Psych 101 Exam 1 Review

(Wernicke's Area)

(Wernicke's Area) - Fast single word speech - Fluent aphasia

Wakefulness

Alpha waves (W-relaxed) Lower frequency Increase in amplitude Synchronous

Stimulants: Psychoactive drugs—including caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, and cocaine—that increase the central nervous system's activity

Amphetamines: Stimulant drugs that people use to boost energy, stay awake, or lose weight. Increases the release of dopamine which enhances person's activity level and pleasurable feelings Cocaine: Drug from the cocoa plant that produces a rush of euphoric feelings that lasts for about 15 to 30 minutes. Because the rush depletes the brain's supply of the neurotransmitters dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine, an agitated, depressed mood usually follows as the drug's effects decline Ecstasy: Illegal synthetic drug with both stimulant and hallucinogenic properties. Releases serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine. MDMA impairs memory and cognitive processing. Under its influence, users tend to feel warm bonds with others Caffeine: World's most widely used psychoactive drug. Stimulant and a natural component of plants that create coffee, tea, and cola drinks. Can boost energy and alertness with some unpleasant side effects Nicotine: Main psychoactive ingredient in all forms of smoking and smokeless tobacco. Nicotine stimulates the brain's reward centers by raising dopamine levels Behavioral effects of nicotine include improved attention and alertness, reduced anger and anxiety, and pain relief Quick tolerance and very unpleasant symptoms of withdrawal Tobacco produces a larger public health threat than most other illegal drugs

Overlap:

An object that partially conceals or overlaps another object is seen as being closer

Phineas Gage

Brain injury in 1848, 25 years old Damage to left frontal lobe and connections to limbic system Before injury: Responsible, reliable, likable After injury: Unreliable, impulsive, profane Unknown how long were behavior problems present

Reticular formation

Brain structure that is responsible for our ability to engage in complicated movements like eating, climbing stairs, etc. even without conscious awareness

Theta

Brain wave pattern most closely associated with light sleep

Sample

A relatively small proportion of people who are chosen in a survey so as to be representative of the whole. Portion of population actually observed

Which of the following scenarios correctly illustrates the effect of damage to Broca's area in the brain? A. Janine is unable to produce any words.B. Franchesca is unable to comprehend words spoken by others. C. Darrel is unable to remember what he ate in the morning or what he did the previous day. D. Stanley talks incessantly, but what he says makes no sense.

A. Janine is unable to produce any words.

Sarah's natural hair color is brown but she dyes it blonde. In the context of genes and the environment, Sarah has changed her A. phenotype. B. genotype. C. genetic code D. phylogeny.

A. phenotype

In the visual system, _____ are the receptors in the retina of the eye that are sensitive to light but are not very useful for color vision. A. rods B. cones C. bipolar cells D. ganglion cells

A. rods

Efferent/motor nerves:

Carries information out of the brain and spinal cord to other parts of the body, such as muscles or glands.

Chromosomes:

Carries the DNA. 46 chromosomes make up 23 pairs.

Movement aftereffects:

Caused by the overstimulation and fatigue of motion-specific feature detector cells Downwards feature detector cells and upwards feature detector cells are opponents Overstimulation of downward feature detector cells makes the next thing you look at appear to go upwards

Conclusion (Scientific Method)

Conclusions: Draw conclusions replication of results reliability/consistency validity/accuracy

A neuron is receiving signals from other neighboring neurons. Which structure on the receiving neuron is receiving the neurotransmitters released by the sending neuron? A. Axon B. Myelin Sheath C. Dendrite D. Axon Terminal

C. Dendrite

DNA:

Deoxyribonucleic Acid. Double stranded molecule that holds the genetic information of an organism.

Motor Cortex:

Directs body's motor functions

Narcolepsy

Disorder in which the person experiences sleep attacks

Aphasia:

Impairment of language use

Top Down:

Initiated by cognitive processing. Internal/mental world's influence on perception. Has expectations and prior understanding (Thinking about music and creates a perceptual experience in the minds ear)

Bottom Up:

Initiated by sensory input, outside world's influence on perception (Take in sounds that the brain interprets as music)

Left Hemisphere Function:

Language processing and function. recognizing words, numbers, and comprehension of grammar

Effects of psychoactive drugs

Losing ones responsibilities, problems in work and relationship, drug dependence, increased risk for serious, sometimes fatal diseases

Sleep and Dreams

Low levels of consciousness of outside world No awareness Unconscious (censored) thought - Freud Non-conscious processes

Freud's Psychodynamic Approach

Manifest and latent content Manifest: What happens in dream Latent: Deeper Meaning People are incredibly emotional and can bottle it up. Sleep produces dreams that provide meaning in life

Dopamine:

Movement, learning, attention, emotion. Lack of dopamine is in Parkinsons, excess dopamine is in schizophrenia.

Shading:

Notice changes in perception based on the position of light and the position of the viewer

Figure-Ground:

Our first perceptual task is to perceive any object (figure) as distinct from its surroundings (ground)

Regulation of body temperature is controlled by which brain structure?

Hypothalamus

James' Functionalism

Identify the purposes of the human mind Why of the mind

Wundt's Structuralism

Identify the structures of the human mind Introspection: Look inside our own minds What of the mind

Randomized Experiment

Random assignment to groups Independent Variable (IV): Casual Dependent Variable (DV): Effect

Corpus callosum

Split brain research demonstrates the importance of this brain structure in sharing information between the two hemispheres of the brain

Prefrontal cortex, nucleus accumbens, ventral tegmental area

Structures in the brain's dopamine reward pathway

Stage R (REM Sleep)

Rapid Eye Movements Dreaming EEG similar to relaxed wakefulness REM rebound If not getting enough REM sleep the night before, next night the brain puts you into REM sleep sooner 10-25 min, around 4 periods per night Brain incredibly active Heart rate, breathing, eyeballs moving, alpha and beta waves, sexual arousal unrelated to REM sleep Non-declarative memories stored Motor Procedural

Similarity:

We group objects together based on similarities (color, shape, size) We group the 12 red and 12 blue circles separately

Proximity:

We group objects together based on the distance apart from each other We see two grouped columns of circles, instead of 6 total columns

Continuity

We group objects together based on the pattern they would form if they had been connected We see these circles forming a wave-like pattern instead of circles by themselves

Familiar Size:

We know the size of an object, thus can tell how far away that object is likely to be based on the size of its image in the retina

observational research

Researcher John Gottman observed couples in his Love Lab at the University of Washington and was able to predict the success or failure of a marriage with a 94% accuracy by listening to a couple argue for 5 minutes.

Double-Blind Experiment

an experiment in which neither the experimenter nor the participants know which participants received which treatment

Single-Blind Experiment

an experiment in which the participants are unaware of which participants received the treatment

Afferent/sensory nerves:

carries information to the brain and spinal cord. Sensory pathways communicate information from sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cords

A binocular depth cue that enables us to estimate how far an object is from us based on how much our eyes converge (or move together) is referred to as ______________.

convergence.

To establish evidence for a causal relationship, a(n) _________research study must be conducted, and the two (or more) groups in the study should be _________ at the very beginning of the research study (i.e., before a treatment or intervention is introduced).

experimental research ; equivalent

When Matt sees a German shepherd standing far away from him, he still recognizes its height even though the image of the dog on his retina is much smaller than when the dog is near him. This scenario best illustrates the phenomenon of_____________________.

size constancy.

Wilhelm Wundt was a proponent of structuralism / functionalism (choose one).

structuralism.

Auditory perception:

structures and functions (outer ear, middle ear, inner ear [cochlear implant])

Lacy and her friend are at a crowded tourist destination. Despite the noise of the crowd, Lacy and her friend have no trouble speaking to each and hearing one other. In this scenario, this phenomenon is known as______________________.

the cocktail party effect

Experimenter Bias

the influence of the experimenter's expectations on the outcome of research

Corpus Callosum

thick bundle of fibers (essentially axons) that connects the brain cells of the hemispheres together. Allows for continuous flow of information via a neural bridge.

Plasticity:

three processes (collateral sprouting, substitution of function, neurogenesis), examples of plasticity (e.g., some cases of hydrocephalus) Brain's capacity for modification and repair, such as brain organization following damage. Common before age 5 years old before functions of cortical regions become entirely fixed

The ________ theory of color vision states that color perception is produced by three types of cone receptors in the retina that are particularly sensitive to different, but overlapping, ranges of wavelengths.

trichromatic

Perception:

Constructs the raw information gained by senses into our experiences. Active process by which we select, organize, and interpret and give meaning to sensory information

Cataplexy

Narcolepsy where person becomes paralyzed Happens during high emotional stages

tolerance of psychoactive drugs

Need to take increasing amounts of a drug to get the same effect

Feature detector cells:

Neurons in the visual cortex that respond to specific features Responds to edges, lines, angles, and movements. Some feature detector cells only respond to specific ones Can pass info to other areas of the cerebral cortex called supercell clusters which can respond to more complex patterns.

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter most closely associated with both schizophrenia and Parkinson's disease

Neurogenesis:

New neurons are generated

Darwin's Natural Selection

Organisms that are better adapted to their environment will survive and produce more offspring Natural selection: Environment determines who wins competition by selecting traits that are more beneficial for survival and reproduction.

Amygdala

Two almond shaped neural clusters Involved in expression and perception of distress, fear, and aggression Size is positively correlated with size of social network Removal of amygdala results in more passive, docile behavior in animals

Sleep Cycles

Typically 5 cycles a night 90-100 minutes per cycle Sleep patterns change during the night Typical night includes 60% Stages N1 and N2 sleep 20% Stage N3 sleep 20% REM sleep Time most spent in REM sleep is when you are a baby

Hypothesis (Scientific Method)

Formulate hypotheses and predictions Testable and falsifiable prediction Derived from theory (observation → theory → hypothesis) hypothesis is opportunity to test theory Operationalizing variables (make variable objectively measurable) age

Psychoactive drugs

1. Effects on users; tolerance; addiction (physical and psychological dependence); reward pathway 2. Depressants (alcohol, opiates), stimulants (amphetamines, cocaine, Ecstasy, caffeine, nicotine), hallucinogens (marijuana, LSD) Drugs that act on the nervous system to alter consciousness, modify perception, and change mood.

Types of research

: descriptive (observation [Gottman], surveys and interviews, case studies), correlational, experimental (random assignment vs. random sampling, independent vs. dependent variable, confounding variable), quasi-experimental designs

A - In this type of experimental procedure, neither the subject nor the experimenter knows which group the subject has been assigned to. This helps to reduce experimenter bias and controls for a possible placebo effect. B - If the research subjects know which group they have been assigned to, but the researchers do not have this information, then the research study is referred to as a ___________ study

A - double-blind procedure B - single-blind

Convergence

A binocular cue to depth and distance in which the muscle movements of the two eyes provide information about how deep or far away an object is Your eyes come together when looking at an object close up, and is able to concentrate on an object farther away without pulling the eyes together

Ponzo Illusion

A line or object will look longer (or larger) than another line or object of equal size if depth cues suggest the first is farther away from the viewer.

Muller-Lyer Illusion

A line with wings pointing outward looks longer than a line with "wings" pointing inward

Reticular Activating System:

A network of structures including the brain stem, medulla, and thalamus that are involved in the experience of arousal and engagement with the environment. Danger: High alert, arousal is high Safety: Low alert, low arousal

Theory of mind

Ability to attribute mental states (beliefs, intentions, desires, knowledge) to oneself and to others and to understand that others have beliefs, desires, intentions, and knowledge that are different from one's own Develops at around 3 - 4 ½ years of age Autistic individuals lack a well developed theory of mind Temporoparietal Junction: Location where the temporal and parietal lobes meet in which theory of mind develops

Admitting to being wrong

According to Gottman, doing this is like defusing a bomb during an argument with one's partner

Why do need sleep & The effects of chronic sleep deprivation

Adaptive Evolutionary Function Safety Energy conservation/efficiency Restorative Function Body rejuvenation and growth Brain Plasticity Enhances synaptic connections Memory consolidation

Depressants: Psychoactive drugs that slow down mental and physical activity.

Alcohol: Depressant that affects everything from the operation of the nervous, circulatory, and digestive systems to sensation, perception, motor coordination, and intellectual functioning. Opiates: Opium and its derivatives; narcotic drugs that depress the central nervous system's activity and eliminate pain

Norepinephrine:

Alertness and arousal. Lack of supply can depress mood.

Research Settings

Artificial World - Laboratory Setting Controlled setting Real World - Natural Setting Naturalistic Observation

Surveys and Interviews

Ask people about their feelings, opinions, or attitudes Can be used to collect data from hundreds, even thousands, of people Important limitation is that people don't always have insight into themselves Validity Scales: Measures if a person is exaggerating or minimizing thoughts

Collateral Sprouting:

Axons of healthy neurons adjacent to damaged cells grow new branches Substitution of Function: Damaged region's function is taken over by another area of the brain

Jonathan has a plate that holds 20 cup cakes. He would notice if one of them went missing. However, on a table with 100 cup cakes, he would notice only if five cup cakes went missing. This phenomenon is best explained by A. the Ponzo illusion. B. Weber's law. C. Throndike's law. D. the Stroop effect.

B. Weber's law.

n the context of experimental research, internal validity refers to the A. extent to which the experimental design reflects the real-world issues it explores. B. extent to which changes in the dependent variable are genuinely due to the manipulation of the independent variable. C. degree to which the results of the experiment are generalizable to the larger population. D. methodology used to carry out the random assignment of samples.

B. extent to which changes in the dependent variable are genuinely due to the manipulation of the independent variable.

Three-year-old Rita and her four-year-old brother Bob are watching a movie. In the movie, a "monster" sneaks into the closet while a little boy is sleeping. While Rita says nothing, Bob begins to shout at the screen telling the little boy not to open the closet door. Their different reactions reflect differences in A. the social learning theory. B. the theory of mind C. problems with perception. D. insight discrepancies.

B. the theory of mind.

Dr. Meg proposes that students find it difficult to return to their academic schedules after spring break. Specifically, she predicts that every year there will be more student absences on the Monday following spring break than on the Friday before spring break. The first statement describes the _____, while the second is the _____. A. design of the study; research method B. theory; hypothesis C. hypothesis; operational definition D. prediction; procedure

B. theory; hypothesis

W-alert

Beta waves (W-alert) High frequency (the # of peaks) Low amplitude (height of peaks)

Circadian Rhythms:

Body's 24 hour cycles

Opponent-Process Theory:

Cells in the visual system respond to complementary pairs of red-green and blue-yellow colors. Cells can be excited for one color but not the other pair (ex: cell excited by red but inhibited by green, or excited by yellow and inhibited by blue Helps explain afterimages, where you see the image or its outline on another spot without it. Looking at a red image too long tires it, but when you look away it rebounds and gives a green afterimage

Sensory adaptation

Change in the responsiveness of sensory systems based on the average level of surrounding stimulation Explains diminished sensitivity to stimuli when there is constant stimulation - constant exposure to a stimulus causes nerve cell to fire less frequently

Neurotransmitters:

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap between neurons

Sleep Deprivation

Chronic sleep deprivation results in Inability to sustain attention Poor decision making and problem solving Decreased activity in thalamus and prefrontal cortex Sleep-wake phase disorder Sleeps only at a specific time Can be fixed by sleeping hours later than expected time

Gene

Codes for proteins out of amino acids. Contains short segments of chromosomes composed of DNA

Trichromatic Theory:

Color perception is produced by three types of cone receptors that are particularly sensitive to different, but overlapping ranges of wavelengths People with normal vision can match any color of the spectrum by combining three other wavelengths If the combination of any three wavelengths is indistinguishable from any single pure wavelength, the visual system must base its perception of color on the relative responses of three receptor systems- cones red, blue, and green Colorblind people have one or multiple of these cones inoperable, making certain colors indistinguishable from each other.

Retinal Disparity:

Comparing the different images perceived in both retinas allows us to measure the distance an object is away When you look at an object normally, then switch to only looking at it with your left and right eye, you notice that the position of the object is different for both eyes due to the position of where your eye is

Consciousness (awareness, arousal)

Consciousness: An individual's awareness of certain events and internal sensations under a condition of arousal, including awareness of the self and thoughts about ones experiences Awareness: The state of being conscious about what's going on. Awareness of the self and thoughts about one's experiences Arousal: The physiological state of being engaged with the environment

Inner Ear:

Converts sound waves into neural impulses and sends them to the brain Oval window: Opening of inner ear that accepts sound waves from stirrup Cochlea: Snail shaped tubular structure filled with liquid. When sound waves from the stirrup enter the cochlea the fluid in the canals vibrate Basilar membrane: Lines the inner wall of the cochlea and runs the entire length. Lined with hair cells that act as the ears sensory receptors Tectorial membrane: Jellylike flap above hair cells that generates impulses that the brain interpret as sound

What is the name of the large bundle of axons that connects the two halves of the brain? A. basal ganglia B. cingulate gyrus C. angular gyrus D. corpus callosum

D. corpus callosum

Monocular Cues:

Depth cues available from the image in one eye, either the right or the left

Size constancy:

Depth cues help the visual system judge size accurately. Because of depth cues we don't think that an object viewed at a close distance is actually smaller in size when viewed at a farther distance. Ame's Room: Invented by Adelbert Ames Jr. in 1934. Designed to manipulate distance cues to make two same-sized people appear very different in size.

Binocular Cues:

Depth cues that depend on the combination of the image in the left and right eye and on the way the two eyes look together

Sensation:

Detects physical energy from the environment and encodes it as neural signals

Observe/Measure any Effect

Difference between groups Dependent Variable

Explaining hypnosis (divided consciousness, social cognitive behavior)

Divided State of Consciousness Follow suggestions of hypnotist Hidden observer During hypnosis person is still aware of surroundings, even if the person after hypnosis forgets Instinct; cannot force the body to harm itself or others Somatosensory cortex might not get registered signals for pain Anterior singularity cortex (front part of brain) registers emotional pain

Descriptive Research

Does not answer questions about why things are the way they are They can however identify important information about people's behaviors and attitudes

Which neurotransmitter seems to play the largest role in contributing to the pleasurable effects of many drugs?

Dopamine

Activation-Synthesis Theory

Dreams are the brain making sense out of random brain activity

Addiction to psychoactive drugs

Either a physical or a psychological dependence, or both, on a drug

Action Potential:

Electrochemical process where a message is sent down to the axon generated by the movement of + charged atoms in and out of the axon. All or none, can either happen or not happen

Acetylcholine (ACh):

Enables muscle action, learning, memory. Alzheimers deteriorates ACh producing neurons

Population

Entire group about whom conclusion is to be drawn

Evaluate (scientific method)

Evaluate: Evaluate the theory change the theory? peer review and publication meta-analysis statistical technique designed to analyze the results from lots of studies

Glutamate:

Excitatory neurotransmitter, involved in memory. Oversupply can overstimulate the brain, creating migraines or seizures.

Quasi-Experimental Design

Experimental design that does not randomly assignment participants because its either impossible or unethical Researchers examine participants in varying groups, but group assignment is not determined randomly Might be used to study groups that already exist

Experimental Research

Experiments are one of the few research designs that allow you to directly test why something happens, that is, to test for cause and effect Goal: Determine Causation Independent Variable Random assignment to groups Experimental Group Hypothesized cause is manipulated Control Group Treated equally, except no manipulation The groups in the study should be equivalent at the very beginning of the study before a treatment or intervention is included

When Tommy touched the hot stove he got burned. Since he was experiencing great pain it's likely that he was experiencing strong action potentials in his brain. TRUE or FALSE

FALSE Action potentials are not weak or strong. An action potential or it doesn't happen. However, it is possible that he experienced many action potentials in a short period of time.

Correlational Research

Goal: Identify Relationships Correlation coefficient: r -1.00 < r < 1.00 strength of relationship: magnitude direction of relationship: + or - Correlation does not equal causation A correlation does not settle why behavior occurs Third variable problem: Confounding variable Confounding variables are things outside of the research that may affect the results.

GABA:

Inhibitory neurotransmitter. Lack of supply can cause seizures, tremors, insomnia.

Subconscious Awareness

Incubation Parallel Processing Ex: Trying to solve a problem, step away and while doing another activity arrive to the answer

Genotype:

Individuals genetic heritage, their genetic material

Phenotype:

Individuals observable characteristics, both physical and psychological.

Cognitive Theory

Information processing and memory N2 sleep spindles help form declarative memories, while REM produces non declarative memories

Synapses:

Junction between neurons (axon terminal - dendrite). Tiny gap between neurons is the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft, only 20 nm

According to Gottman, what are the keys to failure?

Keys to failure: Criticisms rather than complains, contempt (disgust), stonewalling (ignoring), defensiveness, rejecting/ignoring emotional bids for connection

Hypothalamus

Lies below (hypo) the thalamus Directs eating, drinking, body temp, sexual behavior Controls pituitary gland which influences hormone levels Linked to emotion Contains reward centers

Cerebellum

Little brain attached to rear of brainstem Coordinates voluntary movement, balance Enables some types of nonverbal memory (including motor skills) and learning Active when you tickle yourself, inactive when someone is tickling you

Prefrontal cortex:

Located in frontal lobe (working memory, planning, prioritizing, inhibiting behavior, managing emotion) ADHD: causes inattention, hyperactivity, or combined stimulant meds can activate prefrontal cortex and mediate symptoms

Parietal Cortex:

Located in the parietal lobe. Responsible for spatial processing and reasoning (visual imagination, playing some video games)

Temporal Cortex:

Located in the temporal lobe. Involved in speech and music perception, language comprehension

Temporal lobes

Location of the auditory cortex

Hallucinogens: Psychoactive drugs that modify a person's perceptual experiences and produce visual images that are not real

Marijuana: Dried leaves and flowers of the hemp plant Cannabis sativa Active ingredient THC disrupts the membranes of neurons and affects the functioning of a variety of neurotransmitters and hormones Increased pulse rate and blood pressure, reddening of the eyes, coughing, and dry mouth. Can damage lungs. Has excitatory, depressive, and mildly hallucinatory characteristics that make it difficult to classify the drug. Illegal drug most widely used in high school students LSD: Hallucinogen that even in low doses produces striking perceptual changes. Acts primarily on the neurotransmitter serotonin in the brain, although it also can affect dopamine

Hypnosis

Marked by altered attention and expectation Unusual receptiveness to suggestions 10% of people are highly hypnotizable 1. The nature of hypnosis; 4 steps in hypnosis Distractions are minimized; person is comfortable Told to concentrate on something specific Told what to expect (Eg; relaxation) Certain events/feelings are suggested (Eg: your eyes are tired) There are individual variations in ability to be hypnotized (degrees of hypnotizability)

• What is the mean, median and mode for the following set of scores? • 1, 1, 3, 6, 9

Mean = 4 Median= 3 Mode = 1

Measures of Central Tendency

Mean: Average Median: Midpoint, half above half below Mode: Most frequent Measures of Dispersion: range, standard deviation

Absolute Threshold:

Minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time Difference Threshold (Just noticeable difference (jnd)): Minimum difference a person can detect between any two stimuli 50% of the time. Weber's Law: jnd is not a constant fixed amount. Instead its a constant proportion of the original stimulus. (50+5 = 100+10)

Suprachiasmatic nucleus:

Monitors circadian rhythm, sends signal to pineal gland to produce melatonin Desynchronizing the Clock Shift work problems Insomnia Jet lag Resetting the Clock Bright Light Melatonin

Serotonin:

Mood, hunger, sleep, arousal. Lack of supply in depression. Prozac and other antidepressant drugs raise serotonin levels by blocking reuptake.

Rod

Most important type of cell for seeing at night

Myelin

Multiple sclerosis is most closely related to damage to..

Night terrors typically occur during the sleep stage of _______ and they are most common when children are ____ to ____ years of age.

N-3; 5 to 7 years of age.

Linear perspective and relative size:

Objects further away take up less space in the retina, thus are perceived to be further away. When we see objects in the distance we can notice parallel lines appear to converge

Height in the field of view:

Objects that are viewed taller are seen as being further away

observe (scientific method)

Observe the world: Observe some phenomenon Inductive method: Observe the world and come up with ideas (Observation → theory) Deductive method: Come up with ideas and make observations to support it (Theory → Observation)

Scientific Method Steps

Observe, hypothesize (derived from theory), test, conclusions, evaluate

Checker-Shadow Illusion:

Our visual illusion makes a judgment regarding brightness even based on perceived lighting. The gray square outside of the shadow is the same color as the gray square inside the shadow.

Outer Ear:

Outermost part of ear, consisting of pinna and the external auditory canal Pinna collects sounds and channels them to the interior ear

Middle Ear:

Part of the ear that channels sound through the eardrum, hammer, anvil, and stirrup into the inner ear Tympanic membrane separates outer ear from middle ear, and vibrates in response to sound Hammer, anvil, stirrup smallest bones in the body. When they vibrate they send sound waves to the fluid filled inner ear Muscles that operate these bones take the vibration of the eardrum and channel it to the oval window, opening of the inner ear

Research Participant Bias

Participants behavior is influenced by how they think the researcher expects them to behave

Placebo Effect

Participants expectations rather than the experimental treatment produce an outcome

Lightness (Brightness) constancy:

Perception of the brightness of an object is constant even hile the surrounding lighting varies. White paper looks white regardless of it being in the sunlight or in shadows. White paper reflects 90% of light falling on it Black paper reflects 10% of light falling on it

Shape Constancy:

Perception of the form of familiar objects is constant even while our retinal images of them change. A door is still the same shape, even if its open.

Wernicke's Aphasia:

Person can speak only and is unable to comprehend language; caused by damage to a specific area of the temporal lobe

Broca's Aphasia:

Person struggles to form words; caused by damage to a specific area in the frontal lobe

Attention and selective attention (cocktail party effect, inattentional blindness)

Process of focusing awareness on a narrow aspect of the environment Selection Attention: Focusing on a specific aspect of the environment while ignoring other aspects Cocktail Party Effect:Ability to concentrate on one voice among many in a crowded situation Inattentional Blindness: Failure to detect unexpected events when our attention is engaged by a task

Defining Psychology

Psychology requires critical thinking, skepticism, objectivity, curiosity (e.g., understanding the emotional impact of social media) Critical Thinking asking questions, evaluating evidence Skepticism willingness to challenge accepted knowledge Objectivity use of an empirical approach (observation, objective analysis) Curiosity wondering why, seeking explanations

Reuptake

Reabsorption of chemicals back into the axon to use for another signal.

Somatosensory Cortex:

Receives sensory input from body Contralateral Input left hemisphere controls right side, and vise versa Ipsilateral Input Same hemisphere controls same side Upper face has both contralateral and ipsilateral, while lower face has purely contralateral

Auditory Cortex:

Receives, processes auditory info

Visual Cortex:

Receives, processes visual information

Structure of the eye (know retina, rods, cones, optic nerve)

Retina: Light sensitive surface that records electromagnetic energy and converts it into neural impulses for processing in the brain Rods: Receptors in the retina that are sensitive to light but not useful for color vision. Functions well under low illumination or at night. Cones: Receptors in the retina used for color perception. Best used in daytime or high illumination. No cones in periphery When the optic nerve leaves the eye, there are no rods or cones

Multiple sclerosis:

Scars on myelin sheath, autoimmune disease where WBC attacks myelin. Causes muscle weakness, coordination and speech problems, depression

sleep disorders

Sleep Apnea Obstructive: Back of throat, air not able to get through) Central: Brain stops sending message to breathe, rare Link between sleep apnea and SIDS (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome) 50% of SIDS cases child had a cold Sleep Walking, Talking, and Eating (Found in N3, Deep sleep) Nightmares (REM sleep) and Night Terrors (N3 Deep Sleep) Night Terrors not dreams Occurs in 5-7 year olds During deep sleep, kid wakes up and freaking out but is not awake Delayed sleep onset Intermittent awakening Early Morning awakening (melancholia)

Sleep and disease & Sleep disorders (e.g., insomnia, narcolepsy)

Sleep problems common in Alzheimer's disease, stroke, cancer Infectious diseases induce sleep Sleep problems are common in those with mental disorders Sleep Disorders

Stage N-1 (Non-REM 1)

Slow frequency Low amplitude (but greater than alpha) Theta waves Lightest stage of sleep (10 minutes) Myoclonic jerk (hypnic jerk): Sudden muscle contraction

Stage N-3 (Non-REM 3)

Slowest frequency and highest amplitude Delta waves Deep Sleep Bedwetting, sleep walking, sleep talking, night terrors

Cochlear Implants

Small electronic device surgically implanted in the ear and head uses electric impulses to directly stimulate whatever hair cells are left in the cochlea

According to Gottman, what are solutions for couples?

Solutions: Build love maps, express fondness and admiration, turn toward one another, accept influence, compromise, manage conflict, create shared meaning Admitting to being wrong in one thing can defuse an argument

Demand Characteristics

Some aspect of the research study communicates to subjects how the experimenter wants them to behave

Right Hemisphere Function:

Spatial perception, visual recognition, emotion, recognizing faces

What type of psychoactive substance is nicotine classified as?

Stimulant

Case Studies

Study a single individual in great depth Can gather a great amount of information about a person's experiences, his/her thoughts and feelings, family, etc. Can be an important first step in research, but the case may not be generalizable to other individuals

Stage N-2 (Non-REM 2)

Sudden increase in wave frequency K-Complex: Sudden increase in amplitude Sleep spindles: Brief bursts of rhythmic brain activity associated with declarative memories Declarative memories: Facts, events Transitioning into consolidated memories Still light sleep (20 minutes)

(Broca's Area)

Super slow speech and writing - Nonfluent aphasia

Limbic System

System of (below the wrinkled cerebral cortex) neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral cortex Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus

Supercell clusters

Teams of cells that respond to complex visual patterns, such as the shape of a giraffe

Closure:

Tendency to fill in gaps to create a complete, whole object.

Stream of Consciousness

Term used by William James to describe the mind as a continuous flow of changing sensations, images, thoughts, and feelings.

Test (Scientific Method)

Test: Test through empirical research Operation definition of variables Analyze data, typically using statistical procedures Operationally define happiness? Ask the person using a questionnaire? Observe # of smiles per hour? Ask the persons friends? Hypotheses must be objectively tested

Texture gradient:

Textures become denser and finer the further away it is from the viewer

Gestalt

The brain has a tendency to perceive stimuli as whole and complete if possible. The whole is more than the sum of its parts

Thalamus

The brain's sensory switchboard

Minimize sensory adaptation

The main reason our eye balls are constantly quivering

Continuous positive airway to pressure

The most effective treatment for sleep apnea

Tolerance

The need to take greater amounts of a substance to produce the same effect.

Physical dependence of psychoactive drugs

The physiological need for a drug that causes unpleasant withdrawal symptoms such as physical pain and a craving for the drug when it is discontinued.

Contempt

The single best predictor that a romantic relationship will end, according to a leading relationship researcher

Psychological dependence of psychoactive drugs

The strong desire to repeat the use of a drug for emotional reasons, such as a feeling of wellbeing and reduction of stress. Reward pathway: Located in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and nucleus accumbens (NAcc). Information travels up the VTA and NAcc up to the prefrontal cortex. VTA located in the midbrain just above the pons NAcc located in the forebrain just underneath the prefrontal cortex

Unified Information Processing System:

The two processes are essentially inseparable

Gestalt Grouping Principles:

The ways we group visual information into "wholes" to include proximity, continuity, and similarity.

Signal detection theory

Theory of perception that states that people make decisions about perception of stimuli under conditions of uncertainty Predicts that absolute threshold will change with our experience, expectations, level of fatigue and urgency of the moment and our judgment about which error is worse True Positive: Signal Present and you see signal False Positive: Signal Absent and you see signal False Negative: Signal Present and didn't see signal True Negative: Signal Absent and didn't see signal

inattentional blindness

This is illustrated by the Invisible Gorilla research study

Uses and effectiveness of hypnosis

Treats various health issues PTSD Irritable bowel syndrome Smoking cessation Overeating Phobias Insomnia Effectiveness is debatable Can reduce experience of pain (controls pain)

Sleep stages:

W-alert, W-relaxed, N1, N2, N3, R EEG (electroencephalograph) measures electrical activity in the brain Identifies stages of wakefulness and sleep

Thresholds:

absolute, difference (Weber's law); subliminal perception

Sally is working hard on her math homework. She is focused and concentrating. Her brain waves are likely _________ waves.

beta waves.

Depth perception:

binocular cues (e.g., convergence), monocular cues Depth perception: the ability to see objects 3 dimensionally

Internal Validity

extent to which we can draw cause-and-effect inferences from a study

Confounding variables

factors that cause differences between the experimental group and the control group other than the independent variable

Issues related to experimental research

internal validity, external validity, research settings, experimenter bias, demand characteristics, research participant bias, placebo effect

Representative Sample:

randomly selected sample of subjects from a larger population of subjects Characteristics similar to population (opposite of biased sample) Random Sample: Each individual in population has equal chance of being selected Biased Sample: Clear outcome or characteristic within the sample 5. Analyzing data: descriptive vs. inferential statistics, measures of central tendency, measures of dispersion

External Validity

the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and to other people (in real world)

• Todd is interested in whether there is a benefit to studying for tests in groups. For his history test he studies with a small group of classmates. For his biology test he studies by himself. • When he gets the test results he finds that he has done better on the history test, leading him to conclude that studying in groups is helpful. • A friend, who happens to be in both classes, points out to Todd that he needs to consider that the biology test was much harder. • In this example, what are the independent variable (I.V.), dependent variable (D.V.) and possible confounding variable (C.V.)? I.V. = __________ D.V. = __________ C.V. = ____________

• I.V. = Study method (studying in groups or by himself) • D.V. = Test score • C.V. = Difficulty of test

• For each of the following, indicate if the correlation is expected to be POSITIVE or NEGATIVE -Study time and test scores = ____________ correlation -Work hours and test scores = ____________ correlation -Weight of a car and MPG (miles per gallon) = ____________ correlation -Smoking and alcohol use = ____________ correlation

• Positive • Negative • Negative • Positive