it goes away? Our brain's goal, at that point, is to resolve the imbalance (dissonance) and restore mental harmony. Change your attitude/ beliefs to match behavior motivated by dissonances
RESULTS TO KNOW ABOUT 2 FACTOR:
-When people didn't have an explanation for the arousal caused by the epinephrine injections, they attributed their arousal to the situation (the behavior of the confederate), -When they did have an explanation (they'd been told the real side effects), they attributed it to the injection (what the two-factor theory predicted)
What are the major symptoms of OCD?
-cause significant distress or interfere with the person's normal routine -obsessive-compulsive actions are time-consuming (take more than 1 hour a day)
MODULE 12 LIFE LONG DEVELOPMENT
...
MODULES 9 CLASS OBJECTIVES
...
three ways to erase an undesired association:
-counter conditioning: pairing the undesired thing with a treat (pair thunder sound with tasty treat) -systematic desensitization: slowly erasing response by exposing subject to stimulus in increasing levels of intensity little by little flooding: undesired thing is played constantly. at first fear is apparent but then eventually, individual will realize that nothing harmful is happening
Match each general DSM-5 category with a mental disorder or experience:
...
Why do men constantly think that women are flirting with them, even when they're not?
...
2. How is memory organized into functional, overlapping systems? -sensory memory? - short-term memory (STM)? - Miller's magic number? - maintenance rehearsal?
....
What do rods and cones do on the retina?
-receive light and focus it as photoreceptors -Rods are very light sensitive and allow for vision in poor lighting or darkness -Cones allow for vision in very bright lighting and contribute to color vision
What is Credibility? -"Judgement made by a perceiver concerning the believability of a communicator." O'Keefe = Perceivers = Communications = Explicit = Implicit - Representative heuristic
. Perceivers: any audience to receive message . Communications: Relaying message . Explicit: Maybe I should take to that person . Implicit: Instance of spontaneous judgments in the relevant sense, may implore implicit bias - Representative heuristic: quick stereotypes you make about certain people/ thinks
How does the implicit association Test (IAT) attempt to measure them?
. To report attitudes toward or beliefs about these topics, and provide some general information about yourself and compare with other participants. . Measures attitudes and beliefs that people may be unwilling or unable to report. Can show that you have an implicit attitude that you did not know about.
IN-CLASS OBJECTIVES BEHAVIORISM 4
...
How did Woodruff & Premack (1979) demonstrate that chimpanzees were capable of deception (and therefore have some level of a theory of mind)?
1. Nice trainer-->chimp pt where food in box (pted to right box would share it with chimp) 2. Bad trainer ---> chimp pts to box with food (mean trainer would eat-->learn to lie to trainer and pt to empty box) 3. Learned they could trick so they could eat banana ...others have information of their own
Results of LaPiere attitudes and behavior:
1. Only refused at 1 establishment were generally treated very politely. 2. Of the 128 establishments which responded to the letter, 91% said they were not willing to accept Chinese guests. -**Self-reported attitudes were not actually consistent with observed behavior***
Intellectualization
After losing my dog, focusing on how interesting it is that humans can form such strong, lasting bonds with domesticated animals. When a person adopts a cool, scientific attitude toward something that threatens to cause emotional upset
When person is high in BIG 5:My wife is very generous and thoughtful, often going out of her way to help others. People that know her would say that she is trustworthy, kind, and very easy to get along with.
Agreeableness
Eysneck's three dimensions:
1. Introversion- Extraversion: Carl Jung's, The amount of attention that a person pays to his or her environment 2. Neuroticism-Emotional Stability: Whether you are moody or emotionally stable. Deals with emotions/ "moodiness versus even-temperedness" 3. Pyschoticism: The extent to which you are reasonable and easy to get along with.Extent to finding it hard to deal with reality. A psychotic person may be considered hostile, manipulative, anti-social and non-emphathetic.
OPERANT CONDITIONING 1. How did Thorndike support his Law of Effect using cats in a box?
1. Behavior is more likely to occur if it has a desirable effect.. --> Animals behave randomly, and behaviors that have a desirable effect are more likely to be repeated without any understanding of why that behavior has that effect.. - can be explained in "trial and error" learning rather than intelligent insight. - used sensitization -> react moe to a stimulus
Self awareness test: (2)
1. Carpet/cart--> kid became aware, younger child isn't aware they are the reason why they can't push the cart - 18 month didn't, but a 3 yr old could -emphasizes how you could fit into world around u 2. Mirror test--> aware x on face, recognize the change on your face - chimp and dolphins can/ humans too (not dogs and cats)
DECTING RECEPTOR STAGE PROCESS
1. Castle ex. light coming into eye 2. Cone detects color -When stare @ black light hits the same spot at the same time 3. Nothing changer in black and white 4. When change to color (blue activates and gets tired, ability to correct 5. As u accumulate to color, color starts to fade away 6. Ends up seeing it somewhere else when exhausted
3. Behavioral therapy case study: Jan diagnosed w. hoarding disorder, how to treat?
1. Learning theory: Conditioning: -rewards and punishment - rewards for cleaning; if refused to give away, punishing - point system--> for rewards - punishment ---> take away points
1. Preconventional Level (0-9)~~~Self Focused Morality
1. Morality is defined as obeying rules and avoiding negative consequences. See rules set, typically by parents, as defining moral law. 2. That which satisfies the child's needs is seen as good and moral.
Schactor and singer 2 factor model
1. Change in physical arousal --> triggers reaction (environmental cue) 2. Brain has to look at salience (what stands out that has cause this arousal) --sometimes we don't recognize this mechanism (increase in heart rate ) mayb fear 3. Would attribute emotion to threat Arousal = same (heart rate is same nothing is unique) ...really brain job to asses valence and salience to determine why arousal to lead to emotion
HALLUCINOGENS -How does LSD work in the synapse? -What neurotransmitter does it affect and how does it affect it?
1. BIND TO SEROTIN RECEPTORS (most closely resembles) --has complex sensory effects: sometimes may inhibit some and sometimes may excite (cause have dif seroitoin) 2. Overload of serotin gets caught in receptors--> bonds again and again Effects: - Wakefulness /startle --> locus coerulus part of brain - It effects the reward pathway (causes euphoric or hallucinations) & may even lead to undesired hallucinations - Appetite - Perception (visual or auditory ) - Mood - Long effect (4-12 hours), but also often require a much longer recovery period than other classes of drugs, sometimes up to a full day.
How do we know that sexual orientation (e.g., homosexuality) is heritable? (check all that apply)
1. Because homosexuality is more common in identical (monozygotic) twins than in non-identical (dizygotic) twins. 2. Because people who are homosexual are more likely to have siblings who are homosexual compared to heterosexuals.
Social influence: Informational: acceptance/internalization Normative: conformity Compliance Obedience
1. Informational-looking for the truth ex) approaching UMD and notice a long line, you may just get in line, not to fit in 2. Normative/ conformity- trying to sociocultural fit in theory 3. Compliance & obedience: the difference is the person is threatening or not 4. Obedience: following orders
To be diagnosed with PTSD you have to experience some of these symptoms for at least:
1 month
Cannabinoids
1. (Hallucinogen according to the CSA) - Marijuana, hashish Effects: - Immediate effects of marijuana include impairments of coordination, perception, mental focus, learning, and memory -DOES NOT lead to a chemical addiction like depressants and stimulants, but may be psychologically addicting for those that abuse
effective learning methods:
1. : chunking: chunk things together into meaningful units help you to encode/ store information 2. elaborate: come up with stories, examples and funny mental images to associate with facts 3. encode how you recall: study the way you will be tested
Give the correct definition: 1.Perceiving images in an abstract shape 2. Creating stories for characters in a picture 3. Saying whatever comes to mind
1. Rorschach 2. TAT 3. Free Association
Cattell's personality factors: Narrowed down from 4,000 --->16 personality traits
1. Warmth (A), 2. Reasoning (B) , 3. Emotional Stability (C) 4. Dominance (E), 5. Liveliness (F), 6. Rule-consciousness (G) 7. Social Boldness (H), 8. Sensitivity (I), 9. Vigilance (L) 10. Abstractedness (M), 11. Privateness (N) 2. Apprehension/Apprehensiveness (O), 13. Openness to change (Q1), 14. Self-reliance (Q2), 15. Perfectionism (Q3) 16. Tension (Q4)
convergence
1. When something gets closer, more your eyes have to converge in angle in ---hand closer to u (initially, back is blurry, bring closer your eyes become cross-eyed, u can gage when something is going to hit u (from straight on)
Measuring the time spent looking at something as a dependent variable tell us....
1. Whether the baby remembers seeing something 2. Whether the baby has habituated to something 3. Whether the baby is surprised to see something
MOTIVATED COGNITION 1. How do your motivations influence your judgment?
1. Your motivation to associate with, or distance yourself from, the campus identity subconsciously biased what you thought was honest, objective and rational judgments.
Synapse holds
1. a presynaptic ending that contains neurotransmitters, mitochondria and other cell organelles 2. a postsynaptic ending that contains receptor sites for neurotransmitters 3. a synaptic cleft or space between the presynaptic and postsynaptic endings.
Stage 2: Preoperational
2-7 Child will make inferences from one specific to another. - Uses heuristics for understanding, self-centered -Lack of conservation, understand a row of quarters is the same, but when spread out (think one is bigger), cannot realize that quantity or amount does not change when nothing has been added or taken away from an object or a collection of objects, despite changes in form or spatial arrangement. - egocentrism -young child leads them to believe that everyone thinks as they do, and that the whole world shares their feelings and desires
Normative influence
:social influence involves looking to others to gauge what is acceptable in the situation; Human need to belong to social groups. - The more we see others behaving in a certain way, more we feel obliged to follow suite---> learning to conform to groups around us as apart of evolutionary. To prime behavior, and if comply give social reward (eg. praise, inclusion). - Can occur w/ families and friends. Ex. loving your family more likely to influence for approval -ex. go along with group of strangers to not look like a fool
ELIMINATING ASSOCIATIONS 1. Using several difference examples, how can you erase an undesired association (e.g., fear) using >Habituation (also known as flooding)? >Systematic desensitization? >Counter-conditioning?
>Habituation (also known as flooding)? -Getting used to something, to weaken undesired response (flooding), stimulus takes on less and less meaning >Systematic desensitization? - more human, present stimulus, if client is calm, move txt in the range of related stimulus >Counter-conditioning? -replace undesired response by replacing association (might try to associate stimulus with something positive) ex. counter-condition away a positive response with an aversive stimulus this is called Aversion Therapy.
Autism Spectrum Disorder 1. What are the major symptoms of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)?
A developmental disability that can cause significant social, communication and behavioral challenges. MAJOR SYMPTOMS: 1. Not looking at objects that others are looking at or pointing to 2. Avoiding eye contact 3. Prefer not to be held or cuddled 4. Lack of pretend play 5. Unusual reactions to sounds or smells 6. Repeat actions over and over again 7.Lose skills they once had 8.No interest in interacting with other children
How does culture affect attraction?
Affects: Color of clothes, dark hair is attractive, light colored skin is attractive, thin people are attractive
Why was the study terminated early?
After 6 days... after gf (psychologist) saw experiment said that she couldn't be with him (the lead professor of experiment) b/c it is not who he is and it has changed him->showing how power can change situation.
4. A) Retrograde amnesia B) Anterograde amnesia
A) BEFORE TRAUMA EVENT OCCURS refers to the inability to remember things prior to the onset of memory loss able to form new memories. B) AFTER TRAUMA EVENT OCCURS refers to inability to form new memories, but may be able to recognize the past.
UNDER PNS AFFERENT DIVISION EFFERENT DIVISION
AF- carries signals from the body to the spinal cord (through sensory) EF carries signals from spinal cord to the body (through motor)
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE 1. What is emotional intelligence?
Ability to recognize your emotions, understand what they're telling you, and realize how your emotions affect people around you. It also involves your perception of others: when you understand how they feel, this allows you to manage relationships more effectively.
Adjustment Disorder
An adjustment disorder is characterized by the development of emotional or behavioral symptoms in response to an identifiable stressor (or stressors) occurring within 3 months of the onset of the stressor.
Familiar size
An object's smaller size on your retina when it is farther away from you
2. What is metacognition?
Another term for thinking about thinking is ex( Realizing that you feel sad each time you see birds)
Self-Perception Theory:
Attitudes are inferred from our behavior ex. someone to think they are particularly attractive to u. Use bicep activation, hug when u fall into them, get them to mimic us (their doing something that they think they are liking->trying to manipulate them)
Criteria F, G, H
Basically, they have to have lasted at least a month, seriously affect one's ability to function and can't be due to substance use, medical illness or anything except the event itself.
A child with an insecure-avoidant attachment style will
Be disinterested in contact with the mother when she returns
How might another emotion (e.g., jealousy, embarassement) be different than a basic emotion?
Because there isn't one unique facial expression that is universally recognized
Research on jealousy has often found that across various cultures:
Both that men react more to sexual infidelity than to emotional infidelity AND that women react more to emotional infidelity than to sexual infidelity
How did Bowlby and Ainsworth develop the attachment theory?
Bowlby:Studies in childhood development and "temperament" led him to the conclusion that a strong attachment to a caregiver provides a necessary sense of security and foundation; w/out child is fearful to go out of comfort zone Ainsworth: "attachment behavior", examples of behavior that are demonstrated by insecure children in hopes of establishing or re-establishing an attachment to a presently absent caregiver/ "innate behavior --> cross-section of children with varying degrees of attachment to their parents or caregivers from strong and healthy attachments to weak and tenuous bonds. Children w/ weak would cry. Children w/ strong were calm.
Study designs -Case study -Archival -Controlled experiment
Case study: -detailed analysis of a particular person, group, business, event, etc. Archival: -examine data that has been collected Controlled experiment: - to manipulate one variable, key is that researchers can cause a change in one variable
What is the variable that tells us whether having lots of casual sex is linked with mental health?
Cocial sexual orientation
What is being developed through Piaget's stages?
Cognitive development of children and proposed a theory of several stages they go through.
Researchers have found that fetal heart rate ___ when it hears a familiar story, suggesting that ___
Decreases; fetuses are soothed by familiar things
How is it used to diagnose different disorders? (DSM)
Defines and classifies mental disorders in order to improve diagnoses, treatment, and research.
What is the difference between delusions and hallucinations?
Delusion: An unshakable theory or belief in something false and impossible, despite evidence to the contrary. (4 types) Hallucination: A hallucination is a sensation or sensory perception that a person experiences in the absence of a relevant external stimulus.
XYZ statements involve
Describing behavior, context, and feelings.
3. What is the major difference between Major Depressive Disorder and Dysthymia?
Dysthymia: needs to be present for 2 years, significant impairment.
Why is infant determinism a myth?
Early childhood experiences don't determine adult outcomes
Infant Determinism myth:
Early childhood experiences don't determine adult outcomes.
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Early childhood, 1.5-3, The aim has to be "self control without a loss of self-esteem". Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of WILL. Parents have to encourage independence or will lead to lack of self-esteem.
Dolphins & bats make ___to perceive depth by creating a series of acoustic pulses and sensing the sound waves that bounce back off of objects. (to localize)
Echolocation
What makes an emotion basic?
Edman's research shows that basic emotions were expressed the same way by ppl all over the world - Suggest that the facial expressions are universal communication mechanisms that evolved to help others understand our own emotion
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) (traumatic event)
Exposure to trauma does not need to be physical
What is a visual cliff? How do researchers use the visual cliff to study cognition?
Gibson & Walk 1960: Human/ animals will avoid drop off what occurs to be a visual cliff, infants avoiding drop off b/c fear of frights (myth), better measure of depth and perception -Learning to perceive relations between bodies and environment w/out fear -no safety glass, you can test fear of height (when they think surface is risky or not) after weeks of practice but forget when crawling --> walking (4 separate learning curves)
Aversion therapy -- Counter-conditioning:
Goal is to replace the undesired response by replacing the association. If we want to reduce a fear response we might try to associate the stimulus with something positive. On the other hand, we might also try to create a negative association with things we do not want to like as much (an aversive stimulus).
Cochlea
Has small hairs that actually detect vibrations and trigger sensory signals vibrate to brain, tiny hairs in fluid -spiral cavity of the inner ear, produces nerve impulses in response to sound vibrations.
How hoarding different from OCD?
Hoarding is more of a subtype of OCD. -Hoarding behavior can be a symptom of a number of conditions, whereas obsessive-compulsive disorder is a distinct condition of which hoarding can be one symptom. -Hoarding tends to be less anxiety and distress than OCD
Freud described the ego, drawing power from the id while controlling it, as resembling a rider on a horse.... what does the horse represent
Horse represents the id: a primitive, animal-like source of energy. The rider represents the ego. It may be weak or strong, clumsy or skillful. If the rider is uncoordinated or lacking in skill, the horse goes whatever direction it pleases, and the rider must hold on for dear life.
What part of the brain is responsible for id-like functions?
If you want to make the opposite argument, that a concept like id is more than a metaphor, you could point to similarities between the id as Freud described it and the limbic system of the brain. Almost all the impulses Freud attributed to the id (sex, aggression, "primitive" emotions) are controlled by the limbic system.
3. Why, from an evolutionary perspective, is the Garcia Effect helpful for survival?
It keeps people from consuming things their body does not like .
How was Jung connected to Freud?
Jung's theory, like Freud's, is a depth psychology. It assumes the most important factors influencing your personality are deep in the unconscious. However, Jung did not use Freud's concepts of id and super-ego
2. When would heuristics be the most likely to influence our judgements? Relate this back to the earlier concept of motivation determining allocation and cognitive load.
Its a way to make quick decisions without thinking, less motivation to understand, they can lead to load errors in judgment (thinking errors).
etiology of a disorder is
Its cause; Disorders are caused by the interaction of genetic predispositions, psychological experiences and environmental stressors.
how you tell difference between smells?
Neurons in brain, takes direct root to brain ( unlike sight and hear), smell differed from people
When person is high in BIG 5:My cousin is easily stressed or upset and is prone to mood swings.
Neuroticism
Displacement
Libidinal energy is supposedly redirected from a desired (but unavailable) goal to a substitute. Lashing out at your roommate for being sloppy after being dumped by a boyfriend or girlfriend.
New research indicates that higher stress levels are....
Linked with higher mortality rate but only for those who believe that stress is unhealthy.
Curvilinear correlations
No linear relationship, two different (type of relationship between two variables where as one variable increases, so does the other variable, but only up to a certain point, after which, as one variable continues to increase, the other decreases.) can make U or inverted U
FRMI machines use __ to detect areas of the brain that are active
Magnets
Semicircular canals
Maintaining balance -three fluid-filled bony channels in the inner ear. -provide information about orientation to the brain to help maintain balance
How is monophasic sleep different from polyphasic sleep?
Majority of animals are polyphasic: -2 blocks of sleep in 24 hours, i.e. the night sleep and the typical Latin siesta - the "6th hour nap" Monophonic: -Common 7-8 hrs of sleep, but ignores other common variations in sleep patterns, and historical precedent as well.
How FAE can lead to road rage: Misattribution of biases:
Making assumptions about bad driver, make you misattribute and become very angry. Goes along w/ Self-serving & confirmation bias
-The Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE):
Making dispositional attributions for other people. Failing to consider the situation influences on other people's behavior. ex. Wow, can you believe that guy showed up late for an exam? He must be really lazy and disorganized.
4. What is the difference between a manic and hypomanic episode?
Manic: ( is not bipolar, take more risks, high energy, significant impact to person's daily living/ inflated self-esteem and decrease need for sleep), maybe for a week or more time Hypomanic: (related to Bipolar 2, hyperactive but not as active, could still conduct daily activities)
2. What is the research evidence that our memory is not as accurate as we would like to believe?
Memory can be flawed and malleable "loftus & palmer" (1974)- fake childhood stories through pictures: -Collection of memories= schema -Memory system holds info for a fraction of a second (ex. cocktail effect -->working memory= what your thinking about).
HEURISTICS 1. How do people conserve mental load by using heuristics? Be prepared to define, give examples of, and distinguish between: -Availability Heuristic -Representative Heuristic
Mental shortcuts for making decisions...
Social Influence ex. Miligram Consenting Peer: Is this normal/ correct thing to do? Dissenting Peer: Is this the NORMAL thing to do?
Miligram: 65% found people would administer lethal shock. -demand characteristics -conformity: shifting our behavior to be normal Consenting peer--> (two teacher condition) When participants could instruct an assistant (confederate) to press the switches, 92.5% shocked to the maximum 450 volts. When there is less personal responsibility obedience increases. Dissening peer--> (touch proximity) The teacher had to force the learner's hand down onto a shock plate when they refuse to participate after 150 volts. Obedience fell to 30%. -The participant is no longer buffered / protected from seeing the consequences of their actions.
Evolutionary perspective: gave advantage more brain devoted to more hand (homoculuouos-->what brain priorities in terms of sensory)
More priority support, people who used tools survived better, feeling things so brain has evolved to give more priority... Why for lips and tongue? - Sharp/soft/safe to put in mouth....any damage to mouth can kill..being able to detect and feel -->why primates evolved to kiss ( so sensitive)
Criteria A traumatic event (& big T-traumas)
Must be exposed to actual traumatic event/ or threat: (these are Big T-traumas) -death, serious injury, sexual violence EXPOSURE CAN BE: -Direct, witnessed -Indirect, by hearing of a relative or close friend who has experienced the event - Repeated or extreme indirect exposure to qualifying events, usually by professionals—non-professional exposure by media does not count
Primary punisher=
Naturally adverse, bright lights/ hunger
Relative height
Objects on the ground have to be painted on the ground and, thus, even higher as they are depicted farther away in depth. An object off in the distance would be painted in the middle
Likert scale:
People to respond to a series of statements about a topic, in terms of the extent to which they agree with (cognitive and affective components of attitudes) - five (or seven) point scale -ex. Agreement, Frequency, Importance, Likelihood
Anxiety
Panic
Does spanking work? What is the evidence that supports this?
Physical punishment — including spanking, hitting and other means of causing pain — can lead to increased aggression, antisocial behavior, physical injury and mental health problems for children Can lead to harm. Can't punish out behaviors, i.e. Corporal punishment
Stage 1: The Image-Making
Planning for a child;pregnancy, consider what means to be a parent and plan to accommodate.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt
Play age, 3-5, A balance between initiative and guilt is important. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of PURPOSE. Failure-> child may feel like a nuisance.
Through which five psychosexual stages did Freud believe we progressed?
Primary means first. Primary process thinking is primitive, dream-like thinking, presumably the first type of thinking we experience as babies. It is simple, irrational, and gut-level, aimed at seeking pleasure or avoiding pain
EXTINCTION 1. What is extinction?
Process of unlearning a behavior when reinforcement is no longer associated with it.
What is the difference between random assignment and random selection?
Random selection is the process of randomly choosing subjects from the population to be a part of the sample while random assignment is the randomized splitting of the sample into either the experimental or control group.
shaping behavior
Rewarding approximations of desired behaviors (i.e squirrel "skiing").
Short-term memory (STM)
STM/ Working memory (continuous work through STM)--> -selective attention determines which info moves from sensory to short term. - limited to 7 pieces of independent info - Only up to 30 secs -Decay appears to be the primary mechanism of memory loss
STATE DEPENDENT MEMORY 1. What is the research evidence that we have state dependent memory?
Sensory info can get encoded into what we store. Memory performance depends on similarities OVERLAPPING between operations encoding and operations retrieval.. so depends on context of where u study and how. and the context we are in when we try to retrieve it. Evidence: Goodwin study: who asked male volunteers to perform memory tasks that involved learning and remembering words while either sober or under the effects of alcohol.
3. Nonverbal behavior:
Signals whether the infant has reason to be concerned
Social cognitive psychology
Social cognitive procedure known as priming—a technique in which information is temporarily brought into memory through exposure to situational events—and that shows that priming can influence judgments entirely out of awareness.
COMPARATIVE COGNITION 1. How do sociobiologists explain the similarities and differences between the cognitive capacities of various species?
Specific cognitive capacities evolved bc they provided the particular species with advantage to staying alive & having offspring. Can't judge species' intelligence against our own, we have to understand the similarities and differences across species in the context in which each species survived. -If hiding food was advantageous (as it still is for squirrels), we would expect those with better "mental maps" and memories to survive and reproduce.
Binocular depth cues
Squirrel, get motor cortex---> ability to move jump onto target (perception of depth and coordination) - allows for much more refine mechanism rely on convergence
Disposition vs. Situation How can thought and behavior be better understood as an interaction between disposition and the social situation? ex. Biological perspective
Stable personality traits (disposition) are not the only things that determine what we do. A biosocial perspective would propose that our ancestors evolved as social creatures because being accepted within a group increased the odds of survival
What is being developed through Kohlberg's stages?
Stages of Moral development, (3 levels broken down into 2 stages)
Wells & Petty (1980) Results/ procedure supporting self-perception theory:
Students listen to a persuasive message while testing out a new pair of headphones. Some students were asked to hold their head still, some were asked to slowly tip their head up and down, and some were told to slowly turn their head side to side. Result: -Those who tipped their head up and down were more persuaded by the message, presumably because they perceived themselves to be in agreement based on nodding 'yes' while listening to the message. -While self-perception theory cannot account for all of the findings, our attitudes can be strongly influenced by our own behavior even if we are not fully aware of how/why we are behaving
Triver theorizes the females of a species tend to be selective with who they mate with because....
Successfully raising offspring will require a greater investment of their energy.
Results of rat test:
Test: Creature is subjected to a virtual decathlon of physical ordeals designed to test its survival behaviors. Every rat is born with a set of instinctive reactions to threatening situations. These behaviors don't have to be learned; they're natural defenses—useful responses accrued over millennia of rat society. Results: The dream-deprived rats flubbed each of the tasks.
What is attachment?
The ability for an individual to form an emotional and physical "attachment" to another person gives a sense of stability and security necessary to take risks, branch out, and grow and develop as a personality.
3. What does it mean for a result to be statistically significant?
The goal of hypo testing--> to see if the differences are unlikely to be due to random variation (sampling error). If so, we can say that our result is statistically significant. ways: test sampling distribution to see probability, reject the null hypo (if p value less then predetermined)
5. What is cognitive load and how does it explain why we cannot truly multitask?
The more load we have at the moment, the less we are capable of thinking about, under effortful tasks.
How does the nose detect smell?
The olfactory epithelium, or the skin cells, in the nose has receptor cells that sense smells
DV and IV of schachter and singer:
Their mood (i.e., how happy or angry are you) (DV) (IV): -What they were injected with -How the confederate behaved -What participants believed they would experience from the injection
Why Harlow & Lorenz studies so important?
Their studies helped show that behaviorism did not fully explain why we develop the way we do.
How did LaPiere (1934) demonstrate that our attitudes and behavior are not always as consistent as we might assume?
They show:cognitive and affective components of behavior do not always match with behavior/ testing relationship between attitude and behavior. Method: At the time prejudice against Asians, traveled around U.S. visited 67 hotels and 184 restaurants, asking whether they would accept chinese guests.
Secondary punishers=
Things we have learned to avoid ( audience booing in crowd w/ isolation)
Secondary reinforcers=
Things we have learned to want bc associated w/ other stimuli ( money associates w/ buying things)
Proximity
Things which are closer together will be seen as belonging together
Behavioral observation operationalize an attitude:
To avoid the problem of social desirability, use experiments Rorschach Inkblot Test, Thematic Apperception Test (or TAT), Draw a Person Task but lack objectivity
Where can a Maryland student go to get help with substance use?
University health center.
What is the criticism of Erikson's theory?
Vague, theory does not have a universal mechanism for crisis resolution, heory provide evidence suggesting a lack of discrete stages of personality development
Wmotion = arousal x valence (more outside= extreme, closer to center = mild)..understand why we might misattribute emotions ... similar emotions we can mistake cause of our arousal ...relates schactor 2 factor model
Valence (how positive or negative, good feeling or bad feeling?)
OPERATIONALIZE VARIABLES 1. What does it mean to operationalize a conceptual variable?
Variables refer to how you will define and measure a specific variable as it is used in your study. >This process translates the theoretical, conceptual variable of interest into a set of specific operations or procedures that define the variable's meaning in a specific study
A hallucination can occur in any sensory modality...
Visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile, etc. -Auditory hallucinations (e.g. hearing voices or some other sound) are most common type of hallucination in schizophrenia; visual is next common.
ATTRIBUTION AND BIASES What is the difference between dispositional and situational attributions?
We can explain a behavior as: 1. evidence of a disposition (the internal, stable characteristics of the person) or 2. having been caused by the situation (something external, beyond the person's control). ex. A driver cuts you off and swerves across another lane to make a sudden turn. You got an A on examine.
Social Desirability
What participants think is the normal thing to say. ( avoiding:) use self report to show how important it is to be honest or psychophysiological (taken from body)
Projection
When people avoid a negative evaluation of themselves by seeing their own unpleasant thoughts or actions in other people. A student who cheats will tell you "everybody cheats.Making a comment that all humans are naturally selfish and evil after stealing an ice cream sandwich from a community freezer.
5. What is the evidence for, and controversy concerning, ego depletion.
When the energy for mental activity is low, self-control is typically impaired, which would be considered a state of ego depletion. In particular, experiencing a state of ego depletion impairs the ability to control oneself later on.
When operationalizing attachment, the key moment is what happens when the....
When the mother returns to the room
Rationalization
When you unconsciously give yourself a false explanation of your own behavior. Automatic self-protective reaction, carried out by the unconscious part of the ego. When you do not realize you are lying to yourself. This distinguishes rationalization from ordinary deception, which occurs when a person knows the truth but tries to fool other people.
3. Reading comprehension
You acn raed tihs snenatce bceuase of raednig cmoprehnesoin. - Even though the letters are mixed up, as long as the first and last letters are the same, your brain will be able to unjumble the letters.
Stimulus discrimination
You learn to discriminate a sound from others and u will only respond to those (learning the difference between stimuli --> u respond dif to your ring tone then other)
What is the Need to Belong? Is it really a need?
Your desire to be included and cared for
Example of Negative Affect Reciprocity?
Your mom calls you lazy so you call her lazy back
Which stage of Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning is most closely related to social cultural theory?
conventional
Managing stress
delegate, hobbies, time manage, sleep, volunteer, delegate, increase awareness
cerbral cortex
forebrain, thin layer of brain responsible for most complex cognitive functions
Impulses stimulated by the chemical compounds in food are sent to the---- cortex while impulses stimulated by olfactory compounds in food are sent to the---- cortex
gustatory olfactory
temporal lobe
language and comprehension, hearing, memory, reading.... -->auditory information, language comprehension, more complex aspects of vision primary auditory cortex wernicke's area (left side)- language comprehension. damage results in wernicke's aphasia; lack of comprehension but fluent, grammatical sentences
Informational influence
social influence involves looking to others for valid information. When we do not know how to behave, we copy other people. 1. Ex. we accept authority in ambiguous situation that occur in crisis. 2. when we copy others because we fear ridicule or rejection if we behave otherwise (compliance) 3. When we genuinely believe the other person is right (acceptance)
Stapes
third of middle ear -stirrup -amplify sound wave -a small stirrup-shaped bone in the middle ear, transmitting vibrations from the incus to the inner ear
Substance ___ disorders are patterns or problematic drug use while substance ___ disorders are the physical and mental consequences of drug use.
use; induced.
Likert scales operationalize by evaluation:
• Summarize using a median or a mode (not a mean); the mode is probably the most suitable for easy interpretation. • Display the distribution of observations in a bar chart (it can't be a histogram, because the data is not continuous).
What kind of relationships provide belonging?
-People seek for new relationships after another has failed -People feel a lot of negative emotions when relationships are going poorly - People are eager to have close relationships
Stage 1: Sensory motor
0-2, infants learn object permanence (everything has life of its own even if it's out of sight, babies know to look for the object (look for where object last found, not where researcher placed it).
WHAT IS PSYC? 1. What are the ABCs of psychology? 2. How would you summarize psychology as a discipline? 3. What are the most common subfields and what kinds of jobs do those psychologists do?
1. Affect (feelings), Behavior, and Cognition 2.They study the intersection of two critical relationships: one between brain function and behavior, and another between the environment and behavior 3. Clinical psychologists (assess and treat mental, emotional and behavioral disorders), Educational psychologists (how effective teaching and learning take place), Forensic psychologists (expertise in judicial system)
Primary Dimensions of Creditability: -Of these factors the most prominent are: . Expertise . Trustworthiness . Goodwill
1. Communicated by knowledge experience, credentials (press pass, Dr. MD) 2. Honest acts, businesses, get third party to approve; news stations shows FCC 3. Charity, to benefit someone else; convincing people that implicit (empathy at the end of the day you help someone) ex. Oprah
-STIMULANTS -How does cocaine work in the synapse? -What neurotransmitter does it affect and how does it affect it?
1. Dopamine in synaptic cleft---> cocaine blocks these receptors causing overstimulation to cells (dopamine binds over and over again) 2. Dopamine can't return--> much stays in synaptic cleft Effects: - Concentrates on reward path (brain controlling & voluntary movements) -Users not able to stay still -Increase neural activity - Physiological arousal - Perhaps paranoia and anxiety. -Withdrawal from stimulants typically lasts several days. -May damage emotional regulation, stress-response system
Major symptoms of Anorexia Nervosa:
1.Believing that your body weight, shape and size is directly related to how good they feel about themselves 2. Experiences an intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat 3. Intentionally starving yourself
Stage 4: Formal operational
12+, Deductive reasoning, thinking abstractly/ ability formulate hypotheses and systematically test them to arrive at an answer to a problem.
Approximately _____ of Americans born between 1990 and 1994 report having zero sexual partners after turning 18, and this number is ______ previous generations.
15%, higher than
Harlow's monkeys spent about ___ hours a day with the cloth mother.
18 hours.
3 types of cones
3 types - respond best to different portion of spectrum of visible light - color vision - in retina
2. Why is it called a spectrum disorder?
Can have an array of symptoms
Explain why a child must have a theory of mind in order to have post-conventional morals
Child needs to understand that there are others with different morals than there own and must respect them.
Iris
Controls how much light enters
FORGETTING 1. What causes us to forget?
Decay, Insufficient priming, Interference, Disorganization
2. Who is B. F. Skinner and what did he contribute to psychology? --> operant conditioning
Father of radical behaviors, theoretical explanation that environment determines behavior (nature) not future. its all about rewards and punishments no importance to mind.
SCHEMAS AND ACCESSIBILITY 1. What is a schema? What is the advantage of storing information this way?
Groups of info that are stored together bc they are somehow related, ex. stereotypes
What does Allport (1954) say about how Social psychology can influence us?
How the thoughts, feelings and behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others....so we are not only influenced by people, but influenced by people we expect to be around us---we learn to conform to groups around us.
1. Trust vs. Mistrust
Infancy, 0-1.5 yrs old, leads to HOPE; failure to acquire will lead to fear.
Recent effect
Often the last bit of info is remembered better bc not as much time has past; time which results in forgetting. (later list= can recall), easier to encode effects: more time decay why happens? cognitive load --> limited amount of resources, load distracts memory ability & might be easier at first cuz have more resources available (easier to store but harder to encode.
Biosociological perspective (describe top down)
Our brain is wired to detect faces,
Interposition
Partial blocking of a more distant object with a nearer one
pons
Pons: Contains centers for the control of vital processes, including respiration and cardiovascular functions. I
Operant
Potty train: positive reinforcement; negative reinforcement; positive punishment negative punishment;
How did Zimbardo demonstrate that the power of the social situation could overwhelm people's disposition?
Power of situation can shape a person...through mistreatment of prisoners.
My younger sister, Rachel, recently told me that it would be wrong to steal a soda from the local convenience store because I might get caught and get in trouble. According to Kohlberg, what stage of moral development is Rachel likely stuck in?
Pre conventional
Lens
Pulled into shapes that focus incoming light onto the receptor cells in the back of the eye
Terminal Terminal Buttons
Spreads the cell's impulse out to reach other neurons (terminal) Links up to the dendrites of the next neuron in the chain (terminal buttons)
2. What is an extinction burst and why might it occur?
Sudden increase in the behavior, if the behavior was previously reinforced on a variable schedule and if reinforcement is suddenly removed.
Texture/ gradient
Surface gets further away, the texture gets finer and smoother
why Foot fetish is most prevalent & somatosensory
Takes in and processes all sensory; theory: closets to genital area activation--> one part could be leaking into another part activating, organization of brain structure is explanation... *has effects on behavior ...any stimulation creates sensation
How do organisms benefit from one?... stimulus discrimination
Tell different between related stimuli and respond dif to them
MOTIVATION DETERMINES ALLOCATION 1. What is the advantage of being able to allocate cognitive resources to different tasks?
The importance of information (sensory, like touch, or factual, like a set of statistics) determines what proportion of your available resources will be consumed about it. (more motivation = easier to determine allocation of resources (load) -We have limited cognitive resources so we need to use them on what is most important to us at the time
Attributions:
The processes of assigning a cause to an event.
Sublimation
When libidinal energy is channeled into socially acceptable, approved activities. Healthy defense mechanism. EX.Forming a strong sexual attraction towards balloons after being frightened, as a young child, by a scary clown making balloon animals at a fair.
What is the last sense to develop in the womb?
Vision is the last sense to develop.
2. Decay vs. a failure to retrieve memory?
When we truly forget something that in the sense was once encoded but no longer exists in storage. Retrieval failure- still in memory, just can't cue retrieval
SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECIES How can our expectations influence our own behavior, and the behavior of others, in such a way that we actually cause our expectations to come true?
more positive influence can equal a positive response, if we redirect positive behavior, we get positive behavior...... what...............like rosenthal
Sensation
occurs when a stimulus (e.g., a sound, light, smell, touch or taste) is detected by receptors in your body. So, for example, your skin might sense a change in temperature, (when an event is detected by receptors in your body and an impulse is sent to the brain, )
12: Class Objectives
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CLASS OBJECTIVES Module 10
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IN-CLASS OBJECTIVES 2
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES 3 Scientific Research and Ethics
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METHODS FOR COLLECTING DATA
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OBJECTIVES MODULE 11: SOCIAL THOUGHT
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Parenting styles according to Vygotsky's social interaction theory:
...
COMPLIANCE GAINING How you would use each of the following techniques to increase the likelihood that a stranger would comply with your request? -Foot-in-the-door -Door-in-the-face -Reciprocity
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PATTERN RECOGNITION Phonemic restoration Visual capture Reading comprehension Perceptual contrast
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What are some of the ways we tend to detect the figure as separate from the ground? Area Symmetry
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When person is high in BIG 5:
....
Describe Piaget's theory of cognitive development, including the age range and cognitive characteristics of each stage.
.... involves egocentrism, conservation, object permanence
Explain Kohlberg's theory of moral development in terms of the specific stages and the kind of moral reasoning that takes place in each.
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Galinsky 6 stages of parenting:
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UNDER CNS SPINAL CORD HINDBRAIN
spinal- reflex arc to remove ur hand from a painful stimulus hindbrain- basic life fans like beating of your heart and breathing
ATTITUDES What do social psychologist mean when they use the word attitude?
"a relatively enduring organization of beliefs, feelings, and behavioral tendencies towards socially significant objects, groups, events or symbols."
What is the Zone of Proximal Development? Why is it important to development?
"what i can do." Is a level of development attained when children engage in social behavior. - Full development of the ZPD depends upon full social interaction. The range of skill that can be developed with adult guidance or peer collaboration exceeds what can be attained alone.
What does "gestalt" mean?
"whole" or "form" and, in psychology, refers to the idea that what we perceive from top-down processing has more meaning than what would be perceived from simply bottom-up processing --Theory of visual perception
Compliance -
(Behavior induced by an overt request.) EX. if a stranger walked up to you and asked you to give him $5, would you comply? -Differs from acceptance here - you are not doing it b/c you truly want to, but rather b/c someone asked you to.
Stimulus generalization
(CS-->NS)white bunny associated with conditioned stimulus, child had no experience to learn, associate with other similar to simiulai (white fuzzy thing and loud sound) ....taking what u learn and apply it to others
IMPLICIT ATTITUDES How are implicit attitude different from explicit ones?
(Implicit attitudes) are essentially our automatic, subconscious evaluations... and in some cases they might be different from the (explicit attitudes) that we are aware of and would report on a self-report measure.
How might the ego use defense mechanisms to manage subconscious conflicts?
(Repressions). - At this point, Freud suggested, a person will perform mental maneuvers to avoid confronting the unacceptable thought. - The maneuvers are known collectively as defense mechanisms. --->They occur automatically, according to Freud, as the ego seeks to protect itself. Freud thought that defense mechanisms were never the result of conscious, rational thought processes. Ex: Rationalization, Intellectualization, denial, projection, displacement, conversion, etc.
Acceptance (internalization)-
(becoming convinced of what is correct, true, or right. ) Ex. Brand of headphones is favored by UMD students. You might internalize (accept) that preference believing that it truly indicates one product is better than the other. In future, you buy the favored headphones not b/c someone asked you to, or to fit in, BUT b/c you believe it is better than the other option. - You are influence by what other people have done (not facts)
Obedience-
(compliance to orders from a perceived authority figure). - If we perceive person to have coercive power over us (they have the right/ power to force us/ impose negative consequences for disobedience) ...we may comply with their orders, even if we do not want to. Ex. Soldiers murder hundreds of civilians after being told to by their commander. Ex. Teachers, bosses, police all have coercive power over us in social situations
What are "threat dreams" and what percentage of recalled dreams did they make up in Revonsuo's research?
- 66% of recalled dreams were related to threats, according to Revonsuo's research. -Threat recognition and avoidance happens faster and more automatically in comparable real situations." -Threats: Faced with actual life-or-death situations—traffic accidents, terrorist attacks, street
Learning (Behaviorism)
- BASICALLY STIMULAI--> RESPONSE -Organisms seek pleasure and avoid pain -pleasure= biological, pain= something harmful -Behavior is determined by its outcome -reward= increase in behavior, punishment= decrease in that behavior -Pavlov's dogs (example)
Stimulants
- Cocaine, amphetamine, methamphetamine, ephedrine, MDMA/ecstasy (also a hallucinogen), PCP (also a hallucinogen), caffeine, nicotine, etc. -Stimulants increase CNS activity. -Highly addictive because the body quickly builds tolerance to stimulants, so the user needs to take more to get the same high or avoid withdrawal.
Backfire effects -Surveyed people to find those that believed . Obamacare would create death panels . Saddam Hussein caused 9/11 terrorist attack . Obama was born in Kenya -Showed some facts that refute the myths -Those with strong beliefs prior believed myth even more after seeing facts
- Confirmation biasL When you take someone who believes myth, show them facts to refute myth they believe the myth even more - Don't want to believe a lie so you hold on your beliefs even more (backfire effects) - Dissonance : whats the motivation? You wanted to be liked and be correct by other people, when someone else tells u wrong or incorrect (cause some type of dissonance) - One way to solve this dissonance: refute the message/ discredit the source - Disagreeing w/ off: justify good friends disagree, done
Availability Heuristic:
- Estimating the frequency or probability of events based on how easily examples of that event come to mind. (Things that come to mind easily tend to be seen as more common.) EX. The American public was concerned about a large increase in Road Rage incidents. In reality, the perceived increase was caused only by more frequent media coverage of the incidents.
RESULTS OF 2 factor:
- Exposed to the confederate who was playing around, the misinformed participants rated themselves as happiest, the participants who'd received epinephrine but hadn't been told about the side effects were the next happiest, - Participants who'd been correctly informed about the side effects were the least happy.
Criteria B Intrusion or Re-experiencing
- Intrusive thoughts or memories - Nightmares related - Flashbacks - Psychological and physical reactivity to reminders of the traumatic event, such as an anniversary
What is received support?
-Benefits of received have been mixed findings -Actual receipt of support or helping behaviors from others -Others might not want support or think they need it ex. mom made dinner for me last sunday
Why do so many people think that we are living in a "hookup culture" with more promiscuity and non-monogamy than previous generations?
- Journalists focus on outlier cases (exceptions to the rule). - "Rosy retrospection" (innaccurate views of the past). -College students overestimate the amount of sex their peers are having.
Hallucinogens
- LSD, MDMA/ecstacy, PCP, ketamine, mescaline, mushrooms -Generally synthetically made, though some types occur naturally (mushrooms). - Do not have reinforcing effects (LSD, MDMA), others do seem to have addictive properties (PCP, ketamine) because of a stimulant or depressant being mixed in. Effects: - Visual or, more rarely, auditory hallucinations, to euphoric and dissociative sensations
Localizing sound (differences)
- Low frequency: bend around head after hitting first ear -High frequency: waves reflect off head -Visual capture -It is easiest to localize sound that is directly to one side -Differences in intensity of high-pitch sounds -Differences in arrival time for low-pitch sounds
What are the major symptoms of Adjustment Disorder?
- Marked distress that is in excess of what would be expected from exposure to the stressor - Significant impairment in social, occupational or educational functioning
Criteria D Negative alterations in mood or cognitions
- Memory problems that are exclusive to the event - Negative thoughts or beliefs about one's self or the world - Distorted sense of blame for one's self or others, - Being stuck in severe emotions related to the trauma (e.g. horror, shame, sadness) - Severely reduced interest in pre-trauma activities - Feeling detached, isolated or disconnected from other people
6. Is there any evidence that autism can be caused by vaccinations?/ What type of cognitive biases would lead people to (falsely) believe that vaccines are linked to autism?
- No, there is absolutely no evidence that the two are related, and the most popular study that claimed to have discovered a link was discovered to be fraudulent (vaccines)
Persistant Depressive Disorder (Dysthymia) 2. What are the major symptoms of Persistent Depressive Disorder?
- OCCURS FOR AT LEAST 2 YEAR -Significant impairment -Symptoms need at least 2 of 6 symptoms: -Poor appetite or overeating - Insomnia or hypersomnia - Low energy or fatigue - Low self-esteem -Poor concentration or difficulty making decisions -Feelings of hopelessness
Why would we say that perception is subjective?
- Perception often occurs through top-bottom processing which involves the use of previous experiences, knowledge or bias to fill in blanks in our sensory information; - Bias and previous knowledge makes perception subjective
Sheridan & King (1972) -setup -impossible problem -DV -Findings? -Forms of dissent
- Puppy was being trained to distinguish between a flickering and a steady light. It had to stand either to the right or the left depending on the cue from the light. If the animal failed to stand in the correct place, the subjects had to press a switch to shock it. (differing from Milligram) -Participants instructed to deliver a shock each time the puppy failed to learn a discrimination task, which was actually unsolvable Percent delivering the maximum amount of shock similar to percent in Milgram's studies - 15-450 volts -400- occasional bark -600- puppy tries to flee -800-howling, agony -77% of students delivered shocks
-Psychological contribute to mental illness:
- Severe psychological trauma suffered as a child, such as emotional, physical, or sexual abuse - An important early loss, such as the loss of a parent -Neglect -Poor ability to relate to others
1. Psychoanalysis/ psychotherapy:
- Talking through experiences make aware of subconscious - Disorders are caused by conflicts balances and repressed desires - Psychoanalysis: talk therapy --> therapist (analysis of what we say and do in subconscious),e ncourage patients to use free association as a way to come to insights about unresolved issues from the past (freud) -Psychotherapy: talking, how to help understand why they think, do the things they do, not so much unconscious, understand their own thoughts and feelings, actions, ex. how to treat fear of flying--> think back to childhood experience and make them remember
2. What are the core principles of modern psychological science?
- Theory/ laws needs to be first, then expectations/ hypos so you can falsify through experiment. ; scientific method >>>The nature of scientific inquiry may be thought of at two levels: - actual empirical methods of inquiry (i.e. experiments, observations)
Core principles:
- USE empirical approach--> based on experience Empirical evidence: research through direct observations of experiment - Objectivity: remain unbiased - Control: All extraneous variables need to be controlled in order to be able to establish cause (IV) and effect (DV) - Hypo testing: derived from predictions, (null and alternative) --> need to be stated in a form that can be tested (i.e. operationalized) - Replication: can be repeated or not, vital to scientific theory - Predictability: aiming to predict future behavior
4. How did researchers (Nicolaus et al., 1983) use the concept to protect endangered birds and farm chickens from egg-eating crows?
- Used to control crow predation on eggs-a problem for bird sanctuaries and farmers with outdoor chickens. - The researchers put a sickness-causing agent in several eggs, and then left them where crows could get them. This eliminated the egg-eating habit in a population of crows.
Why would a species need to have a theory of mind in order to experience these emotions?
- You have to imagine how others would perceive your actions -You have to be able to understand that others can form their own opinions of you
Method of loci
-loci= location -use to remb a sequence -this technique helps w/ encoding/storage/ retrieval --> b/c Priming increased schemas and allows for more accessibility - map each item onto a step in a known path with vivid sensory elaborations (elaborative rehearsal)
What does the visual cliff teach us about how children interact with their parents? What does it teach us about nonverbal communication?
- emotions help interaction -Study: baby placed on glass w/ visual cliff: if mom has fear face--> baby does not cross visual cliff, if mom has smile/ nonverbal comm. encouraging--> baby much more likely to cross over - nonverbal comm. can play a role in unsure situations to figure out what to do
4. CBT 1 : how to address generalized anxiety/ how abcs work...emotional, self-fulling, thinking errors
- emotions out of control, frequent negative thoughts, detrimental to self cause by self-fulfilling prophecies, emotional reasoning for thinking errors -CBT is based on the idea that how we think (cognition), how we feel (emotion) and how we act (behavior) all interact together.
External validity
- if helps everyone internally valid, not always external -different operationalizations -> culture, age, species
Binocular vs monocular cues
- monocular cues: allow animals to perceive depth with just one eye - binocular cues: to perceive depth and motion with sensory input from two eyes.
What is shaping? Explain how you would... -differentially reinforce -successive approximations -towards a complex target behavior
- selective reinforcement of one behavior from among others (used when behavior already in good form doesn't need shaping - successive: radually molding or training an organism to perform a specific response by reinforcing any responses that come close to the desired response. POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT , responses are very high in short amount of time
2. How is it unusual, in terms of being a single-trial, forward long-delay pairing?
- what makes it unique= can happen after only 1 pairing
Bottom up processing
- what your sensing (seeing) processing refers to processing sensory information as it is coming in -What you see is based only on the sensory information coming in -built up from the smallest pieces of sensory information.
ID
-"chaos, a cauldron full of seething excitation" dominated by impulses of sex and aggression (libido source of energy) -Animal-like source of energy - This energy was expressed in drives or urges like sex and aggression. -Develops in early childhood because of the clash between desires of the id and realities of the world -Dreams are aimed at satisfying -Dominated by sexual impulses -Dominated by aggressive impulses
What are some of the key ways in which our personal experience is influenced by our expectations? - Proximity -Similarity -Good continuation -Closure
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What is the relationship between people's beliefs about stress and the effect that stress actually has?
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What is the evidence that having perceived support, received support, and a social network are important to your health?
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Criteria C Avoidant symptoms
---> may try to avoid any memory of the event - Behavioral - Avoiding thoughts or feelings/ people or situations connected to the traumatic event
A nerve cell's resting potential is typically ___ microvolts (mV).
-77
What senses do the fetus use in the womb? How do we know that they have developed the use of these senses?
-9 weeks: the embryo's ballooning brain allows it to bend its body, hiccup, and react to loud sounds. -10 weeks: it moves its arms, "breathes" amniotic fluid in and out, opens its jaw, and stretches. -Before 1 trimester is over, it yawns, sucks, and swallows, as well as feels and smells. -End of the 2nd trimester, it can hear; toward the end of pregnancy, it can see. -using monitors of pregnant women
Social Anxiety Disorder What are the major symptoms of Social Anxiety Disorder (Social Phobia)?
-A significant and persistent fear of one or more social or performance situations in which the person is exposed to unfamiliar people or to possible scrutiny by others -Provokes anxiety, which may take the form of a situationally bound or situationally predisposed Panic Attack. -Recognizes that the fear is excessive or unreasonable (maybe be absent in children) - Avoid situations -Direct physiological effects of a substance
Do fetuses learn? How do we know? Describe how a researcher can determine that a fetus prefers one stimulus over another.
-Activities can be rudimentary, automatic, even biochemical - James DeCasper & others, -Designed feeding contraption that allows a baby to suck faster to hear one set of sounds through headphones and to suck slower to hear a different set. -Hours before birth, a baby already prefers its mother's voice to a stranger's, suggesting it must have learned and remembered the voice (NOT necessarily consciously)
Major symptoms of Panic disorder
-Avoid normal, every day activities -Chest pain - Fear of impending doom or loss of control -Increased heart rate - Numbness -Feelings of terror that happen suddenly and frequently, usually without warning
Shared interests-->perceptions of similarity opposites might not attract
-Become similar as time goes on (couples) perceived--> couples stay for long periods of times think they are similar ( even if not) -Similarity can become bias -Predicts more people alike us, predicts more unattracted to people culturally different then themselves
CANNABINOIDS -How does marijuana work in the synapse? -What neurotransmitters does it affect and how does it affect them?
-Before maryj, inhibitory neurotransmitter active in synapse and are inhibiting dopamine from being released -Bodies own (cannabinoid-->anandamide), cannaboid receptors turn off release of inhib neurons -W/out inhib-->dopamine released -THC (from marry, mimics anandamide) &binds to cannabinoid receptors-->dopamine floods -anadamide: slows down memory, brksdown fast and body and doesn't cause a perpetual high -Active component of marijuana creates a "high" that is generally sedated,not immobilizing as many depressants and opioids. -Cognitive disadvantages: -Slow down , effect sympatetic system coordination, perception, mental focus, learning, and memory.
Self-Awareness is limited and Malleable -Self - Perception Theory: - DV= do you agree with this message . Attitudes are determined by behavioral evidence -Strack, Martin & Stepper (1968) -smile or found, found cartoon funnier if smile - Wells & Petty (1980)- had headphones on for comfort, when u moved head up and down you believed something more/ agree . subconscious processes manipulating what you believe is an objective hearing evaluation - Cacioppo et al (1993) --> EXPLAIN
-Cacioppo et al 1993, - DV= How pleasant is this chinese ideograph? - Showed to non-chinese people ideograph (so had a neutral stimulus - IV- activate by pushing up (activate biceps) or pushing down on table (triceps) while looking at ideograph Results: why is self-perception evidence for liking? Biceps: brings things toward you, indication of liking act of squeezing bicep (when you like something, you grab it and bring it to your face) = self-perception influencing positively Use triceps to push away, associated with negative. - Change in attitude brain activated by biceps to bring to me. -Pattern emerging: brain looking at what body is doing and trying to make sense of it & when thinks make sense of particular attitude tries to derive attitude
How it is distinct from your other senses (especially touch)
-Comes from nervous system, from sensory receptors distinct from tactile receptors — nerves from inside the body rather than on the surface -Rather than sensing external reality, it is the sense of the orientation of one's limbs in space. -Distinct from the sense of balance, which derives from the fluids in the inner ear, and is called equilibrioception.
Compulsions:
-Constantly washing hands -Repeating words silently -A repetitive act that's aimed at preventing or reducing distress compulsions
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT 1. What are some examples of how each schedule is used to reinforce or punish your behavior? -Continuous (Partial schedule) - Fixed Ratio -Variable Ratio -Fixed Interval -Variable Interval
-Continuous: you are reinforced or punished every time a behavior occurs
-Environmental contribute to mental illeness:
-Death or divorce -A dysfunctional family life -Feelings of inadequacy, low self-esteem, anxiety, anger, or loneliness - Changing jobs or schools - Social or cultural expectations - Substance abuse by the person or the person's parents
Do fetuses have different personalities? How does a mother's stress affect her fetus?
-DiPietro & others measure the heart rate and movements & compared them after birth -Fetuses that are very active in the womb tend to be more irritable infants,irregular sleep/wake patterns in the womb sleep more poorly as young infants, fetuses with high heart rates become unpredictable, inactive babies. -Most important influences on development is the fetal environment. -Fetuses of poor women are distinct neurobehaviorally-less active, with a less variable heart rate--from the fetuses of middle-class women. -Bad nutrition and exposure to pollutants may affect the fetuses of poor women.
Ego
-Ego means "I." - Our sense of identity-who we think we are. - Ego as the executive function. The part of the mind/body system that Freud called the ego is the part that executes plans and coordinates activity. -Develops in early childhood because of the clash between desires of the id and realities of the world -Uses defense mechanisms to guard against psychological pain or discomfort -The part of your psyche that tries to direct your energy in positive, productive, and appropriate ways -With the development of the ego comes conscious, rational thinking - Freud called this secondary process thinking because it occurs later in development and modifies the most animal-like primary process thinking.
Two Factor Theory of Emotion What, according to Schachter and Singer (1962), are the two things that happen when we experience emotion?
-Factor model of emotions, we first experience a generic change in ____ and then cognitively label the emotion based on ____. Arousal and context - Emotion in terms of two distinct stages: the arousal and the interpretation
What might cause fixations, complexes, anxieties and envies? How, in Freud's eyes, would your subconscious issues shape your personality?
-Freud believed the id generates urges and impulses in accordance with the pleasure principle : pursuit of immediate gratification, regardless of consequences. -Primary process thinking, which Freud believed was typical of unconscious mental processes, was said to be dominated by the pleasure principle. It aimed to satisfy the demands of the id in irrational, unrealistic ways, often through fantasy.
-Biological contribute to mental illeness:
-Genetics (heredity) -Infections -Brain defects or injury -Prenatal damage -Substance abuse -Other factors: Poor nutrition and exposure to toxins, such as lead, may play a role in the development of mental illnesses.
Intensity
-High frequency sound waves do not bend around the head like low frequency waves. Instead, high frequency sound waves tend to reflect off the surface of the head -one ear hears it more loudly than the other and can detect the location of the source based on differences in the loudness of the sound at each ear --locate sounds below about 1500 Hz (i.e., 1500 cycles per second) by analyzing differences in time of arrival at each ear; above 1500 Hz, we use intensity differences. Sounds that are right around 1500 Hz are hardest to localize
Why is it important to have a social network? How many people can you really know?
-Individuals with larger social networks lived significantly longer than those with smaller networks.
2. Symmetry
-Instance where the whole of a figure is perceived rather than the individual parts which make up the figure. -Isolate figures from background
How does your brain correct sensory information from your eyes? -Inversion -Optic disc (blind spot)
-Inversion: all visual sensory information is upside fown when received in the eye, you brain flips the image to see everything right side up -Optic disc: part of the retina has no rods or cones so we can not see whatever is hitting that spot of the retina, instead of seeing nothing, our brain fills in that spot based on context of surroundings
What are some bits of knowledge to help people navigate difficult situations in relationships (e.g., long distance, breakups)?
-Long distance: Are generally just as fulfilling as short-distance relationships. -Dating violence occurs in approximately _______ of college student relationships. (33%)
Top down processing
-what your perceiving -perception driven by cognition -Your brain applies what it knows and what it expects to perceive and fills in the blanks, so to speak - when given in context, your brain puts it into perspective
What was Harlow's method in understanding monkeys' development?
-Nursed with wired mother, Monkey will take from wire but sit most time on cloth - when frighten (will run to hist mother) -when taken to strange environment, no mother is there, monkey cautious and searching for comfort. 1. wired mother does not help --> still fearful. 2. But when cloth mother put in room (he received comfort & new response patterns appear & will explore the room)
Narcotics/Opioids
-Opium, heroin, methadone, etc. -Narcotic use can lead to long-term damage to stress response and emotion-regulation system -Produce sedative and euphoric states
How is Panic Disorder different from GAD?
-Panic is more severe, Recurring panic attacks are the hallmark features of panic disorder. - Panic is provoked by thoughts and fears -The main feature of GAD is excessive and pervasive worry about many everyday life events - GAD difficult to control and the person finds her worrisome
How does Stickgold's research support and maybe even expand Revonsuo's general theory? (he did a finger counting test )
-Participants preformed better on behavioral or cognitive tasks if they were tested after sleeping -But let them sleep in between and their performance improves—literally overnight. The implication seems obvious: Sleep provides practice. People given brainteasers before bed dream about the answers. --->More complex than rehearsal, "brain puts things together"
What is perceived support?
-Perceived support will inhance your immune system, psychological sense of support, high positive effect, lower negative effect with high satisfaction, increases happiness and well being -High positive affect, low negative affect, high satisfaction with life) ...linked to well-being ex. I'm not sick now, but I'm sure that my wife would take care of me if I get sick
Cortisol
-Primary stress hormone, increases sugars (glucose) in the bloodstream, enhances your brain's use of glucose and increases the availability of substances that repair tissues. -Functions that would be nonessential or detrimental in a fight-or-flight situation. It alters immune system responses and suppresses the digestive system -Complex natural alarm center (mood, motivation)
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
-Projective psychological test. Proponents of the technique assert that subjects' responses, in the narratives they make up about ambiguous pictures of people (black and white photos of people to help them create a story). More reliable than Rorschach. RESULT: reveal their underlying motives, concerns, and the way they see the social world.One doesn't only perceive stories but constructs stories (Apperception that reflect their individual personalities and experiences) - Ambiguous stimuli + Patient's response = Personality
Nocturnal animals can see well in the dark thanks to (How do the eyes of nocturnal animals allow them to see in very low light?)
-Pupils that open more widely in low light -a tapeum -bigger eyes than humans -more rods
(More similar --> more attraction ) Which of the following forms of similarity predicts attraction?
-Racial Similarity -Similar appearances -Education Similarity -Religious Similarity
Obsession:
-Recurrent and persistent thoughts, urges, or images that are experienced, at some time during the disturbance, as intrusive and unwanted - Attempting to ignore or suppress persistent thoughts obsessions
GAD symptoms
-Restlessness or feeling keyed up or on edge -Being easily fatigued -Difficulty concentrating or mind going blank -Irritability -Muscle tension - Sleep disturbance (difficulty falling or staying asleep, or restless unsatisfying sleep)
Super-ego
-Super means above -Is like a supervisor of the psyche, monitoring our activity and making value judgments which lead us to feel good or bad about our behavior. -Freud believed that we learn morals and values from the people who take care of us in childhood. - Gradually these values are internalized or taken inside us, and the result is the super-ego. -The source of pride or shame -The last of the three processes to develop -Morality - super-ego, as an "internalization of parental values," was responsible for both pride and guilt --->>Because of this two-edged quality, one psychoanalyst (Schecter 1979) referred to the loving and persecuting super-ego.
How did Rosenthal & Jakobson demonstrate that expectations could actually cause a change another person? Be clear about the methodology and results, and consider the ethical concerns we might raise.
-Tested whether children at school with an IQ test (not actual test). In order to create an expectancy, the teachers were informed that the test was the "Harvard Test of Inflected Acquisition," which served as a measure of academic "blooming." Therefore, teachers were led to believe that certain students were entering a year of high achievement, and other students were not. - Kids took test that could predict academic performance - (when really kids randomly chosen out of hat) - Teacher told which kids on verge of being academically successful - Teachers expectations can affect kids: positive expectations ( Pygmalion Effect) began to treat those kids (late bloomers) differently, holding higher expectations for smarter kids, and those kids began to feel different and perform better. Results: Students who had been labeled as "ready to bloom" showed greater gains than those who had not been labeled in this way (self-fulfilling prophecy). Students believed to be on verge of success, achieved expectations.
Social-cognitive
-Thought & behavior are determined by . beliefs(knowledge in your memory) . expectations (assumptions/ predictions) . attitudes (the way you feel about things) . motivations (what you want, your goals) - you are influenced by subconscious motivations. BASICALLY humans learn through observations --> ~~~ Self-efficacy: The person's confidence in performing a particular behavior
Social Influence ex. Miligram Dissenting Authority: Is this the normal/ correct thing to do?
-Two other participants (confederates) were also teachers but refused to obey. Confederate 1 stopped at 150 volts and confederate 2 stopped at 210 volts. -The presence of others who are seen to disobey the authority figure reduces the level of obedience to 10%.
What does it mean to be self-aware?
-You are aware of the sensations, thoughts, motivations, and emotions that are occurring -To understand that you exist as a separate entity from the rest of the world
Reviewing theories: -Bowlby -Harlow . Imprinting - Lorenz's . Kohlberg's stages of moral development -preconventional level -conventional level -postconventional level . Vygotsky -interpsychological -intrapsychological
.....
What are the psychosocial stages? Describe the conflict in each stage. What are the virtues that can be learned from each stage?
.....
3. What kind of outcomes influence behavior? - Primary reinforcers - Secondary reinforcers - Primary punishers - Secondary punishers
...Reinforcers (stimulus that animals want to receive -->outcome reinforces strengthens) ....Punishes ( stimulus that animal wants to avoid/ if outcome is adverse-> behavior is less likely)
How about his methodological approach allows us to conclude that their behavior was not simply evidence of their underlying dispositions?
1 All participants (healthy/ age/ physical shape) were similar and randomly assigned to groups 2. Officers given sunglasses (to mask what they see), weapons/ officer clothing and arrested the people, brought police station, placed in smocks w/ no underwear and ordered to strip search, put chain around ankles,and give each "inmate" a number to replace their name to give sense of dehumanization 3. Officers felt initially bad and inmates laughing 4. John wayne begins to be more extreme 5. Inmates challenged guards (rebelled) ,so guards had to push back, think of them as dangerous and give more authority 6. Guards used fire extinguisher and strip prisoners down to make them comply, punishing them by putting them in solitary confinement 7. Wayne didn't believe he was causing someone to have a mental breakdown, guards kept escaping giving more punishments...4th day began sexual 8. officers knew the prisoners had done nothing wrong cause they knew it could have been him...they went along making fun of the prisoner giving prisoners breakdowns, taking them to bathroom with bags over heads===mistreament
ETHICS 1. What are some general principles for ethical research? (For each be able to explain teach term and provide and examples of what might constitute as a violation.) -Voluntary participation -Informed consent -Risk of harm -confidentiality & anonymity 2. What is an Institutional Review Board (IRB) and how does it help ensure that research participants are treated in an ethical way?
1. -Voluntary participation- ppl participating not coerced into participating in research -Informed consent-fully informed about procedures -Risk of harm-don't put participants in harm -confidentiality & anonymity- participants remain anon 2. Panel of persons who reviews grant proposals about ethical implications, decide whether additional actions need to be taken for safety and rights of participants.
How did Sherif's "Robber's Cave" study demonstrate that prejudice, discrimination, and even hostility could result from competition for resources and status? What sort of behaviors were observed?
1. 22 such young persons were selected and were divided by the researchers into two groups with efforts being made to balance the physical, mental and social talents of the groups & transported to a 200 acre Boy Scouts of America camp Stage 1: 2. two groups of boys tended to individually generate their own acceptance of common membership and their own status hierarchies. One group took spontaneously took unto itself the name of "The Rattlers" and the other similarly adopted the name of "The Eagles." 3. As each group became distantly aware of the presence of the other group they seemed to become re-inforced in their own sense of being a group and defensive about which of the camp facilities, that they themselves enjoyed, that the others might be "abusing. Stage 2: 4. intended to bring the two groups into competition in conditions which would imply some frustration in group relations one against the other. A series of competitive activities was arranged with a trophy 5.The two competing groups were brought together for the first time in the mess hall 6.Following on from this the groups showed disrespect for each others flags (i.e. each group actually felt moved to burn the others flag) and they also raided each others cabins. stage 3: 7. There were to be a number of improvised, and hopefully reconciliatory, get-to-know-you opportunities such as a bean-collecting contest, or the showing of a film, or the shooting of Firecrackers in association with the fourth of July. 8. interactions inevitable in that pursuit, and the joint sharing in their achievement all contributed to the lessening of tensions... after suborindate goals reached, boys came together and agreed to all pitch in $3.50 for movie together
1. How do researchers use each of the following to test their hypotheses? (Be prepared to give a few original examples of how you would use each method to collect data) > Measurement methods > Naturalistic observation > Structured observation > Self-report > Psychophysiological What are some advantages and disadvantages of each method/design?
1. >Naturalistic observation: researcher collects without participants awareness adv: participant not aware, can provide interesting data dis: Behavior has to be interpreted by the researcher, and two researcher might see things differently, time consuming, knows lil bout participant > Structured observation: Researchers set up sit. and observe participants behavior adv: more control over variables, collect other info from ppl dis:may be influenced by the artificial situation or his/her beliefs about what the researcher expects to find, still need to interp. ppl behavior > Self-report: Participants are asked to provide information or responses to questions on a survey adv: wider audience, easy to score, effective dis: ppl may misinterpret questions, differences btw what ppl really think & what they want the researcher to believe > Psychophysiological: technological devices to measure what is taking place in the body adv: do not require subjective judgments from the researcher, participant cnt influence dis: expensive, time consuming
DSM: Descriptive Text- Diagnostic Classification- Diagnostic Criteria Sets-
1. Additional details 2. List of official disorders 3. Symptoms
What are examples of negative symptoms? Why are they called negative symptoms?
1. Affective flattening- The person's range of emotional expression is clearly diminished; poor eye contract; reduced body language 2. Alogia- A poverty of speech, such as brief, empty replies 3. Avolition - Inability to initiate and persist in goal-directed activities (such as school or work)
Example of ABC's in CBT:
A) negative event ( situation)- emotional response B) Irrational/ or rational belief - negative beliefs f C) Consequence (healthy or unhealthy negative emotion)- emotions or negative thoughts that the client thinks are caused by negative event (A).
MINDSET MATTERS 1. Is my grade in a course just a reflection of how intelligent I am as a person?
1. All children develop a belief about their own intelligence (Dweck) ~~ (first study) among those with the growth mindset steadily increasing math grades over the two years," she says. But that wasn't the case for ----->fixed mindset. = They showed a decrease in their math grades.
NARCOTICS/OPIOIDS -How does heroin work in the synapse? -What neurotransmitters does it affect and how does it affect them?
1. Before heroin enters, inhibitory neurotransmitters are active in synapse (natural opaite-responsible for pain signals) 2. Neurotransmitters inhibit dopamine from being released, without inhibition -->dopamine can be released 3. Heroin mimics natural opaite and binds to it, turning off dopamine inhibition ---> dopamine floods system Effects: - Most addictive classes of drugs because people quickly build tolerance to the substance - Strong pleasure
Results of Festinger and Carlsmith:
1. Control, gave negative evaluation 2. $20 group did not differ much from control (a little bit better)... no cognitive dissonance (did not have 2 conflicting ....justfying lie by amount being paid) 3. $1, rated positively...greater than both groups. Cognitive dissonance: 2 conflicting cognitions: 1. task was really boring 2. cognition had to tell someone else it was really fun...couldn't write off they were being paid for it...so they change their attitude which lead to balance dissonance (self-perception-looks at behavior doesn't infer motivating force like cognitive dissonance)
What are examples of positive symptoms? Why are they called positive symptoms?
1. Delusions 2. Hallucinations 3. Disorganized thinking 4. Agitation
Subtype: Dissociation; While there are several types of dissociation, only two are included in the DSM:
1. Depersonalization, or feeling disconnected from oneself 2. Derealization, a sense that one's surroundings aren't real
DEPRESSANTS - How does alcohol work in the synapse? - What neurotransmitters does it affect and how does it affect them?
1. Depressants bind to GABA receptors (amino acids) --> CELL IS LESS LIKELY TO FIRE 2. glutamate (another neurotransmitter acts excited) 3. when alcohol enters--> -GABA inhibitory neurotransmitter becomes more inhibitory (BLINDS AND BLOCKS EXCITATORY RECEPTORS) -Next, binds to glutamate preventing excitement Effects: -Memory formation, impulse control , decision making - May reduce anxiety - Euphoric or hallucinations - Depressants both increase inhibitory effects and suppress excitatory effects, which is why their effects are so strong.
What two variables determine the strength of an attitude?
1. Direct Measurement (likert scale and semantic differential)...so rate 2. Indirect Measurement (projective techniques)... 7 point scale
STEREOTYPE THREAT 1. What is stereotype threat? Why would it detract from performance in some courses? 2. What are some evidence-based ways to reduce the threat?
1. Disruptive and intimidating, facing neg stereotype ones performance will confirm try-->fosters anxiety & prevents people from doing best 2. Black & white play golf (when told natural athletic ability --black ppl did better than white, when told task was sports strategy, white did better than black)--> became self-fulling
Mapping out Dissonance - Never one way to resolve dissonance Case study one: PETA's sea kitten advertising, goal to reduce interest/ willingness to eat fish Case study two: alcoholics, woman would drink whiskey then take whiskey up to bed in one big class and on way down stairs (she would say that it would be bad to waste so she didn't want to admit she was an alcoholics
1. Dissonance (what are they hoping to cause dissonance in your mind...positive relationship (link between 2 things), you can have a positive and negative relationship 2. One way Dissonance gets resolved ...you can resist message, eat both or nothing. You can create dissonance, but you can't make someone resolve 1. How she can resolve dissonance: embrace it, stop drinking in the morning, change her thought whether alcoholics drink in the morning...she was creating a place where she can solve the dissonance (FELT GUILTY ABOUT SOMETHING/ then think about dif cinerios how you can make yourself feel better about it)
Theory of Mind (test 1)
1. False-belief task---> box/basket...marie puts ball in basket, someone else comes in and puts it into box, marie comes back and asked which on would it be in... - U DONT have T of Mind: assume she same info as person ... u would assumes she would guess the box bc u have that knowledge - U HAVE A T OF M: u understand marie doesn't have this info therefore she would guess the basket
GARCIA EFFECT 1. What is it? and how does it explain why some people just can't even think about eating certain foods? -it is an example of forward long delay
1. Form of classical conditioning --> Taste aversion- learn to avoid a food that makes you sick (even if it doesn't actually) result: alternative, involuntary primitive process
ARE THERE DIFFERENT TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE? 1. What do psychologists mean when they theorize about g?
1. General intelligence- such thing as an overall level of general intelligence, even though the individual items on an IQ test measure different forms of reasoning and problem solving.
THEORIES & HYPOS 1. Theory vs hypothesis 2. What is null hypothesis testing?
1. Hypo: A statement of our theory-based research predictions that we are testing, narrow explanations Theory: broad explanations 2. Null Hypo: default position that the effect you are looking for does not exist, alternative hypothesis is that your prediction is correct... you want to reject the null.
3. How would you describe each of the five dimensions of -- Emotional Intelligence? - Self-Awareness - Self-Regulation - Motivation - Empathy - Social Skills
1. Identify and acknowledge your own personal strengths and weaknesses. 2. Control emotions Add to My Personal Learning Plan and impulses 3. People with a high degree of EI are usually motivated 4. The ability to read and understand other people's thoughts and emotions. 5. The ability to function well in a group by communicating effectively and resolving disagreements.
We would expect the greatest consistently between attitudes and behavior when those attitudes are particularly strong. According to the section you read on attitude strength, strength is correlated with
1. Importance / personal relevance= refers to how significant the attitude is for the person and relates to self-interest, social identification and value 2. Knowledge= aspect of attitude strength covers how much a person knows about the attitude object. 3. Experience
Neurodevelopment
Autism
Psychosexual stage of personality development:
1. Oral: Stage: 0-18 months, Someone is a chain smoker or chews their nails is fixated on what stage?Someone is a chain smoker or chews their nails is fixated on what stage? 2. Anal: Stage: 18 months - 3 years old,Someone who is uptight and controlling is fixated on what stage,Someone is a chain smoker or chews their nails is fixated on what stage? 3. Phallic :Stage: 3-6 years,The stage during which children are attracted to the opposite-sex parent, 4.Lancey: Stage: 13-18 years,The stage during which there are no strong psychosexual drives, 5. Genitals:Stage: 13-18 years,
How did Dutton and Aron (1974) demonstrate that a misattribution of arousal can influence our emotional experience? Be clear about the methodology used in the two studies described (bridge and shocks) and how the pattern of results relates to the two factor theory.
1. Participants standing on shaky bridge were more likely to Misattribute their arousal to the research assistant 2. Half of the participants were approached while still on the footbridge, and half were approached on the ground several minutes after they'd crossed the bridge. ----(BRIDGE)almost 40% of the participants surveyed on the bridge called the female experimenter for more information, while only 9% of those surveyed on land called her. RESULTS: effect was much smaller for the male experimenter (9% for on the bridge, 5% for on the land) AFTER Replicated with SEVERE SHOCK---After being told about the shock, the participants interacted with an attractive female confederate, and were then asked questions about how much they'd like to go out with her or kiss her. RESULTS: Participants who'd been told that they'd receive a severe shock wanted to go out with and kiss her significantly more than participants who had been told that they'd receive a mild shock.
4 most common types of delusions:
1. Persecution or paranoia - Belief that others — often a vague "they" — are out to get him or her. These persecutory delusions often involve bizarre ideas and plots. ex. Russians trying to poison me through tap water; Believing that the FBI is out to get you 2. Reference - A neutral event is believed to have a special and personal meaning.ex. billboard sending them a message, Feeling that someone on television is talking about or directly at you. 3. Grandeur - Belief that one is a famous or important figure, such as Jesus Christ or Napoleon. ex. someone has unusual powers, Believing that you can fly. 4. Control - Belief that one's thoughts or actions are being controlled by outside, alien forces.ex. CIA robbing thoughts
Diagnostic criteria for OCD
1. Person has to recognize that the repeated behaviors are excessive and irrational 2. Person has to be aware that the thoughts are coming from their own mind, and not by external forces 3. Behaviors must take up an excessive amount of time, cause significant personal distress or impair functioning
2. How would you go about developing scientific experiments to test out your theoretical explanation of a research finding (e.g., why do patients with plants in their hospital rooms recover more quickly)? 3. What is the difference between internal validity and external validity?
1. Randomly assign, park and matron (dif flowers heal) 2. Is it a valid finding?
2 types of Anorexia:
1. Restricting type— The person restricts their food intake on their own and does not engage in binge-eating or purging behavior. 2. Binge eating/purging type — The person self-induces vomiting or misuses laxatives, diuretics, or enemas. (how it is similar to Bulimia, but Bulimia you can't really tell if a person has it and you can tell if someone is Anorexic)
3 forms of phobia: Specific phobia- Social phobia- Agoraphobia -
1. Simple/ type 2. social anxiety; Fear of public speaking, using public restrooms, eating with other people, social contact in general 3. Fear of being alone in a public place
Substance Use criteria (11):
1. Taking the substance in larger amounts or for longer than the you meant to 2. Wanting to cut down or stop using the substance but not managing to 3. Spending a lot of time getting, using, or recovering from use of the substance 4. Cravings and urges to use the substance 5. Not managing to do what you should at work, home or school, because of substance use 6. Continuing to use, even when it causes problems in relationships 7. Giving up important social, occupational or recreational activities because of substance use 8. Using substances again and again, even when it puts the you in danger 9. Continuing to use, even when the you know you have a physical or psychological problem that could have been caused or made worse by the substance 10. Needing more of the substance to get the effect you want (tolerance) 11. Development of withdrawal symptoms, which can be relieved by taking more of the substance.
STUDY SMART 1. What does "studying smart" involve?
1. Training your brain
Sherif (1954) observed what forms of hostility between the two groups?
1. Verbal abuse, threat,and intended flag burning (they felt moved enough to do this)
why shadow illusion occurs on b?
1. bottom up= u think ur dif bc they look B, lighter from a & others around 2. top down- cause we know shadows make shapes dif colors, and u think its supposed to be light bc of checkered pattern
How did Sherif later reduce the tension between groups? Why did that work?
1. drinking water problem helped reduce tension by having them focus on something else than competition or each other. they just wanted water. 2. Problem of securing a movie 3. joint use of a tug-of-war-rope on a partly cut-through dangerous tree and on an apparently stuck-in-a-rut truck that was carrying food for both groups.
2. How did Kruglanski et al. (2002) demonstrate that seemingly objective judgments could be influenced by motivations subconsciously? --->Be prepared to describe the methodology and results of their study.
2. Participants rated the quality of fabric samples. Participants were unaware that their ratings were biased by other motivations. Study: People who were asked to discuss their feelings about qualifying for the final four rated the red fabric as being the better of the two, while people who were asked about the vandalism preferred the purple fabric. Subconsciously, people who were more prideful preferred the red one because of its association with something they were proud of - UMD. Similarly, people who were motivated to distance themselves from the campus believed that the purple fabric was of higher quality.
process of synapse
1. neurons have specialized projections ( dendrites and axons 2. dendrites= bring info to cell body and axons take info from (away from cell body 3. Info (one neuron) flows to another neuron across a synapse 4. synapse= small gap separate neurons ( electrical trigger from neurotransmitter) : consist of: a.a presynaptic ending: contains neurotransmitter, mitocondria, and other b. post-synaptic ending= contains receptor sites from neurotransmitter c. synaptic cleft/ space between pre and post endings 5. from comm. to occur--> electrical implies must travel down to synaptic terminal 6. at the synaptic terminal --.presynaptic ending) ---will trigger migration of vesticles containing neurotransmitters toward presynaptic membrane 7. presynaptic--> neuropterans into synaptic cleft (more than 1 type of nuerotrans) 8. neurotranss diffuse across synaptic clef ( bind to receptor sites on post synaptic, it changes the post synaptic cells excitability --> will make post synaptic more or less likely to fire action potential 9. if large enough--> it will cause an action potential in the post synaptic cell and a continuation of message
LEARNING STYLES 1. Do I really have a "learning style" that determines whether or not I can successfully learn in a course?
1. researchers have found no experimental evidence that there truly are fundamental difference in the way that people learn --no scientific studies showing that people with different preferences perform better on an exam when the information was presented in one way or the other --be careful (preference vs. performance)
Vygotsky . For everything that happens cognitive, it happens in 2 steps: -interpsychological -intrapsychological
1. social cultural, everything u think and everything u can do, you learn from watching other people. INTER-BETWEEN OTHERS. 2. (first social, then cognitive) If you were raised in isolation, you wouldn't have the ability to interact with people or develop capacities and understandings, social cognitive --> internalize to be able to judge/ interpret things to know if they are fair (good or bad), b/c others learned from interactions you then internalize them.
REVIEWING KEY CONCEPTS: 1. Differential diagnosis 2. Prevalence vs. concordance
1. the process of differentiating between two or more conditions that share similar signs or symptoms. 2. Concordance: In a random sample of pairs, the proportion of pairs where both individuals share a certain characteristic-- ex. twin studies Prevalence: how common a diseases is
HEALTHY BRAIN = GREATER GAINS 1. What can I do to help my brain help me? 2. What is the relationship between sleep and learning? 3. How does what you eat influence what you learn? 4. Why would a moderate amount of exercise improve academic performance?
1. things learned shortly before sleep are remembered better than those learned earlier in the day 2.Sleep deprivation can negatively affect mental performance and muscle control 3. all-round healthy diet ensures that an organ as sensitive as the brain has all the available resources to work at an optimal level 4. In the short-term, any activity that boosts oxygen intake will immediately affect mental performance for the better
When one other person disagreed with the group and gave the correct answer, conformity dropped to
1/20
Participants in Asch's Line Study gave answers they knew were incorrect about ___ of the time, just because others were giving incorrect answers.
1/3
As an adult you can detect roughly ___ different smells.
10,000
Cognitive Dissonance theory:
2 conflicting cognitions. concerns what happens when we detect the imbalance. We seek consistency in our beliefs and attitudes in any situation where two cognitions are inconsistent.Refers to a situation involving conflicting attitudes, beliefs or behaviors. Popular when people have very strong beliefs
Summary of "Robber's Cave" study:
2 groups of 12 year old boys unknown to each other. 22 middle class white boys.brought to boy scout camp. socialized with own groups. told they were to play game with the other group, competed to earn prize. it got nasty. flags were burned, nasty words were said.integration phase "drinking water problem" example of superodrinate goal..had to work together.
DSM 5 allows clinicians to specify how severe the substance use disorder is, depending on how many symptoms are identified.
2 or 3 symptoms: Mild substance use disorder 4 or 5 symptoms: Moderate substance use disorder 6 or more symptoms: Severe substance use disorder
Postive correlations
2 or more things are statistically linear, don't cause each other
In order for someone to be diagnosed with major depressive disorder, they must have a depressed mood or loss of interest in activities for ___ that is a noticeable change from their usual personality and causes significant impairment in important aspects of life.
2 weeks
In one study of 16,000 American adults, the typical participant reported having sex _____ per month, but younger adults reported having sex _____.
2- 3 times, once a week
2. How does an IQ score relate to the concept of g?
2. G- Your overall intellectual ability --some core level of basic intelligence that underlies all other specific abilities.IQ tests try to measure. IQ tests are useful for predicting- academic success, The number of correctly answered questions compared to the average number answered correctly by other people his or her age (WELSHER)
2. What research evidence is there that this occurs?
2. Half of the subjects had taken an initial test with 16 solvable and 4 unsolvable problems. The other half had taken a test made up of 4 solvable and 16 unsolvable problems. Under both conditions, the experimenter told each subject:The performance-hindering drug both protected them from failure and protected their belief that their first success had been their own.
Theory of Mind (test 2)
2. WOODCLAAFF AND PREMACK: Chimps boxes and banana: good trainer--> chimp knows which box its in to get treat bad trainer--> he puts to wrong box on purpose cuz he knows he won't get treat from bad trainer (the 2nd time) Chimp knows the researcher doesn't know which box the banana is in. he has theory of mind bc he understands that researcher doesn't have same info ---> realizes 2 dif outcomes...if i do this, how will affect outcome...realizing how behavior effects others
2. Can you reduce a negative reaction with a positive stimulus using classical conditioning? / Can you reduce a positive reaction with an aversive stimulus using classical conditioning?
2. Yes using counter-countioning , more reinforcement -->reduce a negative reaction w/ a positive response to something undesired
how your cones detect light? NEURAL STAGE
3 dif receptors ( BGR) -->cones -Cones are visual neurons w/ a combo of those color cones -They perceive those colors *in neural stage -Processing combinations occur and eye can only detect bar, but neural stage combines all those
2. Conventional Level (9-Adolescence)~~~Other Focused Morality
3. Begin understanding what is expected of them by their parents, teacher, etc. Morality is achieving these expectations. 4. Fulfilling obligations as well as following expectations are seen as moral law for children in this stage.
3. How might students with different mindsets behave differently?
3. If we gave students a growth mindset, if we taught them how to think about their intelligence, would that benefit their grades??? question Dweck tries to answer ----students in the latter group "learned that the brain actually forms new connections every time you learn something new, and that over time, this makes you smarter."
3. Which common studying techniques were found to be the least effective for students?
3. Worst studying techniques: "low-utility" -highlighting, re-reading, summarizing main text
3. How did Pavlov initially demonstrate classical conditioning with dogs? A). How did Watson's study with "Little Albert" demonstrate that fear can be explained by classical conditioning?
3. he scientifically demonstrated that a biological response (drooling) could be triggered by a stimulus (sound-mentrome) if dogs learned to associate the sound with food. 4. Watson wanted to show that a child could learn to fear (response) something it previously was not afraid of (stimulus) if it was associated with something naturally scary (unconditioned stimulus). (used white rat & gong)
4. Why does being tested help me learn? What is the research evidence that supports the Testing Effect? How should this influence how I study?
4. Best "high utility" - interval studying, practice testing (testing effect: Research shows act of calling info to mind strengthens that knowledge & aids retrieval. *****It means that spending hours staring at your notes is not as effective as being tested. Quiz yourself, quiz your classmates, write test questions and then practice answering them. It is all about training your brain to access the information and use it***** - self explanation, mnemonics, imaginative (mid-to-low utility) - Research has shown that during sleep, the brain identifies meaningful patterns in our memories from the preceding day and "consolidates" them, or makes them stronger and more permanent.
5. How would you go about establishing a classically conditioned association? (For example, how would you... Teach a dolphin that the sound of a whistle is a good thing)
5. >Forward short delay:< hit button & 5 secs shoots >Simultaneous:< We hit the easy button at the exact same time as we shoot the Airsoft bullet >Forward long-delay:< we hit the easy button and two minutes later we shoot the Airsoft bullet >Backwards: < we shoot the Airsoft bullet and then we hit the easy button
3 .Postconventional Level (adulthood)~~~Higher Focused Morality
5. Begin understand people have dif opinions about morality and that rules and laws vary groups & culture.Morality= values of your group or culture. 6. Understanding own personal beliefs allow adults to judge themselves & others based upon higher levels of morality. What is right and wrong is based on circumstances surrounding an action. Basics of morality are the foundation w/ independent thought.
6. If we want to establish an association, why is forward short-delay the best way?
6. shortest time, most effective, NS becomes useful in predicting the UCS (when I see the rat something scary is about to happen). (easier to predict other ways)
In Clark's initial study with young black children, ___% indicated a preference for playing the while (rather than black) doll.
63%
Milgram found that ___ continued to the very end, knowing that they may have just killed the other person
65%
Stage 3: Concrete operational
7-12, Begins to have conservation, -Overcome heuristics or "one aspect". Uses logical reasoning/ inductive reasoning (experience from 1 principle) -Reversibility- awareness that actions can be reversed.
Eriksons theory
8 stages, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality/ basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths which the ego can use to resolve crises.
Shopping cart: Van den bergh, Schmitt, & Warlop (2011)
80% of us said shoppers would make healthier decisions using a hand cart. -Your using your bicep when carrying hand cart so people are straining the muscle that says "I want it bring it to me." so made more impulsive decision vs. pushing cart using triceps
Fixed Ratio
>Set # of responses before behavior is rewarded, high responding rates until immediate reinforcement (post-reinforcement pause) < ex. With a card from Subway, you get every 10th sandwich for free.... 3 strikes, you go to prison
Reaction formation
A person defends against unacceptable thoughts or impulses by converting them to their opposite on the surface. The ego thereby fortifies itself at its point of greatest weakness. Reaction formation has a compulsive or excessive quality. EX. Forming a strong sexual attraction towards balloons after being frightened, as a young child, by a scary clown making balloon animals at a fair.
A critical period is
A specific period of time in a life when development takes place.
A)Chunking B) Maintenance rehearsal
A) To increase amount of elements we hold in short term : chunking (which allows us to visualize, hear, say, or even see the information repeatedly and through different senses). B) Repeating over and over.
Explicit vs Implicit A. Implicit attitudes B. Subconscious behavior C. Implicit cognitions
A. Split second decisions we are making. B. Subconscious behaviors- have a tendency to change behavior in the presence of someone u find attractive, or mimic their behavior (when you mirror them you get more positive perception) C. Implicit cognitions (dissonance)- there is thinking going on that you are not aware of/ that u can't necessarily control that
3. How might some of the symptoms relate to the concept of Theory of Mind?
ASD may communicate, interact, behave, and learn in ways that are different from most other people. May not be able to understand how others might perceive you.
According to Johann Hari, some research shows that drugs like heroin and cocaine are
Addictive and damaging to health but only in isolated or deprived environments.
Trauma and stress related
Adjustment
5. Ego identity vs. Role confusion
Adolescence, 12-18, Adapt and "grow into" the changes. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of FIDELITY.Failure: role confusion/identity crisis (not being sure of one's role in society.
Stage 5: Interdependent
Adolescence, renegotiate their relationship w/ child and allow for share power in decisions
7. Generatively vs. Stagnation
Adulthood, 45-65, Making family/ working/ giving back success leads to CARE. Failure: to achieve these objectives, we become stagnant/ feel unproductive
What does attachment predict? How can attachment with a parent affect the child later on in life?
Adults later in life who felt weak attachment, there were feelings of inadequacy and a lack of intimacy on the part of both parties, strong backed up by independence.
What are the 7 basic universal emotions that Paul Ekman identified through cross-cultural research?
Anger, disgust, fear, joy, sadness, and surprise, contempt
Law of Effects
Any behavior that is followed by good consequences is likely to be repeated, "behaviors changes bc of consequences"
2. Who was Clever Hans and why is his story a good example of why scientists who study animal intelligence have to be so careful with their methodology? (comparative cognition)
Any species is difficult b/c one form of intelligence can be mistake for another. EX> - Horses are intelligent in that they can learn complex behaviors that get them rewards and pay attention to very subtle changes in another "animal's" behavior. - Like humans, Hans's responses were influenced by the behaviors/expressions of people around him. Von thought he could do math. Result: Might be tricked into believing that an animal can do something beyond its' actual ability. -One thing we do want to address, however, is that studying any species is difficult because one form of intelligence can be mistake for another. For ex. horses are intelligent in that they can learn complex behaviors that get them rewards and pay attention to very subtle changes in another "animal's" behavior.
How did White et al. (1981) demonstrate that arousal polarizes responses? -doesnt mean u think more attractive...u exaggerate more --> more extreme
Arousal polarizes doesn't inherently make them better: Used treadmill to cause arousal and had me rating how attractive woman in photo - IV: treadmill = 1. arousal half participants ran for 15 seconds (low arousal) and other set for 2 mins (high arousal) 2. attractiveness (un/an) DV: rating attractiveness 1. low arousal groups: found attractive woman more attractive than unattractive 2. high arousal group: polarized. attractive woman became more attractive and unattractive became less idea--> arousal and valence--> push them the direction they were already in
Psychoanalysis of sam's terrifying clown fear. How could a psychoanalyst go about helping Sam overcome his phobia?
Arousal: increase symptoms get startled. More likely to be hypervilgilant and on edge and paying attention Intrusions: nightmares, flashbacks, reminders of event persistent and unwelcome thinking Avoidance: not going or doing things like going to a kid's bday party to avoid possibly seeing a clown (avoiding connecting events)/ or avoiding thoughts Negative alterations: prone to negative beliefs, stuck in severe emotions, memory probes, feeling detached, reduced interest in pre-trauma activities
Motion parallax
As we move, objects that are closer to us move farther across our field of view than do objects that are in the distance
Projective personality measures: How do projective measures attempt to operationalize subconscious personality?
Aside from dream analysis, one of the most popular approaches to measuring the thoughts and feelings of the unconscious was to use projective personality measures.
Foot-in-the-door
Ask for something small.When they give it to you, then ask for something bigger.And maybe then something bigger again.
Heights
Astrophobia
SELF PERCEPTION THEORY When it comes to our attitudes, what is the central prediction of self-perception theory?
Attitudes are based on the perceptions we have about our own behavior. We infer our attitudes from our behavior. Much like the two component model of emotions, we have to cognitively evaluate the evidence and decide what our attitude must be based on the evidence of our behavior and our situation
-The self-serving bias:
Attributes success to themselves and failure to outside factors. cognitive bias. Dispositional attributions for successes, situational attributions for failures. Can cause you to not learn from your mistakes. ex. I could have cheated on that exam, but I didn't because I am an honest person. ex. I normally wouldn't cheat on an exam, but I had been sick and did not get a fair chance to study like everyone else.
The most commonly experience hallucination among those with schizophrenia is
Auditory most common with hallucination.
3. What is the difference between Automatic and Controlled cognition? Describe this in terms of intention, awareness, control and effort.
Automatic- A task that is very well practiced becomes automatic: . search requires little effort and can operate in high workload situations, uncontrolable, unconscious, little effort Controlled- Slow & serial, substantial effort and interferes with other controlled processing tasks, controllable, conscious, intentional (i.e.. doing 2 things at once)
3. What is chunking and why does it increase the amount of information you can store in STM?
B/c short term memory is limited to Miller's Magic Number, it is a lot harder to memorize one 10-digit number than remember five 2-digit numbers. Chunk things together into meaningful units can help you encode and store information. - automatically group certain items together, hence the ability to remember and learn better.
SELF-HANDICAPPING 1. Why would people use self-handicapping to protect their ego?
BASICALLY PROTECT SELF-ESTEEM 1. the goal of self-doubters is to minimize their ability - or lack of it - as a pausible explanation for poor performance....we want to look COMPETENT --If we fail in any area, this reduces our feeling of competence and negatively effects our self-esteem - placing a barrier to successful performance
4. What are some ways in which this bias can have harmful consequences?
Backfire effect, self-deception, limiting resources--> making more automatic process (less cognitive load), heuristics
Why do we sleep?
Basic life functions to work.
Attachment styles- 3 different: anxious, secure, avoidant
Biosocial: driven to attach, for same reason ducks don't want to wander off on their own, babies need their mothers to survive. (DRIVE TO ATTACH) Learning theory: learn whether or not, baby can have different attachments to different care givers. You can have a secure attachment to one care giver, and avoidant with another. (KIND OF ATTACH) Secure parent: baby is ok on its own, but when it needs you it gores back insecure parent: telling baby to go play with toy and trying to dictate when the baby already wants to explore, so when baby is upset they push baby to go play with toys (getting the opposite of what thy need in that moment) In one study, insecure parents were taught how to cope with their kids and they were able to learn how to correct their behavior...you can get a more secure kid if you understand what the kid seems to need and how to react -life long and correlate to relationships in life
3. What is the difference between Bipolar I and Bipolar II?
Bipolar 1 involves a full manic episode
How did Clark (1940) demonstrate that some young children in the United States had learned negative attitudes towards their own skin tone?
Black Kids had to chose between black or white baby dolls. Many of them chose white doll as nicer/ prettier. Asked good or bad doll (considered darker one bad). They said, the white doll looked most like them. - today, 88% identify with dark skin and consider to play with boy, neither, or one. -today, the majority said both were nice or equally so -Black boys said all were equal, so more confident as opposed to girls -less than half the black girls said the prettier doll was white and said it was ugly and they said the ugly one looked like them
OCD
Body dysmorphic
Environmental stressors trigger the release of adrenaline, which?
Boosts energy supplies for the body
When given the false belief task described in the linked video, a child that does not yet have a fully-developed theory of mind would reply that Sally would look for the ball in ___. A child who has developed this ability would reply that Sally would look in ___.
Box, basket
Cancer
Carcinophobia
What is imprinting?
Certain phases in life in which there is very rapid learning. Help establish behaviors of a specific species. (Lorenz study using geese)/ Theory: primary formation of social bonds in infant animals -Studied newly hatched ducklings and goslings; behaved differently if they were exposed to abnormal environments during a few critical hours after hatching. -Is irreversible, restricted to very specific and brief stages in development, often only lasting for a few hours.
Major symptoms of Schizophrenia?
Characterized by at least 2 of the following symptoms, for at least one month: -Delusions -Hallucinations -Disorganized speech (e.g., frequent derailment or incoherence) -Grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior A set of three negative symptoms (a "flattening" of one's emotions, alogia, avolition; see below)
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
Characterized by having either obsessions or compulsions (though most individuals with the disorder have both) that are time-consuming.... but it is driven by OBSESSIVE
Enclosed spaces
Claustrophobia
What were the four ways in which the teacher's expectations affected the students? For each, describe specific things you might witness if you were observing the classroom. -Climate -Input -Response opportunity -Feedback
Climate- Teachers tend to create a warmer climate for those who they like Input- Teachers teach more material to those who they believe have more favorable expectations Response opportunity- kids got more chance to respond if teachers expect more of them, call on them more often and let them talk longer Feedback- if more is expected of a kid and is praised more, they get diff feedback for wrong answer, teacher might take low quality response
A researcher wanted to see how much anxiety 7-year olds experience. She studied 7-year olds all across the United States in October of 2001. Which of the following will be a definite problem for her design?
Cohort effects
What is a cohort? How do different cohorts present problems in research? Do they affect cross-sectional or longitudinal designs most?
Cohort: population of individuals born during the same period. Ex baby boomers (one of largest)/ veterans that rep dif war conflicts. Cohort affects longitudinal the most.
Pinna
Collecting sound to direct it into the ear canal
What are archetypes and how do we see them represented in our lives and culture? Be prepared to give several specific examples.
Collective unconscious showed itself in patterns called archetypes, which are mostly symbols of common human social realities such as heroes, maidens, and babies. Jung believes the archetypes are the collective unconscious.
How did Jung see our complexes shaping your personality? Be prepared to give several specific examples.
Complexes were due to a person's life experiences, so they were individual and unique, part of the personal unconscious according to Jung. - A complex might manifest itself by turning up in dreams or fantasies, or by provoking an unusual reaction to events in the outside world that relate to the complex.
According to Piaget, the conservation of number, mass, and weight develops in which stage?
Concrete operational
A meta-analysis of spanking studies found that ____ was the most effective way to reduce child defiance.
Conditioning spanking. led to greater reductions in child defiance or anti-social behavior than 10 of 13 alternative discipline techniques, including reasoning, removal of privileges and time out.
How did he conduct that research?
Conduct his research in Papua New Guinea, He had them tell stories
elaborative rehearsal
Connect information from one schema with information in another schema. The more associations you form when you encode the information, the more likely you are to encode, store, and retrieve the information later. This is known as elaborative rehearsal, because you elaborate on the information to add complexity and meaning.
When person is high in BIG 5:My brother is very organized, industrious, and detail oriented. He tends to plan things out ahead of time, hates to be late, and has accomplished a lot because he can focus on something and devote himself to it.
Conscientiousness
Lucid dreaming is best defined as....
Consciously controlled, use dream diaries to document them
What is the consistency principle?
Consistency principle: people are rational and attempt to behave rationally at all times and that a person's behavior should be consistent with their attitude but...people do not always follow it, sometimes behaving in seemingly quite illogical ways; like smoking
2. How might we use the concept of schemas to explain why environmental context is encoded along with other information?
Contextual information (where you are, how you feel) becomes encoded as part of the schema you have about the fact. During recall, that context can acts as a prime and increase the accessibility of the schema, making it easier to recall.
Results of embarrassment test evaluation: Why did dissonance lead the severe participants to like this discussion more than mild/ controlled?
Controlled: Yellow, & Mild (Orange) rated pretty positive, people ok & people nice Severe embarrassment (red): Discussion and participants gave very high ratings -Dissonance: to justify it ,I just endured something I didn't want to do/ cost to initiation, so we are psychologically motivated to like it (so why hazing was invented in social primitive tribes/ initiation rights... manipulation into believing the group is better than it is, trick people their membership is more important. perhaps sexual arrousal got attribute to the group, physiological from the embarrassment that is being misattribute to the group
1. What does it mean to say that two variables are correlated?
Correlated, but don't necessarily cause he each other (need to operationalize).
Operationalizing Self-control -Measuring it in children . Mischel's marshmallow task -Kids who delayed gratification at age 4 .Higher academic achievement .Higher SAT scores .More well adjust, more well liked .Less drug use
Create a dilemma with child to see if they can wait to take long term gain, or stop and take something you prefer a little less as short term gain. - Experimenter will come back if child doesn't want to wait and presses the bell (to get 1 marshmallow) - half the kids waited/ half didn't--> helps predict how they are well adjusted socially later on in life.. Results: longer they were able to wait at age 4, the better ability they had to control themselves and to pursue their other goals, increasingly learning ways to manage frustration/ distress/less drug use/ less likely to have low self-esteem...correlations significant....but if didn't wait doesn't mean they are doom
A researcher visits a middle school and asks group of 12-year olds and a group of 14-year olds about their feelings for their parents. Which of the following designs is being used?
Cross-sectional
What is the difference between cross-sectional and longitudinal designs? (2 ways to measure lifespan)
Cross-sectional: separate group design, people from at least 2 dif cohorts and compare dif cohorts (young and old at same and then comparing the two). - ONE DISADV: confounding factors; individuals differ not only in age, but historical experiences that were unique for their cohort & present confound independent variables (age/historic) Longitudinal: one cohort & study over long period, measure over periods of years. -ONE DISADV: Attrition; people who show up for retest are not representative of entire sample, people might die off & not be present or change
A child with a secure attachment style will
Cry until the mother returns
A child with an insecure-ambivalent attachment style will
Cry well after the mother returns
4. what are some variables that could not (or would not) be manipulated or randomly assigned? How would we study them with a correlational design?
Dependent variables cannot. With a correlation design you can manipulate the dependent variable based on how two variables relate to each other.
One disadvantage of measuring attitudes with a Likert scale is the fact that people might not be honest. Relating this back to what we learned about early on about self-report data, participants' answers might be compromised due to a social ___ bias.
Desirability, person can lie or put themselves in a positive light. - advantage: that they do not expect a simple yes / no
What is the DSM?
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5)
Research from rat park showed:
Did not suffer the harmful effects of cocaine and were quite healthy.
What does it mean to say you have a theory of mind?
Different knowledge than you do, Children typically start demonstrate a theory of mind by age 4
When two eyes look at an object from slightly different angles they get slightly different sensory inputs. This is known as binocular ___.
Disparity
Which of the following is most closely related to the general concept of motivated reasoning?
Dissonance
Cialdini, Cacioppo, Bassett, and Miller asked students to volunteer to council juvenile delinquents for two hours a week for two years. After their refusal, they were asked to chaperone juvenile delinquents on a one-day trip to the zoo. 50% agreed to chaperone the trip to the zoo as compared to 17% of participants who only received the zoo request.
Door-in-the-face
What does it mean that dreams were "epiphenomena" (think rats)
Dreams are meaningless and have no important function at all -Rats lost their ability to defend themselves not because they were exhausted but because they were robbed of their dreams. - Dreams, he contends, are a training ground in which animals and people alike go over the behaviors that are key to their survival.
1. How many positive & negative symptoms are necessary to make the diagnosis?
During this 6 month period, at least two of the above criteria must be met, or only the criteria of Negative Symptoms must be present — if even just in milder form.
What is the difference between correlation and causation that is demonstrated by the myth of infant determinism?
EX. People who grow up and remain in poverty risk dying sooner than those who grow up poor and then become middle class. But the increased risk is caused not by bouts of disease in early childhood, shared by both groups, but by the aggregated effects of lifelong malnutrition on the impoverished.
Visual capture
EX. hen we listen to somebody on a stage, we may hear the sounds they produce from a loudspeaker that is above us. - When a person is speaking through a microphone, you may hear their voice from the speakers above you
Stage 6: Departure
Early adulthood, evaluate success and failures as a parent
Jung believes complexes based on:
Emotionally-charged experiences
What is the evidence that humans naturally want belonging? (sociobiological)
Evolutionary perspectives - People throughout the world are born with the ability and motivation to form close relationships, and this universal tendency is adaptive. Children who form close emotional attachments to their parents are less likely to wander off, get picked off by a predator, or fall victim to some other natural danger.
sequence
Excitation > threshold > action potential > absolute refractory period > relative refractory period
How is Erikson's theory connected to Freud's theory?
Extends on Freudian thoughts by focusing on the adaptive and creative characteristic of the ego, and expanding the notion of the stages of personality development to include the entire lifespan.
When person is high in BIG 5:My mother is the kind of person that will strike up a conversation with just about anyone, including the person standing in line behind her at the grocery store
Extraversion
What does looking time (gazing behavior) tell us about cognition? RESEARCHERS FIRST MEASURED HABITUATION, THEN DISHABITUATION
Eye-tracking;Babies tend to habituate (just like adults), when shown a new stimulus repeatedly (getting bored quicker each time presented) How affects cognition: 1.Has to be able to see 2. Be able control eyes are aimed 3. Recognize repeated object (have a functioning memory), Habituation shows baby's memory is already functioning
Door-in-the-face
First make a request of the other person that is excessive and to which they will most naturally refuse. Look disappointed but then make a request that is more reasonable. The other person will then be more likely to accept. Ex.Will you donate $100 to our cause? [response is no]. Oh. Well could you donate $10?
Freedman and Fraser (1966) asked people to either sign a petition or place a small card in a window in their home or car about keeping California beautiful or supporting safe driving. About two weeks later, the same people were asked by a second person to put a large sign advocating safe driving in their front yard. Many people who agreed to the first request now complied with the second, far more intrusive request? They found: most powerful effect occurs when the person's self-image is aligned with the request. Requests thus need to be kept close to issues that the person is likely to support, such as helping other people. Need consistency also.
Foot-in-the-door.
BIPOLAR DISORDERS 1. Why is the term "bipolar"used to describe manic and depressive symptoms?
Formerly called manic depression; It is a form of major affective disorder, or mood disorder, defined by manic or hypomanic episodes (changes from one's normal mood accompanied by high energy states).
Who was Sigmund Freud and how did his theory influence the field of psychology?
Freud proposed the first major personality theory and psychotherapy procedure. He painted a picture of human personality so forceful (some would say bizarre) that he inspired strong devotion or strong opposition.
Conceptually speaking, the concept of implicit attitudes is most closely related with...
Freud's id
Use each theory to explain . Biosocial (i.e., evolute on & physiology) ---same thing as sociobiological theory (evolution)
Genetic codes & chaos - natural variation & random mutations - natural selection ( traits become more or less depending on effects of certain traits) -BASICALLY INTERESTED IN GENES TO DETERMINE BEHAVIOR ~~Thought & behavior inherited (ver dif variations of behaviors among dogs) ~~Genetic dispositions determine thought & behavior Fittest survive & reproduce
Freud believe that fixations are caused by ___ during a developmental stage
Getting either too much or too little of a specific pleasure
The participant who was nicknamed "John Wayne" claimed that he behaved in a sadistic manner because...
He had been conducting his own personal experiments in the situation..
The behavior associated with an irrational difficulty in discarding and parting with possessions is called ____. (one word)
Hoarding
2. Psychoactive Drugs; case study, how might a psychiatrist treat some of the symptoms w/ an SSRI? How do these drugs work?
How drugs work for anti-depressants. Bipolar 1: Full mania state Bipolar 2: Feeling really good about yourself; long extended depression period of time hypomanic Major depression: 2 week period of debilitating feeling SSRI: Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibiters-prevent reuptake of serotonin so there is more serotonin to bind receptors. Taking this drug helps make you happier b/c of this imbalance of serotonin. 1. When depressed= low level of serotonin 2. Taking SSRI stops reuptake and increases serotonin that binds to receptors leaving more ex. Prozac: Anti-depressant acts as SSRI
What beneficial effects does the release of adrenaline and cortisol have that supports a fight-or-flight response?
How its beneficial... -Through a combination of nerve and hormonal signals, this system prompts your adrenal glands, located atop your kidneys, to release a surge of hormones, including adrenaline and cortisol. (ex. dangerous situation)
2. Why might someone's EQ be as important, if not more important, than his or her IQ?
IQ only accounts for a small percentage.
What do scientists use these statistical tests to determine?
If any differences observed can likely be explained by random chance
The general assumption is that both men and women have evolved to prefer long-term mates with characteristics that
Increase their own chances of reproductive success
Erkison theory of psychosocial development, college students (18-22) are struggling with a conflict between:
Intimacy vs. isolation
How did they support their theory by injecting their patients with epinephrine? Be clear about the study's methods and results
Involved giving participants either epinephrine or a placebo, and telling them that they were getting vitamin injections 1. After their injections, all of the participants were taken into another room where they interacted with a confederate (an experimenter pretending to be another participant). -- confederate played with things in the room, confederate expressed anger about the nature of the experiment. -Given a questionnaire that asked them to rate how happy and angry they were
Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination How can you relate the ABCs of attitudes to the distinction between stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination? What is the connection between... 1. Stereotypes, schemas, and self-fulfilling prophecies? 2. Prejudice and implicit attitudes?
It is possible for someone to have stereotypes, feel prejudice, but not discriminate(way you treat someone from other groups) ABC: A: Prejudice - negative attitude towards a group - it is the dislike that someone feels, perhaps very mild and subtle or perhaps outwardly hateful. As we have seen, prejudice (like any attitude) can be explicit or implicit, and the two do not always agree. B: Discrimination -is the way you treat someone relative to the way that you treat people from other groups. It is possible to be prejudice, stereotype and not discriminate . C: Stereotype- Contained in cognitive schema for a group are stereotypes of that group. We might believe that a group has both positive and negative traits, and we might even know about stereotypes that we personally do not believe are true. Regardless, when the group primes your memory the stereotypes increase in accessibility and may therefore influence your thoughts, attributions, and subconscious behavior.
Axon Hillock
Joins the soma and axon to collect the impulses before sending one down the cell
Little t- traumas
Little-t traumas can include complicated grief, divorce, non-professional media exposure to trauma, or childhood emotional abuse, and clinicians recognize that these can result in post-traumatic stress **even if they don't qualify for the PTSD diagnosis.
Measurement timelines -Longitudinal study -Cross-sectional study
Longitudinal study: recruit a sample of participants and track them for an extended period of time dis: attrition: not all that start finish--> some may die cross-sectional: participants of different ages & look for differences between the groups. dis: cohort effects- dif in groups might have been caused by something else
How does concordance rate provide evidence that both genetics and the environment play a role in Autism?
Looks at genetics as a factor and biology/ genes - relative that are diagnosed ( i.e.. schitzafrenia)
Arrival time
Low frequency sounds, sound coming from a given source arrives at our ears at slightly different times; which ever ear receives the sound first indicates that the source is on that side---> then it wraps around to the other ear: -if it comes from the front, there is a shorter time difference; -if it comes from one side, there is a longer time difference
Vygotsky? Give an example of the distinction.
Lower level Functions: inherited, born with, don't require social interaction Higher level functions: once interacting w/ higher thinking individuals can learn through interactions
misattribution of arousal --> cantor
Males all ran for 1 min (small increase in arousal and get heart rate)--> all going to watch a movie and then rate the movie (soft core sex scene and rate how much they liked movie) -->IV --> (how long rested, 1 rest, 5 rest, 9 min rest) -->DV-->rate 9 min rest and 1 min rest= same (has to do with salience, highest arousal bc exercise was cause of extra arrousal -->brain could recognize it was attribute to)... ppl at baseline (nothing to misattribute) -Some arrousal left , wasn't salient, delay gives brain opportunity to make mistake, brain looked at movie as most salient why heart rate would have been higher than normal ---> (5 min rest with highest rating)
What 2 factor theory suggest?
Many emotions can be produced by the same physiological response
Miller's magic number
Miller's magic number: we can remember approximately 5 to 9 (7 +/- 2) bits of information in our short term memory at any given time (Miller).
How is adjustment disorder different from PTSD?
NO longer than 6 months, than it will be characterized with some other disorder; adjustment disorder can occur at any time during a person's life
C) THINKING ERRORS: CBT 1
Negative thought patterns with negative impacts -how to treat: learn to recognize emotions, how negative thoughts influence what you do,
Ex. Interdependent
Negotiating a curfew
What are some of the fundamental causes of psychological disorders?
Nerve cells within these brain circuits communicate through chemicals called neurotransmitters. --> Tweaking these chemicals -- through medicines, psychotherapy or other medical procedures -- can help brain circuits run more efficiently.
What are some other options for discipline besides spanking?
Nonviolent approaches, practice tantrums so controlling and not allowing anger
4. How can you influence behavior using ___? - Positive reinforcement (+R) - Negative reinforcement (-R) - Positive punishment (+P) - Negative punishment (-P) A) How might coincidences lead to superstitious behaviors in animals (and in humans)?
Positive reinforcement: Delivering a treat to INCREASE the likelihood a behavior will reoccur Negative reinforcement: Removing an annoying stimulus to INCREASE the likelihood a behavior will reoccur Positive punisher:Causing pain to DECREASE the likelihood a behavior will reoccur Negative punisher: Taking away a privilege to DECREASE the likelihood a behavior will reoccur GOAL: REINFORCMENT ( INCREASE BEHAVIOR) PUNISHER (DECREASE BEHAVIOR)
Prevalence: What do prevalence rates tell us about disorders?
Prevalence is a measure of disease that allows us to determine a person's likelihood of having a disease. Therefore, the number of prevalent cases is the total number of cases of disease existing in a population.
Primary vs secondary
Primary: UCS, natural effect w/out learning secondary- stimuli we have learned to have adverse/ desirable via classical conditioning (ns-->cs)
Freud believed that children had natural, sexual attractions to their opposite-sex parent. For boys, this was the ____ complex and for girls, it was the ____ complex.
Oedipus, electra.
The sense of smell is particularly powerful in learning and memory because....
Olfactory information is routed to the cortex without going to a sensory relay center in the middle of the brain
How was a participant's behavior an example of normative influence?
On the third trial, the real participant went along with groups answer because he gauge that the others knew the answer so he felt more obligated to answer because he felt the other people in the group were correct. He knows he is right but goes along with group to not feel out of social norm (distortion)
MEMORY 1. What are the three processes of memory? That is, what has to happen in order to store and use information? - What is encoding? - What is storage? - What is retrieval?
Order for memory to help us it needs to ecocide, information into long-term memory, store it for later use, and retrieve it when we need it later.
1. Phonemic restoration The phonemic restoration effect is another example of top-down processing because...........A "phoneme" is just a basic unit of speech sound.
Our brain fills in missing sensory information if it knows what should be there. - If you fail to hear part of a sentence, you can still understand what was said because the brain will fill in the missing word if the context is strong enough.
A) EMOTIONAL: CBT 1
Overly emotional response, negative attributing emotions...assuming your emotions is of act without knowing why your feeling this way ex. driving and getting angry at someone for being a bad driver
4 sets of relationships that are usually balanced:
P+O, P+X, O+X P-O, P-X, O+X P-O, P+X, O-X P+O, P-X, O-X
4 unbalanced relationship:
P+O, P-X, O+X P+O, P+X, O-X P-O, P+X, O+X P-O, P-X, O-X
Balance Theory can be described as follows:
P: the a person to analyse O: A comparison person (O) X: A comparison 'thing', such as a impersonal entity, which could be a physical object, an idea or an event. This may also be a third person.
According to the provided chart, which of the following is NOT one of the five most prevalent disorders?
PSTD
Linear perspective
Parallel lines that recede into the distance appear to get closer together or converge
Linear perspetive
Parallel lines that recede into the distance appear to get closer together or converge
What are the stages that parents go through in their own development? Galinsky (1987) was one of the first to emphasize the development of parents themselves, how they respond to their children's development, and how they grow as parents.
Parenting: A parent develops while the child develops. Children's growth and development force parents to change their roles
In 1965, Zimbardo, known for more "creative" research designs, told participants that they would be trying new foods that the military was testing out for combat zones. They were greeted by an experimenter (IV) who was randomly assigned to be either very nice to the participants and his coworkers, or who was very mean. Participants then had to eat a grasshopper (yes, they really ate it), and were later asked how much they liked it. Based on the predictions of cognitive dissonance theory, what do you expect they found?
Participants who ate the grasshopper for the mean researcher liked it more.
What is a circadian rhythm?
Pattern of sleep and wakefulness, mainly influenced by exposure to light, We use shortcuts in judgment to preserve cognitive resources. We have fewer resources when we are not in an optimal time of our circadian rhythm.
Wernicke's aphasia
People with serious comprehension difficulties have what is called Wernicke's aphasia and: Often say many words that don't make sense. -TEMPORAL LOBE
Though fear is an adaptive emotional response that increases your likelihood of surviving when presented with a threat to your safety, a ____ is an intense, irrational fear to a specific, non-threatening situation.
Phobia
POPULATIONS & SAMPLES 1. Research population vs. research sample
Population: total group of individuals from which the sample draws from. Sample: sub-group, the group of people that take part in the study , reps the population.
How did Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) demonstrate that dissonance can cause a change in our seemingly honest and objective opinions? Be prepared to describe the IV, DV, procedure, and results.
Procedure: 1. 71 Male Students enrolled in a psyc100 class at stanford university. Signed up to be in an experiment dealing w/ measurement of performance & asked questions at end. 2. Perform a series of dull tasks (such as turning pegs in a peg board for an hour). 3. (1st control group- told how exciting boring task was, then given evaluation, did not have to lie) 4. 2 other groups: given the role to tell the student (who usually says its fun --(in actuality the student was a confederate) to tell how exciting tasks are. 5. 1 group: given $1, other given $20
Milgram test: methodology
Procedure: Study took place at Yale University. They recruited participants by offering $4.50 in an ad. The experimenter explains that the study will involve one of the volunteers taking on the role of a 'teacher' and the other taking on the role of a 'learner'. As part of the experiment, the 'teacher' will engage the 'learner' in a simple memory task. The 'learner' and the 'teacher' will be in different rooms and will communicate through microphones. - The experimenter reveals that the study is designed to investigate the effect of punishment on learning. The 'teacher' will be asked to administer an electric shock to the 'learner' every time the latter makes an incorrect response on the memory task. -In the first phase of the experiment, the experimenter asks you, the 'teacher', to read a series of word pairs to the 'learner' who is expected to memorise them (for instance, 'green-grass' , 'blue-sky', 'nice-day'). In the second phase, the test phase, you are asked to read out the first word of the pairs (e.g. 'green'), followed by four possible responses ('grass, hat, ink, apple'). -With every incorrect answer, given increase in voltage shocks too xxx (435)
How is a body's stress response an adaptive mechanism that increases survival?
Protects you against threats from predators and other aggressors. -Ex.When you encounter a perceived threat
Depersonalization --> Emotional Distance Proximity: able to see the victim Touch: force the victims hand onto the metal plate
Proximity: (social support condition) It is easier to resist the orders from an authority figure if they are not close by. When the experimenter instructed and prompted the teacher by telephone from another room, obedience fell to 20.5%. Proximity of authority figure effects obedience. Touch: forced to put hand on plate
How does this relate to what we learned about schemas, primes and accessibility?
Psychic determinism, we have schemas that are more accessible in our mind, so if we are talking freely we might be talking about something we already know we don't like rather than digging deeper to find why we might not like that.
REPRODUCTABILITY 1. What is reproducibility?
Psychology research suffers from a reproducibility problem and that makes it unscientific.
PSUEDOSCIENCE? COMMON SCIENCE? 1. What are some examples of how early psychologists failed to support their assumptions with legitimate research?
Psychology took so long to emerge as a scientific discipline b/c it needed time to consolidate, has do with theory and the foundation of hypotheses.
Pupil dilation
Pupil changes shape to regulate light undilated: -portion of retina that can seen through undilated pupil -use more cones dilated: - portion of retina that can be seen through dilated pupil -rods open up more
What is social support?
Quantity, cognitive limit to how many friendships, usually over social network.
3. Why is random assignment essential if we want to conclude that it was our manipulation of the IV that caused differences in the DV?
Random assignment proves causation, not chosen due to a specific skill , Creates different groups of participants that can be assumed to be, on average, equal to each other in every way (e.g., height, IQ, age distribution, race, SES). Also prevents biases through validity
Dendrites
Receives impulses from other nerve cells
Olfactory ______ cells are special neurons that detect odor molecules.
Receptor
Kunz and Woolcott sent Christmas cards to a number of people he did not know. Most sent a card back (and they got onto the permanent Christmas list of:
Reciprocity norm
1. Recognition vs recall?
Recognition: recognize familiar Recall: Retrieval
Do Initiations Affect likin? Aronson & Mills, 1959 IV: "embarrassment test"
Recruited female participants for socialization (but on Psychology of sex), the norms are perhaps different today but results would be same. - told the women that they would participating on a discussion about the psychology of sex -IV: 2 groups that have to pass an embarrassment test (prove that their ok talking about sexual topics before their allowed to join the group) & control group that gets no embarrassment test -the two groups (females ) have to read a list of words to male researchers on a microphone -There were 2 embarrassment tests: Mild (prostitute, petting, virgin) & severe ...then they were all told too late, so they had to listen in on the discussion about sex -the mating behavior of fruit flies (boring -on purpose) -then they had to rate how they felt about group of people and discussion) --> Dv) evaluation
Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
Regularly feeling worried even if there is no rational reason --->chronic and exaggerated worry and tension, even though nothing seems to provoke.
What is Revonsuo's theory of why we dream?
Rehearse survival behaviors
Punisher vs. reinforcer
Reinforcer - outcome reinforces (strengthens) the behavior that caused it. punisher-stimulus that the animal wants to avoid. less likely to occur if adverse
How are the side effects of each of these chemicals potentially harmful if we frequently experience stress over a long period of time?
Risk for increase: -Anxiety -Depression -Digestive problems -Headaches -Heart disease -Sleep problems -Weight gain -Memory and concentration impairment
Why does the DSM-5 describe substance use disorders for so many different kinds of substances?
The DSM 5 explains that activation of the brain's reward system is central to problems arising from drug use -- the rewarding feeling that people experience as a result of taking drugs may be so profound that they neglect other normal activities in favor of taking the drug.
How did Rorschach use (the now famous) inkblots to examine the subconscious?
Rorschach inkblot test: a series of inkblots, when people asked to interpret the inkblots (to say what they looked like) gave different answers that seemed to reflect their state of mind. Ex) For example, somebody who said the uppermost of the three inkblots looked like "a monster coming to get me" might reveal fear, while a different person might see a less threatening image, revealing some other emotion. -depend more on mindset of a person going in to test
What is the difference between self-awareness and theory of mind?
Self-awareness: aware of emotions, motives, desires, aware physically Theory of mind: imagine how others perceive your action - dif knowledge than you
B) SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECIES: CBT 1
She thinks friends don't like her, so she doesn't try to ask them out and so they don't hang out with her. Assumptions and expectations perceived change our behavior.
How did Moore et al. (2007) demonstrate that self-awareness develops around 18 months.
Shopping cart study, self awareness (how u are being) not how everyone else is an independent mind (u cant really observe)
Heider's Balance Theory
Show how people develop their relationships with other people and with things in their environment. If we feel we are 'out of balance', then we are motivated to restore a position of balance. --->The felt discomfort at imbalance will increase with the strength of the attitude and the overall interest in the matter.
A parent's non-verbal behavior
Signals whether the infant has reason to be concerned
Which of the following is most important for complete development according to Vygotsky?
Social interaction
Vygotsky's theory:
Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. cultural & historical. 1. Cognitive development is limited to a certain range at any given age. 2. Full cognitive development requires social interaction.
Reciprocity Norm:
Social norm which says that if I give something to you or help you in any way, then you are obliged to return the favor. This norm is so powerful, it allows the initial giver to: 1. Ask for something in return, rather than having to wait for a voluntary reciprocal act. 2. Ask for more than was given. You can even exchange a smile for money. Can lead to....Self-fulfilling prophecy
Which general theoretical perspective best explains why all humans experience the same basic emotions?
Sociobiological
What is a spurious correlation when two things that actually seem to display causation actually do not that is, those two things are only CORRELATED?
Spurious correlation-When we look at two variables that are mathematically correlated but are not related to each other in a meaningful way/
What happens in each of the stages of sleep?
Stage 1:Drowsiness and eyes closing Stage 2: light sleep Stage 3:Transitional period between light sleep and deep sleep Stage 4:The most intense, deepest stage of delta wave sleep Stage 5: dreaming
Zimbardo's study....
Stanford Prison Study set out to test how average college students would behave in a prison setting, with half randomly assigned to play the role of guards and half of prisoners.
-The confirmation bias:
Starts with strong opinion or preference, look specifically for bias. set out to look for that info that would confirm your hypothesis. give more weight to info that supports our beliefs Ex. I just do not think that I am good at math, and the fact that I failed my first exam means that no matter what I do or who tries to help me, I'm going to keep failing. Ex. My friend is normally a thoughtful person, so the fact that she is late means that something must have happened beyond her control.
Likert scales use ___ to measure attitudes
Statements.
"Adjustment Disorder is characterized by the development of emotional or behavioral symptoms in response to an identifiable _____."
Stressors
6. What is the stroop task? a.)How does it relate to controlled vs. automatic processes?
Stroop task- click color on colored word. After completing the Stroop Task the response screen explains that most people respond faster and more accurately to the CONGRUENT. (red written in red ink) results ( the act of reading the word has become an automatic process that is hard to suppress) a) SHOWS how automatic process interferes with a controlled process
Stack et al. (1988) Procedure and results supporting self-perception theory:
Students read and rate a cartoon while holding a pen in their mouths. Some of them were asked to hold it with only their teeth, which requires contracting the muscles used to smile. Others were told only to use their lips, which would interfere with the use of the smiling muscles. Result: Consistent with self-perception theory, students who used their teeth to hold the pen rated the cartoon as funnier than students who held the pen with their lips.
Schwann Cells
Surrounds some neurons to increase how efficiently it can carry an impulse
Integrating what we have learned about the nervous systems and the localization of neurological functions, what has been activated in the first stage of Schachter and Singer's model of emotions?
Sympathetic nervous system
CBT 2 (C).... what 5 thinking errors can occur?
THINKING ERRORS: Negative thought patterns with negative impacts, illogical thought patterns are self-defeating, and can cause great anxiety or depression for the individual. 1. Overgeneralization: drawing broad negative conclusions on the basis of a single insignificant event. like fixed mindset, E.g., you get a D for an exam when you normally get straight As and you, therefore, think you are stupid. 2. Personalisation: Self-blaming, Attributing the negative feelings of others to yourself. E.g., your teacher looks really cross when he comes into the room, so he must be cross with you. 3. Selective abstraction: Focusing on a single aspect of a situation and ignoring others: E.g., you feel responsible for your team losing a football match even though you are just one of the players on the field. 4. Dichotomous thinking: Think black or white (negative or positive & nothing in the middle/ good or bad). ex. confirmation bias: looking something in retrospect and assuming its bad 5. Mind reading- Thinking that you know what someone is thinking (negative thought)
The Milligram experiment variations:
The Milgram experiment was carried out many times whereby Milgram varied the basic procedure (changed the IV). By doing this Milgram could identify which factors affected obedience (the DV). Obedience was measured by how many participants shocked to the maximum 450 volts
Based on the preferences that newborns exhibit, researchers have concluded that they learn ___ while still in the womb
The cadence of a story, the sound of their mother's native language, the sound of their mother's voice.
In Hamlin's research on infant morality, preference for good and bad characters is measured by...
The choice of which to play with.
2. How is the cocktail party effect an example of motivation determining allocation?
The cocktail party effect shows how we subconsciously eavesdrop whenever information that may be important to us is mentioned. When we hear our name we are motivated to allocate our attention towards a specific conversation.
3. What is confirmation bias and how might it influence you?
The confirmation bias is another example of motivated cognition because we want to be correct... and that motivation leads us to look for and remember information that confirms what we already believe.
Fovea
The densest concentration of photoreceptor cells (particularly cones) for highly detailed vision -region each cone is confined to opposite of the lens sharpening central vision in retina
WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO SAY A BRAIN IS LOCALIZED function?
The localization of function concept implies that different parts of the brain are responsible for different activities."
How does the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) attempt to measure personality?
The person taking it has to come up with an interpretation. The interpretation is a "projection" of the person's own mental processes onto the picture, which has no pre-assigned meaning. Can CORRELATE certain types of answers to certain types of mental disorders through data.
When a pre-synaptic nerve's action potential results in the release of chemicals that reach the dendrites of a post-synaptic cell (the next one in the chain):
The post-synaptic cell may be more or less likely to fire depending on the whether the pre-synaptic cell has an excitatory or inhibitory effect
Which of the following is a reason to doubt whether DID exists as a true disorder the way it is described?
The prevalence jumped from 200 in the world to 8,000 in the US alone...
Why do researchers study infants and children using different methods than adults?
The same methods used on adults will not work with infants. EX. you can't ask a baby to fill out a questionnaire about their preferences for one toy over another -require creative thinking.
3. How might someone argue that there are actually many different types of intelligence?
Theory of Multiple Intelligences - person can have intelligences in multiple places. EX. one person with strong logic-math and spacial-visual intelligence would be a chess expert while another person with strong bodily-kinesthetic intelligence would be an Olympic athlete. --->Multiple intelligences can be explained by g and experience
What is the difference between Substance Use disorders and Substance Induced disorders?
They are two groups of substance-related disorders. Use: patterns of symptoms resulting from use of a substance which the individual continues to take, despite experiencing problems as a result. 11 dif criteria. Induced: Include intoxication, withdrawal, substance induced mental disorders, including substance induced psychosis, Bipolar and related disorders, depressive disorders, anxiety disorders, OCD, etc.
4. What is long-term memory (LTM)?
This is relatively permanent storage. Information is stored for unlimited amount of time. When we process information, we attach significance to it and information deemed important is transferred to our long term memory.
Allport's three levels of traits:
Three general levels: 1. Cardinal Traits: A single characteristic that dominates someone's personality to the point that it defines their nature. 2. Central Traits: The traits that you would generally use to describe someone's overall personality. 3. Secondary Traits: Characteristics that are expressed in specific situations.
Jung's theory: - Personal Unconscious - Collective Unconscious
Try to figure out complex collective unconscious: universal inheritance of memory, part of who we are - archetypes: symbols of realities, mom = nurture, villains, superhero 1. Personal unconscious- Contains temporality forgotten information and well as repressed memories, most important feature: A complex is a collection of thoughts, feelings, attitudes and memories that focus on a single concept. Ex. abandoned by dad (fear of abandonment meant he became clingy)...more focused on future 2. Collective unconscious- human mind has innate characteristics "imprinted" on it as a result of evolution. These universal predispositions stem from our ancestral past. (fear of spiders)
3, How can we explain why being in the same state facilitates recall in terms of the Encoding Specificity Hypothesis and how the contextual primes might increase the accessibility of information.
Tulving's Encoding Specificity Hypothesis provides an explanation for the state-dependent memory effects that researchers have observed...success are directly determined by the overlap between the encoding and retrieval contexts.
Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) (also known as Multiple Personality Disorder)
Two or more distinct identities or personality states (each with its own relatively enduring pattern of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the environment and self).
What existed, in Jung's view, in the two types of your unconscious minds?
Two types of unconscious mind: 1. Personal unconscious: accumulation of experiences from a person's lifetime that could not be consciously recalled. 2. Collective unconscious: universal inheritance of human beings, a "species memory," might be described as patterns that are in the unconscious because of evolution, rather than because of the individual's experience.
Extinction
Unlearning behavior when reinforcement is no longer associated, replacing behavior with something positive. CR recurring after a long delay. 2 issues: - Increase in behavior :extinction burst--> variable schedule (burst can likely to occur) and unpredictable decrease gradually
Variable Interval
Unpredictable amount of time before you are reinforced. If you drive well above the speed limit long enough you will occasionally get speeding tickets. steady response pattern.
Variable Ratio
Unpredictable quantity of responses needed for a reward, produces high and steady response pattern ex. gamble
Which of these two types of disorders has more to do with addiction? Which deals more with problems relating to substance use?
Use deals with addiction. Induced deals with problems relating to substance use.
Lorenz's imprinting research:
Used to demonstrate imprinting: goose, baby gene following him around and swimming - relates to biological perspective: in order to survive stick with mom, follows what moves in front of you...they don't know they are a goose (brain has evolved to make a distinction about what is apparently mom)
Defense Mechanisms: Conversion Denial Displacement Identification Intellectualization Projection Rationalization Reaction Formation Regression Sublimation
We use defense mechanisms to protect ourselves from feelings of anxiety or guilt, which arise because we feel threatened, or because our id or superego becomes too demanding. Sublimation: channel energy and use it to do something ex. go to the gym taking negative and turing it into a positive Displacement: lashing out at someone else for a different reason. Intellectualization: Person who loses a dog think about how amazing it is that humans develop these bonds with animals.
2. What is accessibility? How is it influenced by: Priming? ( Be prepared to discuss how priming helps to retrieve information from memory) -Chronic use? -Emotional impact?
What determines a concepts accessibility: frequency of access, emotional significance, recency of access (priming) - priming- a stimulus that activates a related concept. -->how does it influence priming: if you prime one concept contained in a schema, the other concepts in that schema are subconsciously activated.
Demand characteristics
What participants think researchers want to have happen avoiding: masking purpose
Rosenthal effect
What researchers expect the results of the study should be. (avoiding:) double-blind study
Psychodynamic theory & ex.:
What we think and feel consciously---only conscious of some of your feelings and emotions ex. If sam was afraid of a clown as a kid, it follows him as an adult. Disorders are caused by conflicts, oppressed desires.
Working memory
What your thinking about.
Action potential
When a neuron sends information down the axon, is called an ___ ___ (two words) also known as a spike or impulse.
Identification
When a person avoids painful thoughts and emotions by identifying with some symbolic sources of strength. EX. After being picked on in school a boy spends his free time at home pretending to be Batman.
Regression
When a person under stress reverts to behavior characteristic of a younger age. Under severe stress, people may curl up in the fetal position like a tiny unborn baby. EX.An adult on the Metro starts sucking his thumb when the train slams on its brakes and the lights go out.
Conceptual replication
When a researcher wants to test the same hypothesis and uses a different set of methods/procedures as a previous study, this is called a/an
How does the ear sense sound waves?
When a sound is made, the pinna funnels the sound into the external auditory canal. This sound causes the tympanic membrane to vibrate. The vibrations travel from the tympanic membrane to the malleus, incus, and then stapes (the three inner ear bones). The stapes transmits these vibrations to the cochlea, which sends electrical nerve signals to the brain to interpret the sound.
Broca's aphasia
When a stroke injures the frontal regions of the left hemisphere, different kinds of language problems can occur. This part of the brain is important for putting words together to form complete sentences. Injury to the left frontal area can lead to what is called Broca's aphasia. Survivors with Broca's aphasia: Can have great difficulty forming complete sentences. effects speech -FRONTAL LOBE
2. How does cognitive load influence your learning?
When given a test on what they had learned from the presentation, the participants who were not distracted scored an average of 73% on the quiz. Those sitting behind distracted peers, on the other hand, only scored a 56% on average. This study provides some evidence that the "cone of distraction" is in fact a real problem in our classrooms.
Conversion
When somebody converts psychological problems into a physical ailment. EX.A person who witnesses a horrible incident may go blind for psychological reasons, although the person's eyes are still good. EX. Experiencing numbness in a hand after having to touch something disturbing, like someone else's bloody head wound who you found laying in the street while walking your dogs.
Forced compliance behavior (Festinger and Carlsmith study) creates cognitive dissonance.
When someone is forced to do (publicly) something they (privately) really don't want to do, dissonance is created between their cognition (I didn't want to do this) and their behavior (I did it)-inconsistent with their environment
Attachment is measured at a key moment when
When the mother returns to the room.
3. Why might researchers fail to replicate a scientific study? Be prepared to describe the possible role of: Statistical chance -->Aspects of the particular circumstances -->Quality of the replication methodology -->Dishonesty 4. How would you relate some of these issues to what you've learned about Type I and Type II errors.
Why might researchers fail? 1.The replication study was wrong or flawed in some way. 2. The original finding was wrong or flawed in some way. 3. Some key difference between the original and the replication study (in the methods, analysis, or settings) that explains why the two studies produced different results. 4. may lie/ give fake results 4. type 1:FALSE SCIENTIFIC CLAIM, type 2: MISSED SCIENTIFIC CLAIM
Why are implicit attitudes challenging to measure?
Within a fraction of a second our brain assesses what we see and makes judgments about it, so on a subconscious level we might not even be aware of the way we tend to feel about things.
How did Freud's Free Association approach attempt this? For help, think: A type of Patient treatment (so an ex. of Free Association) and one of Freud's ways to understand how the unconscious is governed by rules
You give up intellectual censorship, speak freely: so EX. Lying on a couch and patient speaks freely of anything that may cross his/her mind-->The flow of his/her thoughts is free, and followed with no voluntary intervention. Allows for a person own interpretation of their dream. - Psychic determinism: states that all processes occurring in mind are not spontaneous and free as they seem, but governed by unconscious rules or complexes.
Ex. of IAT test of implicit attitude measurement:
You may believe that women and men should be equally associated with science, but your automatic associations could show that you (like many others) associate men with science more than you associate women with science.
BALANCE AND DISSONANCE How would you use Heider's Balance Theory to help explain the strategies and decisions of marketing companies who wish to influence your own personal attitudes?
You, Mac, and PC. You like "Mac" and he obviously has a positive relationship with the company brand... what effect should that have on your attitude towards the brand... See WS-11
4. What is the research evidence that controlled processes can become automatic processes? a.) (Be prepared to describe Schneider & Shiffrin's methodology and results.)
a.) Schneider & Shiffrin's - FIRST---> They asked participants to detect whether a specific letter appeared on the screen. The target letters either changed after every 100 trials or remained the same throughout the entire task. SECOND--> Target letters remained the same throughout testing, which lasted for several thousand trials. Because the target letters remained the same, processing eventually became automatic. detecting the target became much faster, and observers reported that the target seemed to jump out from among the other letters. --> Performance on this task became much better than on the controlled processing task. Automatically processed task requires little or no working memory or conscious attention. ---> show how control can become automatic 4. They become automatic through routine habits/ patterns of repetition
MNEUMONICS 1. Examples - Acronym - Acrostic - Rhyme-keys - Loci method - Keyword method - Image-name technique - Chaining
acronym: BRASS -Breath, Relax, Aim, Sight, Squeeze. Acrostic: EVERY GOOD BOY DESERVES FUN Rhyme-keys: Meat, fish, and poultry: two-shoe-livestock with shoes. Loci method: Imagine placing the items you want to remember in specific locations in a room with which you are familiar. Keyword method: Foreign words to identify with english Image-name technique: invent a relationship between the name and the physical Chaining: Create a story where each word
Bystander Intervention Process: Latane & Darley (1970) Notice a situation Interpret the situation as an emergency Take personal responsibility for helping Believe that you are CAPABE of providing the needed help Decide to help
aim: if the number of witnesses of an emergency influences people's helping in an emergency situation. Setup: Asked to discuss what kind of personal problems new college students could have in an urban area. Each participant sat in a booth alone with a pair of headphones and a microphone. They were told that the discussion took place via an intercom to protect the anonymity of participants. At one point in the experiment a participant (a confederate) staged a seizure. IV= number of persons (bystanders) that the participant thought listened to the same discussion DV= the time it took for the participant to react from the start of the victim's fit until the participant contacted the experimenter. Results: 85% went out and reported the seizure. Only 31% reported the seizure when they believed that there were four bystanders.
Stroop task
automatic processing interferes with a controlled process...automatic read blue color so click on it, instead of the color which may have been green.
How people conserve mental load
availability huersitic--> more often hear about something more likely to make a short cut (most directly related to cognitive accessibility) representative heuristic--> stereotype, using outside
Dishabituation
baby is sensitive from old stimulus to new, becomes bored with old and looks at the newer one longer.
Differ between classical and operant conditioning
classical: dog pavlov, dogs don't need to understand why sound is involved, just made an associate and their body starts to respond; little albert (natural response of loud sound-->pairing rat (ns)--> conditions
CONFORMITY: How did Asch (1951) demonstrate that people will conform to the behavior of others, even when they know it is wrong?
conducted an experiment to investigate the extent to which social pressure from a majority group could affect a person to conform. Procedure: 1. Told it was a vision test. Using a line judgment task, Asch put a naive participant in a room with seven confederates. 2. The confederates had agreed in advance what their responses would be when presented with the line task (were told to give wrong answers) The real participant did not know this and was led to believe that the other seven participants were also real participants like themselves. 3. Each person in the room had to state aloud which comparison line (A, B or C) was most like the target line.
detailed color vision
cones
vesicles
contain neurotransmitters in pre synaptic
1. Insecure avoidment:
disinterested in contact with the mother until she returns
Bowlby
first coined the term as a result of his studies involving the developmental psychology of children from various backgrounds
motor cortex
forebrain, coordinates voluntary movements
The garcia effect bc it involves single trial learning and is....
forward long delay
Side-facing vs forward-facing
forward-facing eyes: - in the front of their head. - binocular vision which enables the animal concerned to judge depth and distance. - Judging depth and distance enables predators to track and chase prey animals (what humans have/most animals) - limited perhiphal vision, Ideal for precise depth perception, predators (With forward facing eyes, you can get a better grasp of depth because of binocular disparity, although you have blind spots to your sides) Side-facing: -Having side-facing eyes allows good peripheral vision, but leaves a blind spot directly in front. -blind spot in front, strong peripheral, animals fear being prayed,
Aqueos humor
front chamber of iris and lens sac of liquid
rods are
gray images in retina, monochrome for lower levels at night (what nocturnal)
LEARNED HELPLESSNESS 1. What is learned helplessness and how might we apply the concept to understand something like depression? 2. How did Seligman (1975) and others demonstrate this concept with dogs?
harnessed dogs (show distress and failed so laid down and took it) unharnessed dogs (others dig to escape) - dogs could control their own experience -studies show--> inability to control the environment is not necessary for learned helplessness to occur ( perception)
brain stem
hindbrain, basic life fcns- sleep, breathing, heart, contains MEDULLA AND PONS
medulla
hindbrain, control of vital processes such as heart rate, respiration, blood pressure, and swallowing. relays motor and sensory impulses between the brain and spinal cord.
thalamus
hindbrain,elay station between the senses and the cortex (the outer layer of the brain consisting of the parietal, occipital, frontal and temporal lobes).
Unilateral neglect
impairment in sensory and motor response, mental representation, and spatial attention of the body and the corresponding environment characterized by inattention to one side and overattention to the opposite side. Left side neglect is more severe and persistent than ride side neglect. -PARTIEL LOBE
Prosopagnosia
inability to recognize faces, blind to faces
priming is:
information that's stored in long term memory that needs to be activated in order to move into short term can also be activated subconsciously examp: smell of perfume or cologne might instantly bring to memory a person you associate with that smell
Participant's in Stack et. al's (1988) study found things funnier because they were tricked into ___ while those in Wells & Petty's (1980) study agreed with a message because they were tricked into ___.
smiling;nodding.
Internal validity
limit = bias, errors, probs with the way the study was conducted -->appropriate operationalizations -->how can we determine if person has enough stamina throughout the day = measurable .....if you don't have fair measurement = no internal validity
Sensory memory
maintains an exact copy of what is seen or heard/ unlimited capacity
Positive valence low arousal
mild, relax on beach, high-slam asleep
partial lobe
movement, sense of touch and how body moves --unilateral neglect- damage to right parietal lobe can lead to the neglect of the opposite side o the body and the world (problem with attention, not vision)
reuptake
neurons go back via vesticle to presynaptic, When a pre-synaptic neuron absorbs a signaling chemical after it has sent a message so that it can be reused.
Receptors
neurotransmitters bind to these in post synaptic
synaptic cleft
neurotransmitters leave pre synaptic and enter this
4. How can we describe classically conditioned associations in terms of: A neutral stimulus (NS) An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) An unconditioned responses (UCR) A conditioned stimulus (CS) A conditioned response (CR)
neutral stimulus (NS): pre learning -No experience/ no meaning unconditioned stimulus (UCS): - NS pairs with, object that naturally triggers response unconditioned responses (UCR): - naturally unlearned, response to UCS conditioned stimulus (CS): - Previously NS that, after association with an unconditioned stimmulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response. (learning the association) conditioned response (CR): -Learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus.
Most people think about the observable compulsions when they think about OCD. However, it is important to understand that those behaviors are driven by an ___. (one word)
obsession
perception
occurs when the brain receives the sensory input coming in from the body, organizes it, and interprets it. In our example, your eye senses green and brown light, long and round shapes, and you perceive a tree. (When the brain receives sensory information coming in from the body and interprets )
frontal lobe
planning, control, complex and intellectual though including ability to think, plan, judge, and think abstract -primary motor cortex- fine motor movements, each section of motor cortex=different part of the body - Broca's Area (usually left side)- language production, damage = Broca's Aphasia...slow, effortful, ungrammatical, speech language, comprehension less affected
Kohlberg's stages of moral development -preconventional level -conventional level -postconventional level
pre conventional: whats right is rewarded, whats wrong is punished, learning theory Conventional: social cultural, whats appropriate, whats good and bad, separate from individual experience of rewards/punishment, about defining good and bad based on group post conventional: social cognitive (influenced by beliefs, internalized, ideas about whats right and wrong, what would be wrong in 1 situation could be ok in another, studied in dilemmas ---> why? ) thinking about whats right and wrong based on what they believe (based on punishments, norms, good and evil), more about reasoning doesn't matter the answer.
Want behavior to go away--> have to be consistent
spontaneous recovery: may reappear for bit and go away ... if you ignore it --> recovery will occur if you want to go away...replace it with behavior with something that we want the animal to do..so it will learn to abandon the behavior
In Sherif's study, the "drinking water problem" was an example of
subordinate goal, also The Problem of Securing a Movie: The next superordinate goal to be introduced was a feature-length movie which has been a favorite for boys of this age level.
how would biosocial theorist explain why dif species have dif rations of rods and cones?
survival based on ability to find food. if eagles have better vision, make them easier to hunt - can depend if nocturnal or not--> nocturnal need more rods -position of eye--> predator- eyes on side - animals that live in fear of prey (side facing) -predators-->forward facing -why would monkeys need more cones/color vision? -color needed when see details in an environment and color can indicated poisonous or not
Extraversion
tendency to be active, sociable, person-oriented, talkative, optimistic, empathetic
Agreeableness
tendency to be good-natured, kind-hearted, helpful, altruistic and trusting.
Conscientiousness
tendency to be hardworking, reliable, ambitious, punctual and self-directed.
Openness
tendency to be imaginative, curious, creative and may have unconventional beliefs and values.
Neuroticism
tendency to become emotionally unstable and may even develop psychological distress
Pre-synaptic neuron
the nerve releasing neurotransmitters
What happened to conformity when there was one other person who broke the norm?
there was less of a conformity... power of group comes from uninitimity of its opposition, when broken less powerful. -we go along with what the group says because what they say convinces us we are right- informational conformity -sometimes we conform b/c we believe are apprehensive that the group will disapprove if we are deviant: normative conformity
4. Type I Vs. Type II error
type 1: falsely rejecting the null hypo (the effect that occurs does not occur in real life, but saying it occurs in your study) =FALSE SCIENTIFIC CLAIM type 2: Falsely accepting the null hypo (the effect u are looking for is real, but does not occur in real life) MISSED SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY
OBEDIENCE: What research procedure did Milgram use to test whether normal people would follow the orders of an authority figure and hurt another person? Be prepared to describe in detail the setup, methodology, and results.
used a person of authority (researcher in a white coat) and participants were led to believe they were randomly assigned to the role of teacher. The learner was the confederate and more likable. Learner was placed in an adjacent room. When the learner made an error, teacher was told to deliver a more powerful shock each time. The learner was pretending to be shocked. Learner demanded he had pain, to stop being shocked, he had a heart condition. If the participant hesitated to deliver the shocks after each error the researcher, explained to the study must go on. During the procedure, the participants that continued to deliver shocks, seemed to experience nervous breakdowns but continued to obey.
W/ in vs. Between subjects
w/ in subjects: counterbalance -->(2 test) randomly assigning order, measure value with-in sample, same group serves in more than 1 treatment/ conditions.. used in longitudinal studies between subjects: assignment, (1 tst) two or more groups, more chance measure between ie.. (experimental and control)
How does what we smell influence what we taste?
without ability to smell, lose ability to taste - only would be able to taste 5 that ur tastebuds can detect -sweet, salty, bitter, sour, savory as receptor cells --> impulses to brain -Spicy foods have compounds that activate polymodal nocireceptor neurons in the nose and mouth which increases the fumes being taken in by the nose, leading to an influence on taste