psych 107 exam 3

exam 3

A relatively permanent change in behavior or potential behavior that results from experience is called Learning Learning has occured When a change in behavior is relatively permanent Classical conditioning can be though of as learning What events signal Habituation and sensitization can be thought of as learning To notice or ignore events Classical conditioning involves learning That one event predicts another A psychology professor has just purchased a collection of papers by Ivan Pavlov. In the papers, Pavlov discusses his research on learning. The papers are probably about Classical conditioning If a stimulus produces a response before training begins, that stimulus is An unconditioned stimulus In classical conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus is An environmental event that elicits an observable reaction without any prior training Matthew used to like strawberries and tried some frozen strawberry daiquiris one night. After the sixth daiquiri, Matthew became extremely ill. Now Matthew finds that even the smell of the strawberries can make him feel nauseated. In this example of classical conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus is The strawberry daiquiris that Matthew consumed When Selma was five years old she was terrified and became hysterical when her older brother dropped a spider down her shirt. Today, even the sight of a spider is enough to make her agitated and uneasy. In this example of classical conditioning, having the spider dropped down her shirt by her older brother is An unconditioned stimulus In classical conditioning, the unconditioned response is An observable reaction to an environmental event that is elicited without any prior training Anton was dancing with his new girlfriend at an Elvis tribute. When the band started playing "Can't Help Falling In Love With You," his girlfriend gave him a long, passionate kiss, which Anton found very enjoyable. Now Anton finds that ever time he hears the song, he becomes mildly excited. In this example of classical conditioning, the unconditioned response is The enjoyment Anton experienced when his girlfriend kissed him In classical conditioning, an environmental event that only elicits an observable reaction after training or experience is referred to as A conditioned stimulus In Pavlov's classical conditioning experiments, the dog's salivating following the sounding of a bell was The conditioned response In Pavlov's classical conditioning experiments, before the dog learned the association, the food functioned as which of the following? The unconditioned stimulus Adolf felt a rush of excitement at the thought of what he could do with winning a $1000 when the telephone rang. Now Adolf finds that whenever he hears a telephone ring, he feels a small surge of excitement. In this example of classical conditioning, the conditioned stimulus is The ringing of the telephone Nicole was having dinner at Appleby's with her boyfriend last year. When their food arrived, he and she began to argue. The argument was serious and continued the entire evening. Now Nicole finds that every time she is in Appleby's, she begins to feel tense and upset. In this example of classical conditioning, being in Appleby's is A conditioned stimulus In classical conditioning, an observable reaction to an environment event that is elicited only after training or experience is referred to as A conditioned response In classical conditioning, the conditioned response is An observable reaction to an environmental event that is elicited only after training or experience When Natasha was five years old she was terrified and became hysterical when her older brother dropped a spider down her shirt. Today, even the sight of a rubber spider is enough to make her agitated and uneasy. In this example of classical conditioning, the conditioned response is The agitation Natasha experiences when she sees a rubber spider Troy is trying to study, and his sister is in the next room, playing with balloons. She counts "one, two, three," and just as she says three she pops one of the balloons with a pin. Each time a balloon pops Troy is startled and jumps. By the time his sister has popped sic balloons Troy begins to cringe when he hears the counting start, before he actually hears the balloon pop. In this example of classical conditioning, the cringing that Troy experiences when he hears his sister start counting is A conditioned response Sarah used to like strawberries and tried some frozen daiquiris one night. After the sixth daiquiri, Sarah became extremely ill. Now Sarah finds that even the smell of strawberries can make her feel nauseated. In this example of classical conditioning, the conditioned response is The nausea that Sarah feels when she smells strawberries Research has shown that the most effective classical conditioning association will form when the unconditioned stimulus occurs Soon after the conditioned stimulus Elizabeth wants to train her cat to drool at the sound of the telephone, so she plans to pair the sound of the ringing telephone with a tasty piece of tuna. To use classical conditioning most effectively, Elizabeth should present the tuna A few seconds after the telephone rings Research has shown that classical conditioning will be most effective when the conditioned stimulus Provides new information about the occurrence of the unconditioned stimulus What was Edward Thorndike's research goal? To find a simplistic behavioristic explanation of learning According to Thorndike, reinforcement is an event that Increases the probability of the preceding response What did Thorndike mean by the Law of Effect? Responses that are followed by reinforcement become more probable The main difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning is that in operant conditioning The animal's behavior controls the outcomes (including reinforcers). Classical conditioning applies primarily to ______ responses; operant conditioning applies primarily to ______ responses. Visceral Skeletal What is a secondary reinforcer? Something that became reinforcing by previous experience An event that can serve as a reinforcer only because of its previous association with other reinforcers is know as A secondary reinforcer Children who are frequently spanked tend to be ill-behaved. What conclusion (if any) can we draw from this result? We can draw none of these conclusions Negative reinforcement is also known as Escape or avoidance learning What procedure leads to extinction in operant conditioning? Give no reinforcement after the response In the past, every time a rat has pressed a lever it has received a piece of food. The rat's rate of pressing has reached a high level. What procedure would produce extinction of the response? Let the rat press the lever many times without receiving food When your professor arrives and open his notes, you stop talking to the person next to you and prepare to take notes. This situation illustrates the influence of A discriminative stimulus B.F. Skinner was known for his objection to The use of mental terms in describing behavior At which stage of operant conditioning does an experimenter make use of shaping? At the start of training What is chaining in operant conditioning? Reinforcing each behavior by the opportunity to do the next behavior You reward yourself with a snack every time you finish reading a chapter in your text. This is an example of which type of schedule of reinforcement? Fixed ratio The more lottery tickets you buy, the greater your chances of winning. However, you have no way of knowing how many tickets you will have before you win. It might be fewer than the; it might be more than a million. This is an example of which type of schedule of reinforcement? Variable ratio An individual receives a reinforcement after a certain number of responses. Sometimes 5 responses are necessary, sometimes 2, and sometimes 10. This is an example of which type of schedule of reinforcement? Variable ratio An individual receives a reinforcement for the first response after a 1 minute interval, but not again until the next 1 minute interval has passed. This is an example of which type of schedule of reinforcement? Fixed interval If you like to go fishing, and the fish are biting on some days and not others, you are reinforced on which schedule? Variable-ratio Reinforcement on which schedule produces a slow but steady rate of responding? Variable interval If reinforcement occurs after every sixth response, which schedule of reinforcement is this? Fixed-ratio schedule You attend every new movie that appears at your local theater. You find that most of them are dull (not reinforcing) but really enjoy about one fourth of them. This is an example of a _____ schedule of reinforcement. Variable-ratio Which of the following statements about extinction following intermittent reinforcement is true? Extinction following intermittent reinforcement is slower than following continuous reinforcement In what way do people sometimes make use of an operant-conditioning principle when they try to persuade someone to do something? They reinforce a small amount of cooperation and work up from there What does psychological research say about using a cell phone while you are driving? Even listening to your passenger's half of a conversation is distracting You look at a series of gauges. Most have their indicators pointing to the right, but one is pointing down. You notice the odd one immediately, regardless of how many other gauges are present. What directed your attention? Pre-attentive process Dr. Rhea D. Zeiner wants to improve the cockpit of an airplane. She observes that a row of control gauges has needles pointing in several directions. She corrects this problem by designing gauges with their safe zones in the same direction. This is an application of what? Pre attentive process The Choice-Delay task offers a small immediate reward or a larger, delayed reward. Who is more likely than average to prefer the immediate reward? People with ADD People often fail to notice something that occurs slowly, or while they are blinking their eyes or while moving their eyes. What is this phenomenon called? Change blindness A student in one experiment is showing the Stroop effect. Which change in the usual procedure would probably stop the student from showing this effect? Write the words in a language the student does not know You are looking for a well-camouflaged animal in a forest. Finding it will require Attentive process If you look at words written in various colors, you find it difficult to say the colors instead of reading the words. What is this phenomenon called? Stroop effect When you are asked how something would look from a different angle, you say you "imagined rotating the object in my head." What evidence did Shepard & Metzler present to show that what you did really is like watching an object rotate? The delay to answering is proportional to the angular distance of rotation Which task is more difficult for an experienced reader to perform than it is for someone just learning to read? Look at the names at the names of colors written in different colors and say the color of each word, rather than the word itself According to the conceptual network approach, we learn that a canary is a kind of bird, which is a kind of animal. We also learn the distinctive characteristics of canaries, birds, and animals. What evidence supports this view? People answer faster when asked whether a canary is yellow and slower when asked whether a canary has skin When people are asked how many animals of each species Moses took on the ark, many people answer "two" instead of noting that Noah, not Moses, was the ark-maker. This error has been interpreted in terms of Spreading activation What is a prototype? A typical example of a category Which of these questions would people answer most quickly? Do politicians sometimes give speeches? According to the concept of prototypes, how do we decide whether an item belongs to a particular category? We compare the item to the most typical members of the category What does the concept of spreading activation attempt to explain? Why you think of a particular word at a particular time If you are asked what word starts NEP---, you are more likely to think of NEPHEW if you had recently heard the word NIECE. What do we call that effect? Priming For which of these questions would you be most likely to use System 1 instead of System 2? What shape is a circle? To what extent is infants' babbling influenced by what they hear? At first, what they hear makes no difference; later they copy sounds they hear Suppose people hear an ambiguous sounds that if half way between dent and tend. What determines what they hear? A person may hear dent or tent, influenced by preceding context and the next two or three words How many morphemes are in the word triangle? 3 When faced with an unfamiliar item on a test, some students follow the advice, "When in doubt, choose the longest answer." That advice is an example of what? Heuristic In thinking and solving problems, when do we use System 2? For difficult tasks that require attention In which situation would a heuristic be most useful? You have too many hypotheses to test Zeke sees someone at the grocery store who looks like a famous movie actor. He assumes it really is the actor and overlooks the fact that about 1% of all adult men look a little like that actor. What error has Zeke made? Failure to consider base-rate information If you are trying to think of uses for a brick and you can't think of anything other than building a wall, what error have you made? Functional fixedness What are heuristics? Strategies for simplifying a problem or for guiding an investigation On what type of question are people most likely to be overconfident in their answers? Difficult questions Compared to a satisficing strategy, what is the usual outcome from maximizing? A good decision that the person endorses with confidence The availability heuristic is based on the assumption that If we can easily remember examples of something, it must be a common event In decision making, searching until you find something that is good enough is called Satisficing What do cognitive psychologists mean by the "framing effect"? The way you phrase a question changes people's answers Each unit of meaning in a word is called a Morpheme What is meant by the "language acquisition device"? A built-in mechanism for acquiring language During reading, the eyes alternate between fixations and saccades. Reading--in the sense of understanding the words--occurs during Fixations only Who would be LEAST likely to show the word-superiority effect? Someone who is fluent in two languages A saccade is A voluntary eye movement. Common chimpanzees that learned to communicate by sign language or visual symbols Use their symbols almost exclusively to make requests When 2- to 3-year-old children speak, they Overgeneralize grammatical rules The system for converting a deep structure into a surface structure in language is called Transformation language Ordinarily, you have short eye fixations when reading something easy and long fixations when reading something difficult. If your fixations start to become about the same for easy and difficult material, what is probably happening? Your attention is wandering What is meant by the "productivity" of human language? The ability to create new sentences In an experiment a cough or a tone replaced the first "s" in the word "legislatures" in a sentence the subjects were listening to. The results of this experiment support the idea that We hear words as a whole, rather than a group of separate sounds (letters) Which of the following is true of a child's language development? As early as age 2 1/2 to 3 years, children's language errors imply that they are using grammatical rules Researchers wanted to present a stimulus that would become conscious on some trials and not on others, while keeping the stimulus itself the same. Which of these methods did they use to make the stimulus unconscious? They presented interfering stimuli before and after the stimulus In which condition does the brain show a low, steady rate of activity and no response to any stimulus? Coma What evidence suggests that we sometimes consciously perceive a stimulus afterward, instead of simultaneously with it? We don't perceive a brief masked stimulus, but a slightly longer one seems to last the whole duration Which of the following often produces spatial neglect for half of the body? Damage in the right hemisphere of the brain What happens to the brain's representation of a sensory stimulus on occasions when people are conscious of it, that does not happen when they are unconscious of it? The activity spreads through much more of the brain In which of these does a person have the LEAST amount of brain activity and responsiveness? Brain death In binocular rivalry, you see one image in the left eye and an incompatible image in the right eye. What do you perceive? An alternation between one image and the other Damage to the right hemisphere of the brain often leads to which of the following? Tendency to be unconscious of the left side of the body and the world Someone with right-hemisphere damage ordinarily neglects the left side of objects. What happens if the person closes his/her eyes and tries to describe a scene form memory? The description neglects the left side What evidence indicated that a woman in a vegetative state may be conscious? Her brain activity responded to commands such as "imagine playing tennis" What evidence suggested that some people in a vegetative state are conscious? Instructions to imagine something activated the same brain areas as in intact people When researchers measured brain activity during a binocular rivalry task, what did they find? A consciously perceived image activated large proportion of the brain Which of the following is characteristic of a "minimally conscious state"? Brief periods of purposeful action and speech comprehension During REM sleep Dreaming is likely to occur Someone who stays in a cave with no light alternates between sleepiness and wakefulness on about a 24 hour cycle. Why? A rhythm generated within the person's own brain If a person goes without sleep for several days, what happens? Sleepiness decreases at the end of each sleepless night, as morning arrives Which of the following is NOT characteristic of REM sleep? Most of the body's muscles are tense and active A worker at International Amalgamated, Inc., is currently working from 8 a.m. to 4 p.m. The company wants to shift her to a different work time. For the sake of her physical and mental health, which of the following would be best? Move her to the 4 pm to midnight shift, then to midnight to 8 am shift If you were on a submarine with constant artificial light and no sunlight, what would happen to your sleep-wake cycle? You would alternate between sleep and wakefulness on a 24-hour cycle Which of the following best describes the relationship between light-dark cycles (from the rising and setting sun) and circadian rhythms? Circadian rhythms are generated by the body, but reset by light-dark cycles Research examining the content of dreams in American and Japanese college students found that Dream content was similar in both cultures Why do cats sleep more than sheep? Cats are in less danger while they sleep Which of the following is true of brain activity during sleep? Increased inhibitory messages prevent excitation from spreading in the brain For most people, REM sleep occurs Mostly toward the end of the night's sleep After staying awake late many nights, Gloria has become accustomed to going to sleep late and awakening late. Now she tries to shift to going to bed earlier and waking up earlier. This shift is similar to the difficulties people face when they travel East The terms "light sleep" and "deep sleep" are not very useful because REM sleep is deep in some ways and light in others During which stage of sleep is the brain most active? REM After a prolonged period of sleep deprivation, what happens to the brain? Some neurons are active but others are inactive as in sleep Narcolepsy may be caused by A deficiency of the brain chemical orexin What does it mean if you wake up and find yourself temporarily unable to move? Part of your brain is awake and another part is asleep What problem do people with sleep apnea experience? They often stop breathing while they are asleep Our tendency to feel wakeful and sleepy on a 24-hour basis depends mainly on A cycle generated by a mechanism in the brain Why is it impossible for sleepwalking to occur during REM sleep? The postural muscles are so relaxed that they would not support a person What is one important function of sleep? Conserve energy How would the activation-synthesis theory explain why people dream of an inability to move? It really is difficult to move the muscles during REM sleep When a normal, healthy person falls asleep, REM sleep is least likely when The person has been asleep less than an hour The brain activity associated with REM sleep is most similar to that associated with Stage 1 How does dreaming differ from other thinking? It has less sensory input and less voluntary control

Chapter 9

Human Language A communication system specific to Homo sapiens; it is open and symbolic, has rules of grammar and allows its users to express abstract and distant ideas Syntax The rules for arranging words and symbols to form sentences or parts of sentences in a particular language Grammar The entire set of rules for combining symbols and sounds to speak and write a particular language Protolanguage Very rudimentary language used by early species, also known as pre-language Cooing the first sound a human makes, other than crying, consisting almost exclusively of vowels it occurring during the first 6 months of life Babbling Sounds made as a result of the infants experimentation with a complex range of phonemes, which include consonants as well as vowels, starts around 5-6 months of age One-Word utterances Single words, occur around 12 months of age Ex; Mama, Dada, No two-word utterances Phrases children put together starting around 18 months, such as "my ball" or "go away" Sentence Phase The stage at which children begin speaking in full grammatical sentences at ages 2-3 Sensitivity Period An optimal learning time for language acquisition -if children aren't exposed to language before an early age then their language abilities never fully develop Sociocultural Theories Environmental influences on language Child- Directed Speech Changes in adult speech patterns-universal- when speaking to young children or infants, characterized by higher pitch, changes in vocal volume, simpler sentences and use of emotion to communicate messages Nativist View of Language The idea that we discover language rather than learn it, that language development is inborn Language acquisition device (LAD) An innate , biologically based capacity to acquire language, prosed by Noam Chomsky as part of his Nativist view of language Innately guided learning innate capacity for language learning Linguistic Determinism hypothesis The proposition that our language determines our way of thinking and our perceptions of the world, view taken by Sapir and Whorf Mental Representation A structure in the mind- such as an idea of image- that stands for something else, such as an external object or thing sensed in the past or future not the present Visual Imagery A visual representation created by the brain after the original stimulus is no longer present Mental Rotation The process of imagining an object turning in three- dimensional space Concept A mental grouping of objects, events or people Concept Hierarchy An Arrangement of related concepts in a particular way, with some being general and others specific Parallel Distributed Processing Proposes that associations between concepts activate many networks or nodes at the same time Category A concept that organizes other concepts around what they all share in common Prototypes The best fitting example of a category Reasoning The process of drawing inferences or conclusions from principles and evidence Deductive Reasoning Reasoning from general statements of what is know to specific conclusions Inductive Reasoning Reasoning to general conclusions from specific evidence Casual Inferences Judgment about the causation of one thing by another Confirmation Bias The tendency to selectively attend to information that supports one general beliefs while ignoring information or evidence that contradicts ones beliefs Critical Thinking The process by which one analyzes, evaluates and forms ideas Metacognitive thinking The process that includes the ability first to think and then reflect on ones own thinking Heuristics Mental shortcuts, methods for making complex and uncertain decisions and judgements Representativeness Heuristic A strategy used to estimate the probability of one event based on how typical it is of another event Availability heuristic A device we used to make decisions based on the ease with which estimates come to mind or how available they are to our awareness Conjunction Fallacy An error in logic that occurs when people say that the combination of two events is more likely than either event alone rational choice theory Humans choose the option that is most likely to help them achieve their particular goals

(Feist) Chapter 8

After a response has been extinguished, it is quite common for the response to reappear spontaneously if a person ___________. A. is continuously exposed to the original stimulus B. returns to the original setting where the conditioning took place C. experiences the same unconditioned stimulus repeatedly D. is made to think about the situation and the stimulus B. returns to the original setting where the conditioning took place In Pavlov's classical conditioning experiment, he presented the sound of a bell along with meat powder to his dogs. After several trials, the dogs learned to salivate to the sound of the bell in the absence of the meat powder. When the dogs salivated only at the sound of the bell and in the absence of meat powder, salivation acted as a(n) _____. A. unconditioned stimulus (UCS) B. unconditioned response (UCR) C. conditioned stimulus (CS) D. conditioned response (CR) conditioned response (CR) The reinforcement of successive approximations of a desired behavior is called ___________. A. stimulus generalization B. habituation C. shaping D. backward conditioning C. shaping While training his dog, Mark first says the word "sit" and once the dog sits, he gives her a treat. Immediately after this, he says, "Good dog!" He repeats the same process many times, and each time his dog sits after listening to his command. In this example, which of the following is the primary reinforcer? A. The words "good dog" B. The treat C. The word "sit" D. Mark B. The treat Billy, a five-year-old boy, sees his father applying shaving cream on his face while shaving his beard in front of a mirror. Billy copies his father's facial and hand movements and later that day Billy stands in front of the mirror and pretends to shave. Billy's behavior is an example of ___________. A. dark adaption B. learning by association C. mimicry D. habituation C. mimicry A(n) ____________ is defined as any internal or external event that increases the frequency of a behavior. A. catalyst B. reinforcer C. converter D. unconditioned stimulus B. reinforcer Forward conditioning occurs when the ___________. A. conditioned response occurs before the neutral stimulus is presented B. unconditioned stimulus is presented before the neutral stimulus C. unconditioned stimulus is presented at the same time as the neutral stimulus D. neutral stimulus is presented just before the unconditioned stimulus D. neutral stimulus is presented just before the unconditioned stimulus In a ____________, reinforcement always follows the first response after a set amount of time. A. variable-interval schedule B. variable-ratio schedule C. fixed-interval schedule D. fixed-ratio schedule C. fixed-interval schedule In Pavlov's classical conditioning experiment, he presented the sound of a bell along with meat powder to his dogs. After several trials, the dogs learned to salivate to the sound of the bell in the absence of the meat powder. In this study, meat powder acted as a(n) ___________. A. unconditioned stimulus (UCS) B. unconditioned response (UCR) C. conditioned stimulus (CS) D. conditioned response (CR) x Which of the following statements is true regarding continuous reinforcement? A. Compared to intermittent reinforcement, continuous reinforcement produces a stronger response in terms of the rate of responding. B. In continuous reinforcement, reinforcement follows a set number of responses. C. Continuous reinforcement means rewarding a behavior every time it occurs. D. Compared to intermittent reinforcement, continuous reinforcement produces responses that are more resistant to extinction. C. Continuous reinforcement means rewarding a behavior every time it occurs. Whenever Julia gets ready for school on time, she gets a chocolate from her mother. Hence, Julia always tries to get ready on time. This is an example of ______ type of learning. A. explicit conditioning B. operant conditioning C. observational conditioning D. backward conditioning B. operant conditioning There is always a distinct scent of olive oil and serrano chilies whenever Salma enters her aunt's home. She no longer notices the smells after staying a little while inside the house. This scenario is an example of ______. A. dark adaptation B. learning by association C. mimicry D. habituation D. habituation In operant conditioning, the word "positive" (preceding the term "reinforcement" or "punishment") indicates: A. the desirability of a stimulus. B. the addition of a stimulus. C. the ineffectiveness of a stimulus. D. the effectiveness of a stimulus. B. the addition of a stimulus. Which of the following statements is true regarding primary reinforcers? A. Primary reinforcers are learned by association. B. Primary reinforcers often satisfy psychological needs. C. Food, water, and sex are primary reinforcers. D. Money, grades, and peer approval are primary reinforcers. C. Food, water, and sex are primary reinforcers. Pavlov defined ______ as fixed stimulus-response patterns. A. behaviors B. habits C. stimuli D. reflexes D. reflexes ____________ decrease the frequency of behavior. A. Reinforcers B. Punishers C. Stimulators D. Converters B. Punishers Revoking a child's TV-watching privileges for repeatedly hitting a sibling is a form of ___________ if it stops the hitting. A. positive reinforcement B. positive punishment C. negative reinforcement D. negative punishment D. negative punishment The learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement and is not demonstrated until later when reinforcement occurs, is called ____________. A. conditioned learning B. latent learning C. implicit learning D. operant learning B. latent learning Once we have mastered the skill of riding a bicycle, we don't have to learn to ride a bicycle every time we want to go for a spin. What is the reason behind this? A. New knowledge is stored in networks in the brain. B. Information moves from sensory to short-term memory. C. Learning and memory work separately. D. Information moves from implicit to explicit memory. New knowledge is stored in networks in the brain. From birth, animals are inclined toward readily learning some things and not others. Biology makes it possible for humans, but not chimpanzees, to ___________. A. talk B. listen C. lift D. run A. talk ____________ decrease the frequency of behavior. Reinforcers Punishers Stimulators Converters Punishers While training his dog, Mark first says the word "sit" and once the dog sits, he gives her a treat. Immediately after this, he says, "Good dog!" He repeats the same process many times, and each time his dog sits after listening to his command. In this example, which of the following is the primary reinforcer? The words "good dog" The treat The word "sit" Mark The treat In Pavlov's classical conditioning experiment, he presented the sound of a bell along with meat powder to his dogs. After several trials, the dogs learned to salivate to the sound of the bell in the absence of the meat powder. In this study, the sound of the bell acted as a(n) _____. unconditioned stimulus (UCS) unconditioned response (UCR) conditioned stimulus (CS) conditioned response (CR conditioned stimulus (CS) Once we have mastered the skill of riding a bicycle, we don't have to learn to ride a bicycle every time we want to go for a spin. What is the reason behind this? New knowledge is stored in networks in the brain. Information moves from sensory to short-term memory. Learning and memory work separately. Information moves from implicit to explicit memory. New knowledge is stored in networks in the brain. In Pavlov's classical conditioning experiment, he presented the sound of a bell along with meat powder to his dogs. After several trials, the dogs learned to salivate to the sound of the bell in the absence of the meat powder. In this study, meat powder acted as a(n) ___________. unconditioned stimulus (UCS) unconditioned response (UCR) conditioned stimulus (CS) conditioned response (CR) unconditioned stimulus (UCS) After a response has been extinguished, it is quite common for the response to reappear spontaneously if a person ___________. is continuously exposed to the original stimulus returns to the original setting where the conditioning took place experiences the same unconditioned stimulus repeatedly is made to think about the situation and the stimulus returns to the original setting where the conditioning took place There is always a distinct scent of olive oil and serrano chilies whenever Salma enters her aunt's home. She no longer notices the smells after staying a little while inside the house. This scenario is an example of ______. dark adaptation learning by association mimicry habituation habituation In operant conditioning, the word "positive" (preceding the term "reinforcement" or "punishment") indicates: the desirability of a stimulus. the addition of a stimulus. the ineffectiveness of a stimulus. the effectiveness of a stimulus. the addition of a stimulus. In a ____________, the first response is reinforced after time periods of different duration have passed. fixed-interval schedule variable-interval schedule fixed-ratio schedule variable-ratio schedule variable-interval schedule Revoking a child's TV-watching privileges for repeatedly hitting a sibling is a form of ___________ if it stops the hitting. positive reinforcement positive punishment negative reinforcement negative punishment negative punishment From birth, animals are inclined toward readily learning some things and not others. Biology makes it possible for humans, but not chimpanzees, to ___________. talk listen lift run talk Billy, a five-year-old boy, sees his father applying shaving cream on his face while shaving his beard in front of a mirror. Billy copies his father's facial and hand movements and later that day Billy stands in front of the mirror and pretends to shave. Billy's behavior is an example of ___________. dark adaption learning by association mimicry habituation mimicry Pavlov defined ______ as fixed stimulus-response patterns. behaviors habits stimuli reflexes reflexes In Pavlov's classical conditioning experiment, he presented the sound of a bell along with meat powder to his dogs. After several trials, the dogs learned to salivate to the sound of the bell in the absence of the meat powder. When the dogs salivated only at the sound of the bell and in the absence of meat powder, salivation acted as a(n) _____. unconditioned stimulus (UCS) unconditioned response (UCR) conditioned stimulus (CS) conditioned response (CR) conditioned response (CR) In operant conditioning, the word "negative" (preceding the term "reinforcement" or "punishment") indicates: the desirability of a stimulus. the ineffectiveness of a stimulus. the removal of a stimulus. the effectiveness of a stimulus. the removal of a stimulus. Which of the following statements best describes the concept of operant conditioning? Organisms learn from the relations between stimuli. Organisms learn from the consequences of their behavior. Organisms learn by observing the behavior of others. Organisms learn from their involuntary responses which develop over time. Organisms learn from the consequences of their behavior. When Ivan Pavlov accidentally discovered classical conditioning, a simple association was formed between: the sound of the apparatus and the meat powder. the sight of Pavlov and salivation. the meat powder and salivation. salivation and the sound of the apparatus. the sound of the apparatus and the meat powder. Which of the following statements is true regarding continuous reinforcement? Compared to intermittent reinforcement, continuous reinforcement produces a stronger response in terms of the rate of responding. In continuous reinforcement, reinforcement follows a set number of responses. Continuous reinforcement means rewarding a behavior every time it occurs. Compared to intermittent reinforcement, continuous reinforcement produces responses that are more resistant to extinction. Continuous reinforcement means rewarding a behavior every time it occurs. _____ challenges the behaviorist conviction that learning always results either from associating an event with an unconditioned stimulus or from shaping by reinforcement or punishment. Instinctive drift Conditioned response Stimulus generalization Backward conditioning Instinctive drift Dominique had a car accident while driving over a bridge and thereafter developed an intense phobia of driving over bridges. In an effort to cure Dominique's phobia, a psychologist gradually motivated him to drive over bridges. After many sessions of having nonthreatening experiences while driving over bridges, Dominique's phobia was cured. This is an example of ______. habituation stimulus generalization extinction backward conditioning extinction Albert Bandura called learning by doing ____________. enactive learning integrative learning latent learning operant learning enactive learning According to the research of van Praag, Kempermann, and Gage (1999), which of the following people will most likely experience neurogenesis? Hank, who loves interacting with his classmates Velma, who is learning how to play the piano Jack, who takes part in running races Celeste, who reads books Jack, who takes part in running races ____________ is defined as the rapid and innate learning of the characteristics of a caregiver within a very short period of time after birth. Imprinting Habituation Association Shaping Imprinting Rats that live in enriched laboratory environments show growth in which of the following brain regions? Cerebellum Amygdala Hippocampus Corpus callosum Hippocampus Bandura's famous studies incorporating a Bobo doll were powerful in that they demonstrated which of the following? Adults can learn aggression through both reinforcement and punishment. Adults can teach aggression to children by reinforcing children's aggressive behavior. Children can learn aggression through exposure to aggressive adult models. Children's aggressive behavior can be suppressed through punishment. Children can learn aggression through exposure to aggressive adult models. Newborn Kayla smiles when she sees her father smile. This is most likely a result of which of the following physiological processes? The firing of mirror neurons The presence of reinforcement The activation of the parasympathetic nervous system The activation of conditioned stimulus The firing of mirror neurons Which of the following is true with respect to Albert Bandura's social learning theory? It shows that most animals learn through classical and not operant conditioning. It claims that animals are primed from birth to readily learn some things but not others. It describes how a previously neutral stimulus can suddenly stimulate a response. It noted that observation and modeling are major components of learning. It noted that observation and modeling are major components of learning. Which of the following is most likely to be useful to help people kick the smoking habit? Imprinting Habituation Stimulus generalization Operant conditioning Operant conditioning ____________ provides clear evidence of a sensitivity period in learning. Stimulus discrimination Spontaneous recovery Association Imprinting Imprinting Which of the following young children is most likely to experience the highest neural growth? Jade, whose parents constantly buy her new toys, action figures, and games Maria, whose parents encourage her to indulge in activities such as running Amanda, whose parents painted her room in the colors she likes Julio, whose parents hired an excellent babysitter to watch him during the day Jade, whose parents constantly buy her new toys, action figures, and games Albert Bandura called learning by watching the behavior of others ____________. latent learning observational learning integrative learning enactive learning observational learning Smoking can cause the arousal of the sympathetic nervous system and mild relaxation of the muscles. From a learning perspective these are considered ___________. positive reinforcers instinctive drifts unconditioned stimuli negative punishments positive reinforcers Why did Skinner and Watson ignore the role of cognitive and brain processes in learning? Because they could not be observed Because they could lead to treacherous results Because they could not be experimented with Because they were not suitable for group studies Because they could not be observed When people learn from their own successes and failures and from trial and error, it is an example of ______. enactive learning observational learning operant learning latent learning enactive learning Brenda recently joined a new company. She watches how her colleagues dress and act so that she can fit in better. This type of learning is referred to as ___________. observational learning enactive learning operant learning latent learning observational learning What effect does modeling and reward have on learned aggressive behavior? Kids are more likely to copy behavior that they see others being rewarded for. Children's aggressive behavior can be suppressed through punishment. Adults are less likely to demonstrate behavior that they see others being rewarded for. Kids can learn aggression through exposure to amicable adult models. Kids are more likely to copy behavior that they see others being rewarded for. The ____________ refers to a period in learning when a particular type of learning occurs very readily if an animal is exposed to a particular stimulus or situation. habituation period spontaneous recovery period sensitivity period synaptic change period sensitivity period People displaying which of the following personality traits are more likely to start smoking and less likely to quit successfully? Conscientiousness Agreeableness Extraversion Intuitiveness Extraversion Teenagers might view "being seen as cool"—a form of peer acceptance—as desirable, and so being seen as cool becomes a(n) ____________ for their smoking behavior. unconditioned stimulus discriminating stimulus reinforcer converter reinforcer Which of the following facts regarding reinforcement was noted by Albert Bandura? Negative reinforcement is more effective in shaping behavior than positive reinforcement. Positive reinforcement can be effective only after an unconditioned stimulus is associated with a conditioned stimulus. Punishment is more effective in shaping behavior than negative reinforcement. Reinforcement matters not only for the person carrying out the behavior, but also for those who watch. Reinforcement matters not only for the person carrying out the behavior, but also for those who watch. Which of the following is most likely to be essential for moving an experience from short-term to long-term memory? Connecting an unconditioned stimulus with a conditioned stimulus Having experiences repeated over a short period of time Converting a change in response into habituation Connecting a conditioned response to an unconditioned stimulus Having experiences repeated over a short period of time Which of the following statements is true regarding imprinting? Imprinting occurs only in humans. After a certain age, imprinting cannot be modified at all. Imprinting provides clear evidence of synaptic change. Imprinting can be learned at any age. ... Which of the following statements best describes the concept of classical conditioning? A. Organisms learn from the relations between stimuli. B. Organisms learn from the consequences of their behavior. C. Organisms learn by observing the behavior of others. D. Organisms learn from their voluntary responses which develop over time. A. Organisms learn from the relations between stimuli. Habituation refers to a: A. cognitive process that results in increased response to a stimulus. B. sensory process in which the change is a fairly short-lived one. C. sensory process in which organisms adapt to intermittent stimulation. D. cognitive process that results in decreased response to a stimulus. sensory process in which the change is a fairly short-lived one. Which of the following is an example of positive reinforcement? A. Thomas is tired; he drinks coffee to stay awake. B. Ravi is given a candy by his mother for cleaning his shoes. C. Greta gets caught while speeding and the police officer gives her a ticket. D. Cindy loses her credit points because she submits her homework late. Ravi is given a candy by his mother for cleaning his shoes. Association, which is a form of learning, can be defined as the ______. A.organized response to a repeated stimulus B. link between two events in the environment C. voluntary response that diminishes over time D. ever-changing model of behavior based on repetition link between two events in the environment In Pavlov's classical conditioning experiment, he called the kind of learning he observed the ___________. A. conditioning of behaviors B. conditioning of habits C. conditioning of stimuli D. conditioning of reflexes conditioning of reflexes Jenny sees that her mom smokes a cigarette to relax whenever she gets stressed, so she thinks that it will work for her too. This is an example of ___________. habituation intermittent reinforcement imprinting social learning social learning Imprinting and sensitivity periods in learning remind us that: punishment is more effective in changing behavior than negative reinforcement. the mind is a blank slate, able to learn anything at any time, given the right reinforcement. certain kinds of experiences are more or less easily learned at different periods in life. all forms of learning depend on rewards and reinforcement, at least to some degree. certain kinds of experiences are more or less easily learned at different periods in life. Classical and operant conditioning do NOT take into account the powerful role of ____________ in the learning process. association reinforcement extinction imitation imitation ____________ is the scientific study of animal behavior. Etiology Enology Ethology Entomology Ethology Some people continue smoking cigarettes because it reduces stress, social isolation, and appetite. From a learning perspective, these reductions can be considered as ___________. conditioned stimuli negative reinforcers conditioned responses instinctive drifts negative reinforcers Most teens start smoking because they seek some of the rewards that appear to come with smoking: coolness, peer acceptance, and looking like an adult. All of these rewards are ____________ reinforcers. conditioned secondary primary explicit secondary Which is the true statement regarding mirror neuron system (MNS)? They are existent in only adult beings. They are involved in imitation and social learning. They are responsible for stimulus discrimination. They are found only in human beings. They are involved in imitation and social learning. According to Albert Bandura, the acquisition of smoking behavior--how people become smokers in the first place--is perhaps best explained by ___________. social learning theory stimulus discrimination theory habituation theory imprinting theory social learning theory Thelma is trying to quit smoking. Her therapist tells her to reward herself with a dollar every time she successfully fights off the craving for a cigarette. The therapist is using a ______ technique in helping Thelma to quit smoking. conditioned taste aversion modeling classical conditioning behavior modification behavior modification The visuospatial sketchpad holds visual information in working memory. True False True The episodic buffer holds auditory information in working memory. True False False Rehearsal is a control process that prevents information in working memory from being lost. True False True Explicit memory refers to memory information that should be ignored. True False False Implicit memory is memory we are not aware of. True False True There are two types of explicit memory: declarative and non-declarative. True False False Episodic memories are personal and autobiographical. True False True Consolidation is storing new memories for access when needed. True False False Automatic encoding is a primary source of episodic memories. True False True Sleep plays an important role during consolidation. True False True The Serial Position Curve refers to the results of a memory task for learning a list of items. True False True The primacy effect refers to memory for important items on a list. True False False The recency effect occurs because of items still in short term memory. True False True A memory is a biological representation in our brain. True False True Long-term potentiation occurs when synaptic connections between neurons strengthen. True False True Learning occurs when information in short-term memory remains in short-term memory and becomes permanent. True False False "Association" is the process by which two pieces of information become connected together in our minds. True False True Classical conditioning is a type of learning. True False True Ivan Pavlov was a psychologist. True False False Like people, dogs salivate when preparing to eat. True False True A stimulus is a thing or event. True False True A response is a behavior. True False True An unconditioned response is caused by either a conditioned stimulus or an unconditioned stimulus. True False False A neutral stimulus is a thing or event that evokes no particular response. True False True To become a conditioned stimulus, a neutral stimulus must be presented right before the unconditioned stimulus. True False True

(Feist) Chapter 7

After the removal of his hippocampus, Henry Molaison was ______. A. unable to improve on any standard learning task B. unable to recall any events prior to the surgery C. able to intentionally bringing into awareness much of what he remembered D. unable to form new memories D. unable to form new memories ____________ is the ability to store and use information. A. Amnesia B. Retrieval C. Schema D. Memory D. Memory What part of memory stores limited information long enough to remember a phone number before one dials it? A. Sensory memory B. Implicit memory C. Long-term memory D. Short-term memory D. Short-term memory Memories of one's first pet and how to read reside in: A. short-term memory. B. sensory memory. C. long-term memory. D. primary memory. C. long-term memory. Which of the following is true about sensory memory? A. Knowledge of how to ride a bike is stored in sensory memory. B. It is the part of memory required to attend to and solve a problem at hand. C. It usually holds information in its original sensory form for a very brief period of time. D. It can be transferred to long-term memory if it is practiced. C. It usually holds information in its original sensory form for a very brief period of time. ___________ is made up of the brief traces of a sensation left by the firing of neurons in the brain. A. Short-term memory B. Sensory memory C. False memory D. Long-term memory B. Sensory memory _____________ is the first step toward the creation of a long-term memory. A. Adaptation B. Transduction C. Perception D. Sensation D. Sensation ______________ memory is a brief visual record left on the retina of the eye. A. Iconic B. Implicit C. Echoic D. Working A. Iconic Neil is participating in an experiment where numbers are flashed on a computer screen for a few milliseconds, and then it goes blank. He is subsequently asked to recall the numbers. Neil is participating in a study that is most likely examining his ______________ memory. A. tactile B. iconic C. echoic D. olfactory B. iconic ______________ memory is short-term retention of sounds. A. Procedural B. Echoic C. Explicit D. Working B. Echoic Diane was not paying attention to her boyfriend talking when all of a sudden something he said caught her attention. She said, "Wait a minute! Did you say something about marriage?" His mention of marriage left a trace in Diane's _____________ memory, and she subsequently paid attention to this information. A. iconic B. semantic C. implicit D. echoic D. echoic _____________ memory is also called working memory, because it is the part of memory required to attend to and solve a problem at hand. A. Episodic B. Meta C. Sensory D. Short-term D. Short-term Which of the following is true about short-term memory? A. It is made up of the brief traces of a sensation left by the firing of neurons in the brain. B. Iconic memory is a kind of short-term memory. C. It is a place to temporarily store information when one needs while working on a problem. D. It is what most people think of when they think of memory. C. It is a place to temporarily store information when one needs while working on a problem. Reading, talking, and listening to someone speak involves the: A. sensory memory. B. short-term memory. C. long-term memory. D. echoic memory. B. short-term memory. Local phone numbers in the United States are seven digits long because: A. most people can transfer seven digits into long-term memory instantly, bypassing short-term memory. B. the short-term memory capacity of most people is between five and nine units of digits. C. sensory memory for numbers is very expansive and can handle such large quantities of digits. D. when polled, early phone customers requested this many digits in their phone numbers. B. the short-term memory capacity of most people is between five and nine units of digits. The string of digits 17749991941 is difficult for most people to remember, but breaking them up into 177, 999,1941 in a process called ____________ makes it easier. A. method of loci B. deep processing C. chunking D. rehearsing C. chunking Which of the following is the first process in researcher Alan Baddeley's model of the working memory? A. Retrieving information from memory B. Rehearsing the stored process C. Storing information about a stimulus D. Attending to a stimulus D. Attending to a stimulus Which of the following is the last process in Alan Baddeley's model of the working memory? A. Attending to a stimulus B. Retrieving information from memory C. Rehearsing the stored process D. Storing information about a stimulus C. Rehearsing the stored process In Alan Baddeley's model of short-term memory, the _______________ decides where to focus attention and selectively hones in on specific aspects of a stimulus. A. phonological loop B. central executive C. visuospatial sketch pad D. episodic buffer B. central executive According to Baddeley's model of short-term memory, the central executive will have trouble _____________ in people who have sustained damage to their frontal lobes. A. screening out irrelevant information from the environment B. remembering new experiences C. processing and recalling language communicated to them D. recalling information about previous injuries A. screening out irrelevant information from the environment In Baddeley's model of short-term memory, the _______________ assists the central executive by providing extra storage for a limited number of digits or words for up to 30 seconds at a time. A. phonological loop B. central executive C. visuospatial sketch pad D. episodic buffer A. phonological loop Which of the following best describes the function of the visuospatial sketch pad? A. It permanently stores important distance and travel information, like one's route home. B. It serves as a mental canvas on which thinkers can mentally perform spatial rotation tasks. C. It provides long-term storage for three-dimensional memories. D. It provides brief storage for images, scenes, and photos. D. It provides brief storage for images, scenes, and photos. Roxanne knows she will remember her wedding day forever. First, however, her wedding memories have to process in her working memory and temporarily store in: A. implicit memory. B. procedural memory. C. episodic buffer. D. automatic processing. C. episodic buffer. According to Baddeley's model of short-term memory, the _______________ is a temporary store for information that will become long-term memories of specific events. A. phonological loop B. central executive C. episodic buffer D. visuospatial sketch pad C. episodic buffer Which of the following enables one to repeat the information to oneself as long as one needs to retain it? A. The serial position effect B. The rehearsal system C. Priming D. Effortful processing B. The rehearsal system Jacques wants to remember a phone number, so he repeats it aloud until he types and saves the number in his cell phone. He is using the process of: A. rehearsal. B. repression. C. retrieval. D. recognition. A. rehearsal. Storing and recalling a shopping list is an everyday example of the function of the: A. visuospatial sketch pad. B. central executive. C. phonological loop. D. episodic buffer. C. phonological loop. In the late 19th century, Mary Whiton Calkins observed an interesting phenomenon if short-term memory called: A. the law of primacy. B. the reminiscence bump. C. the serial position effect. D. free recall. C. the serial position effect. Which of the following can be described as a serial position effect? A. When learning a list of items, people are able to recall all the items in serial order. B. When learning a list of items, people are better able to recall items at the beginning and end of the list; they tend to forget the items in the middle. C. Older adults have the tendency to have increased recollection for events that occurred during their adolescence and early adulthood. D. The side of a printed media presented first will have greater effectiveness than the side presented subsequently. B. When learning a list of items, people are better able to recall items at the beginning and end of the list; they tend to forget the items in the middle. From the list that Jill made for a shopping trip to the grocery store, she could recall only the items in the beginning and in the end of a list. This is called: A. a Type I error. B. a heuristic. C. the serial position effect. D. retrograde amnesia. C. the serial position effect. The tendency to preferentially recall items at the beginning of a list is known as the: A. continuity effect. B. intermediate effect. C. recency effect. D. primacy effect. D. primacy effect. The main explanation for the ______________ effect is that the items at the beginning of a list are quickly rehearsed and transferred to long-term memory storage. A. primacy B. recency C. halo D. intermediate A. primacy Recall for items at the end of a list is known as the: A. continuity effect. B. intermediate effect. C. recency effect. D. primacy effect. C. recency effect. Aditi's mother recited to her a list of things to buy at the grocery store. Once she reached the store, she could only remember the items from the end of the list. This phenomenon is called: A. the primacy effect. B. the recency effect. C. proactive interference. D. retroactive interference. B. the recency effect. Which is the most complex form of memory that has two distinct types and four distinct stages of processing? A. Sensory memory B. Primary memory C. Long-term memory D. Short-term memory C. Long-term memory When one knows or remembers something but does not consciously know that one remembers it, then one is said to be tapping into: A. semantic memory. B. explicit memory. C. implicit memory. D. episodic memory. C. implicit memory. Aaliyah remembers how to drive a car with a manual transmission, but when asked how she does it, she just says, "I don't know—it's automatic." This is an example of her: A. implicit memory. B. priming. C. semantic memory. D. episodic memory. A. implicit memory. Which of the following is true about implicit memory? A. It is the memory for the experiences one has had. B. It refers to memories that can be deliberately accessed or declared. C. It is the conscious recalling of facts and events. D. It cannot be directly recalled. D. It cannot be directly recalled. ____________ refers to the knowledge one holds for almost any behavior or physical skill that one learns. A. Procedural memory B. Sensory memory C. Explicit memory D. Episodic memory A. Procedural memory ___________ is a kind of implicit memory that occurs when recall is improved by prior exposure to the same or similar stimuli. A. Encoding B. Priming C. Effortful processing D. Retrieving B. Priming __________ is to nondeclarative memory as ___________ is to declarative memory. A. Semantic; episodic B. Implicit; explicit C. Episodic; semantic D. Explicit; semantic B. Implicit; explicit ________________ memory is the conscious recall of facts and events. A. Procedural B. Implicit C. Explicit D. Echoic C. Explicit Explicit memory refers to: A. something people know or remember but do not consciously know that they remember it. B. knowledge people hold for almost any behavior or physical skill they learn. C. knowledge that can be improved by prior exposure to the same or similar stimuli. D. memories that can be deliberately accessed or declared. D. memories that can be deliberately accessed or declared. Which of the following is true about explicit memory? A. Explicit memory is the conscious recall of facts and events. B. Priming is a kind of explicit memory that occurs when recall is improved by prior exposure to the same or similar stimuli. C. Explicit memory refers to knowledge one holds for almost any behavior or physical skill one learns. D. When one knows or remembers something but does not consciously remember it, one is tapping into explicit memory. A. Explicit memory is the conscious recall of facts and events. ______________ memory is our memory for facts and knowledge. A. Semantic B. Episodic C. Implicit D. Iconic A. Semantic During a quiz, Nick is asked to state the capital city of Idaho. Which of the following memory types is most likely to aid him in retrieving the answer? A. Episodic memory B. Procedural memory C. Semantic memory D. Sensory memory C. Semantic memory Hovan remembers the names of the presidents of the United States of America in the order in which they held office. Some would say that he has a pretty good ____________ memory. A. priming B. working C. semantic D. implicit C. semantic _______________ memory is one's memory for the experiences one has had. A. Echoic B. Semantic C. Episodic D. Implicit C. Episodic Julia vividly remembers the first time she met her boyfriend. This is an example of _____________ memory. A. sensory B. semantic C. implicit D. episodic D. episodic Miguel is having a dinner party, but from the smell coming from his kitchen it is evident he burned whatever he was cooking. What is the order of the processing stages this burnt smell will go through to become a long-term memory for Miguel? A. Consolidation, storage, recognition, recall B. Storage, consolidation, encoding, recognition C. Storage, visuospatial loop, encoding, recall D. Encoding, consolidation, storage, retrieval D. Encoding, consolidation, storage, retrieval Of the following, ____________ is the first processing stage in long-term memory. A. storage B. retrieval C. encoding D. consolidation C. encoding ________________, as a stage in long-term memory, is the means by which one attends to, takes in, and processes new information. A. Consolidation B. Encoding C. Storage D. Retrieval B. Encoding How well one remembers the material one studies for one's exam begins with one's effective: A. retrieval. B. recognition. C. storage. D. encoding. D. encoding. Which of the following is true about encoding as a processing stage in long-term memory? A. It is the retention of memory over time. B. It is the process of establishing, stabilizing, or solidifying a memory. C. It is driven by attention. D. It is the recovery of information stored in memory. C. It is driven by attention. _________________ processing happens with little effort or conscious attention to the task. A. Effortful B. Automatic C. Structural D. Phonological B. Automatic Which of the following is true about automatic processing? A. It involves rehearsal of the information. B. It is the basis of semantic memory. C. It happens with little effort or conscious attention to the task. D. It goes from short-term to long-term memory. C. It happens with little effort or conscious attention to the task. Meg easily recalls which route she took this morning to the salon that is three blocks away. This kind of recalling involves _______________ processing. A. structural B. phonological C. effortful D. automatic D. automatic Which of the following is true about effortful processing? A. It is the basis of semantic memory. B. It happens with little effort or conscious attention to the task. C. Experiences stored with the help of effortful processing are less likely to be recalled later. D. Episodic memory involves effortful processing. A. It is the basis of semantic memory. ____________ processing occurs when one carefully attends and puts conscious effort into remembering information. A. Automatic B. Structural C. Phonological D. Effortful D. Effortful Demir is paying careful attention to his class notes and textbook, trying to master the material for an upcoming exam. Demir is engaging in: A. consolidation. B. automatic processing. C. retrieval. D. effortful processing. D. effortful processing. Advancing age tends to lessen recall for events and experiences that require ____________ processing but not ______________ processing. A. structural; effortful B. effortful; automatic C. automatic; phonological D. phonological; structural B. effortful; automatic Oscar is trying to remember the names of people he meets at his new job. He says he will remember the name of his co-worker Trish, because she always has a dish of candy on her desk, and "Trish" rhymes with "dish." This is an example of ______ processing. A. semantic B. phonemic C. automatic D. structural B. phonemic While studying ______________ processing, researchers ask questions such as "Is the word in capital letters?" A. phonemic B. effortful C. structural D. semantic C. structural To study _______________, researchers ask questions to focus participants' attention on the sound of the word. A. structural processing B. midlevel processing C. semantic processing D. effortful processing B. midlevel processing In the context of word-recall studies, ______ is the deepest level of processing. A. semantic processing B. automatic processing C. structural processing D. phonemic processing A. semantic processing Participants in studies of __________________ are asked to think about the meaning of the words. A. semantic processing B. automatic processing C. effortful processing D. phonemic processing A. semantic processing To remember the four bases found in DNA—thymine, guanine, adenine, and cytosine—Luke makes up a sentence using the first letter from each base as the first letters for his words, repeating to himself, "The Girl Ate Cookies." Which of the following did Luke use in this scenario? A. The method of loci B. A mnemonic device C. Chunking D. Rhyming B. A mnemonic device "ROY G. BIV" is an example of a(n) _____________ that helps one remember the colors of the rainbow—red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. A. antonym B. alliteration C. acronym D. synonym C. acronym The second stage of long-term memory formation is: A. storage. B. consolidation. C. retrieval. D. encoding. B. consolidation. Which of the following is true about consolidation as a processing stage in long-term memory? A. A consolidated memory is resistant to distraction, interference, and decay. B. Consolidation is the retention of memory over time. C. Consolidation helps remember where one put that birthday gift that one had bought earlier. D. The process of consolidation happens in two ways: automatic processing and effortful processing. A. A consolidated memory is resistant to distraction, interference, and decay. For which state of long-term memory formation is sleep vital? A. Encoding B. Storage C. Retrieval D. Consolidation D. Consolidation ____________, the retention of memory over time, is the third stage of long-term memory formation. A. Consolidation B. Encoding C. Storage D. Retrieval C. Storage Which of the following is true about storage as a processing stage in long-term memory? A. The process of storing is driven by attention. B. Storage refers to processes like remembering where one put a birthday gift one had bought earlier. C. A stored memory is resistant to distraction, interference, and decay. D. Memories are stored in at least three ways: hierarchies, schemas, and networks. D. Memories are stored in at least three ways: hierarchies, schemas, and networks. ________________ can be defined as mental frameworks that develop from one's experiences with particular objects or events. A. Networks B. Data designs C. Hierarchies D. Schemas D. Schemas _________________ acts as a filter through which one encodes and organizes information about one's world. A. Schemas B. Networks C. Hierarchies D. Data designs A. Schemas The psychological process that binds concepts together is termed as: A. consolidation. B. encoding. C. retrieval. D. association. D. association. A(n) _____________ is a chain of linkages between related concepts. A. parallel distributed processing B. tensor product network C. neural network D. associative network D. associative network Each concept or association in a network is referred to as a: A. schema. B. node. C. rod. D. cone. B. node. ______________ are computer models that imitate the way neurons talk to each other. A. Data warehouses B. Associative networks C. Neural networks D. Expert systems C. Neural networks _____________ is a well-known model of memory storage that integrates associative and neural networks. A. Cybernetics B. Parallel distributed processing C. Dynamic systems processing D. Brainstorming B. Parallel distributed processing Parallel distributed processing (PDP) models of memory storage propose that: A. an individual attempting to encode new information must repeatedly rehearse that information. B. the spread of activation ensures all memories have equal chances of getting stored. C. the neural circuitry involved in long-term retention simultaneously evolved in humans and nonhuman primates. D. associations involve the simultaneous activity of many nodes. D. associations involve the simultaneous activity of many nodes. Jiao is trying to remember where she kept the receipt of the birthday gift she bought her mother. In which stage of long-term memory processing is Jiao engaged? A. Storage B. Retrieval C. Encoding D. Consolidation B. Retrieval Which of the following is true about retrieval as a processing stage in long-term memory? A. It refers to the knowledge one holds for almost any behavior or physical skill one learns. B. Psychologists describe two kinds of retrieval process: automatic processing and effortful processing. C. It is the recovery of information stored in memory. D. It is the third stage of long-term memory formation. C. It is the recovery of information stored in memory. ________________ memories are retrieved without conscious effort. A. Semantic B. Iconic C. Implicit D. Echoic C. Implicit ______________ memories are the ones that require conscious effort for retrieval. A. Explicit B. Procedural C. Working D. Echoic A. Explicit The inability to remember the name of a person only minutes after meeting her, even if he repeats her name immediately after hearing it, is a common __________ problem. A. structural B. morphological C. retrieval D. positioning C. retrieval The _____________ is a region of the brain that plays an important part in attention, appropriate social behavior, impulse control, and working memory. A. renal cortex B. adrenal cortex C. cell cortex D. prefrontal cortex D. prefrontal cortex Hebb's law states that: A. neurons release the same set of transmitters at all of their synapses. B. the whole is greater than the sum of the parts. C. neurons that fire together wire together. D. when the synapse of one neuron repeatedly fires and excites another neuron, there is a temporary change in the receiving neuron. C. neurons that fire together wire together. ____________ are networks of nerve cells that persist even after stimulation has stopped. A. Feature detectors B. Cell assemblies C. Olfactory neurons D. Glial cells B. Cell assemblies Researcher Eric Kandel's work with sea slugs showed that: A. repetition of experiences can actually lead to synaptic death. B. conversion from short-term to long-term memory storage requires spaced repetition. C. the neuronal basis for memory in lower animals is extremely different than that of humans. D. repeated experience does not strengthen long-term potentiation. B. conversion from short-term to long-term memory storage requires spaced repetition. Aricept and Reminyl are two medications that are approved by the Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease because they: A. facilitate in reconstructing the hippocampus. B. boost levels of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. C. thicken the cortex of the frontal lobes. D. prevent deterioration of the temporal lobes. B. boost levels of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Research shows that flies bred to have an excess of CREB exhibited: A. olfactory deficits. B. an inability to remember their offspring. C. excellent memories. D. aggression toward unfamiliar flies. C. excellent memories. Which of the following statements is true about the effects of prescription and nonprescription stimulants on memory? A. The negative effects of prescription drugs such as Adderall or Ritalin happen only in low doses. B. Caffeine in general and over-the-counter energy drinks have no effects in their capacity to enhance memory. C. Higher doses of prescription stimulants can actually interfere with and block memory formation. D. There is nonclinical trial evidence that long-term, foods and drinks rich in flavonoids reduce memory and impair cognitive function. C. Higher doses of prescription stimulants can actually interfere with and block memory formation. The most solid evidence of the effects of herbs on memory suggests that the ground-up leaves of the ______ tree can be moderately effective in delaying symptoms of mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease. A. ginkgo biloba B. portulaca oleracea C. echinacea D. St. John's wort A. ginkgo biloba Which of the following is a protein that switches on genes responsible for the development of new synapses? A. CREB B. Ghrelin C. Insulin D. GABA A. CREB Electrical stimulation of the brain is technically called ______. A. transcranial direct current stimulation B. cortical stimulation C. transcranial magnetic stimulation D. peripheral nerve and field stimulation A. transcranial direct current stimulation Which of the following statements is true about transcranial direct current stimulation? A. The technique is usually considered painless and safe. B. A very high voltage is administered via four or more electrodes placed on the scalp of an individual. C. Research indicates that negatively charged stimulation increases memory in general. D. Transcranial electrical stimulation of the frontal lobe during slow wave sleep impairs recall of word pairs among people. A. The technique is usually considered painless and safe. The _____ cortex is located in the occipital lobes. A. auditory B. visual C. somatosensory D. olfactory B. visual Which cortex is located in the temporal lobes? A. Auditory B. Olfactory C. Somatosensory D. Visual A. Auditory The ______ cortex is located in the parietal lobes. A. visual B. auditory C. somatosensory D. olfactory C. somatosensory Which of the following senses lack their own processing regions? A. Sound B. Taste C. Vision D. Touch B. Taste Memory consolidation takes place in the: A. amygdala. B. prefrontal cortex. C. hippocampus. D. pons. C. hippocampus. Of the following, _____ occurs mostly in the cortex. A. encoding B. priming C. retrieving D. rehearsing B. priming Memories for behaviors and skills are implicit and are mostly processed in the: A. subcortex. B. neocortex. C. parietal lobe. D. temporal lobe. A. subcortex. The ______ is involved in assigning emotional significance to events and is crucial in encoding information relevant to emotional experiences. A. thalamus B. fornix C. hippocampus D. amygdala D. amygdala Monita, a three-year-old, is afraid of going to the park because she had had an accident there. Which part of Monita's brain is most involved in this case? A. Inferior colliculus B. Nucleus accumbens C. Amygdala D. Cerebellum C. Amygdala Someone who has posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) will: A. experience a shift from one personality to another when under extreme stress. B. alternate between feelings of extreme hopelessness and extreme elation. C. relive an extremely traumatic event over and over. D. experience neurological symptoms such as blindness and paralysis with no organic cause. C. relive an extremely traumatic event over and over. _____ occurs when other information competes with the information we are trying to recall. A. Repression B. Interference C. Absent-mindedness D. Blocking B. Interference _____ interference occurs when new experiences or information causes people to forget previously learned experiences or information. A. Long-term B. Output C. Proactive D. Retroactive D. Retroactive Keith first studied for his sociology exam and then for his psychology exam in the same evening. When it was time for him to take his sociology exam, all he could remember was psychology material. Keith's forgetting is an example of: A. retrograde amnesia. B. proactive interference. C. retroactive interference. D. anterograde amnesia. C. retroactive interference _____ interference occurs when previously learned information interferes with the learning of new information. A. Output B. Long-term C. Proactive D. Retroactive C. Proactive Chelsea is trying to learn Spanish. However, she is finding it difficult to learn Spanish because of her tendency to apply English grammar to the Spanish language. This is an example of: A. decay. B. proactive interference. C. the forgetting curve. D. retroactive interference. B. proactive interference. Research on forgetting began in the 1880s with Herman Ebbinghaus, who found that recall shows a steady decline over time. This decline is now termed as Ebbinghaus's: A. forgetting curve. B. serial position effect. C. neurological basis for forgetting. D. connection between memory and the amygdala. A. forgetting curve. _____ is a form of forgetfulness that involves attention as well as memory. A. Absent-mindedness B. Repression C. Interference D. Blocking A. Absent-mindedness Abdul looks around in his house for his wallet but cannot find it. He realizes that the last time he saw his wallet was at the grocery store. He looks in the freezer and finds his wallet next to the ice cream he bought at the store. Abdul's forgetfulness most likely occurred because: A. the memory of his wallet was transient. B. the memory of the ice cream had persistence. C. his attention was divided. D. he experienced proactive interference. C. his attention was divided. ______ can be defined as the inability to retrieve some information that one once stored—say, a person's name or an old phone number. A. Suggestibility B. Blocking C. Absent-mindedness D. Interference B. Blocking Diah says, "I know his name! He's married to that famous actress, and he was in all those action movies! His name begins with an A!...I just cannot remember it!" Diah is experiencing: A. divided attention. B. the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. C. proactive interference. D. repression. B. the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. ______, in which retrieval of memories that have been encoded and stored is actively inhibited, is the unconscious act of keeping threatening thoughts, feelings, or impulses out of consciousness. A. Absent-mindedness B. Interference C. Repression D. Suggestibility C. Repression Repression is an example of: A. interference. B. absent-mindedness. C. blocking. D. suggestibility. C. blocking. _____ occurs when memories are implanted in our minds based on leading questions, comments, or suggestions from someone else or some other source. A. Implanting B. Suggestibility C. Absent-mindedness D. Anterograde amnesia B. Suggestibility _____ memories are memories for events that never happened, but were suggested by someone or something. A. Semantic B. Recovered C. False D. Working C. False Vivienne had a vivid memory of being nearly kidnapped as a child. However, this never happened. This erroneous recall is an example of a(n): A. false memory. B. repressed memory. C. autobiographical memory. D. recovered memory. A. false memory. False memories are an example of: A. interference. B. blocking. C. repression. D. suggestibility. D. suggestibility. A memory from a real event, which was encoded and stored and not retrieved for a long period of time, but then is retrieved after some later event brings it suddenly to consciousness, is termed as a _____ memory. A. false B. recovered C. blocked D. repressed B. recovered Denji, a 44-year-old man, almost gets hit by a car while crossing a road. He suddenly remembers being in a terrible car accident as a small child. His father confirms that it did, indeed, happen, but they never discussed it with Denji. Psychologists would call this a(n): A. false memory. B. autobiographical memory. C. recovered memory. D. repressed memory. C. recovered memory.

exam 3

Motivation: Biological food, water, sex, sleep, etc. Motivation: Emotional panic, fear, love, hatred Motivation: Cognitive perceptions, beliefs, expectations Motivation: Social peer pressure, other people's reactions Hierarchical Model of Motivation ... Mazlow's Hierarchy of Needs physiological...safety...love/belonging...esteem...self actualization Evolutionary Model of Motivation INSTINCTS -motivation is a product of automatic, involuntary, and unlearned responses -ultimate goal: enhance survival Optimal Arousal model of Motivation AROUSAL -general level of activation -everyone has peak performance level of arousal -motivated to behave in ways that maintain optimal level of arousal -explains CURIOSITY, RISK TAKING, ETC -you perform better at LOW levels of arousal when learning something NEW Drive Reduction model of Motivation BALANCE BIOLOGICAL NEEDS -maintain homeostasis -Imbalance in homeostasis creates: *need= biological requirement for wellbeing *drive= psychological state that provides motivation *incentive= external object that motivates behavior unbalanced equilibrium...need...drive..behavior that satisfies need and reduces drive...equilibrium restored Affect A variety of emotional phenomena Emotions brief, acute, changes in conscious experience and physiology that occur in response to a personally meaningful situation. Mood Affective states that operate in the background of consciousness and tend to last longer than emotions. Affective Traits Trait affect is defined as a tendency to respond to specific classes of stimuli in a predetermined, affect-based manner. Therefore, an affective trait is considered a relatively stable characteristic of personality. Universal 1. Sadness 2. Happiness 3. Anger 4. Fear 5. Disgust 6. Surprise Self Conscious Emotions Types of emotions that require a sense of self and the ability to reflect on actions: -shame -guilt -humiliation -embarrasment -pride (authentic vs numbristic) Physiology of Emotion LIMBIC SYSTEM AND AMYGDALA -learning, recognizing and perceiving emotions -damage to amygdala leads to not being able to read emotions -trouble with appraisal leads to an evaluation of the emotion-relevant aspects of a stimulus fear=SYMPATHETIC system funny= PARASYMPATHETIC system Behavior of Emotion -Norms for controlling emotional expression (i.e. boys don't cry) - Intensification/masking -Detecting of deception *symmetry: sincere more symmetrical *duration: sincere last .5 to 5 seconds *temporal: sincere appear/disappear smoothly Subjective Experience of Emotion The changes in the quality of conscious experience that occur during emotional responses. James Lang Theory of Emotion Physiological responses CAUSE emotion (i.e. if I'm smiling, I'm happy) -Each emotion has a different pattern of physiological response -Facial Feedback Hypothesis (we experience emotions once we recognize the physical changes taking place) perceived event...physiological/behavioral response...emotional experience see bear...feet frozen...I am scared Cannon Bard Theory of Emotion Emotion and physiological are simultaneous -THALAMUS receives sensory info -Sends it to CEREBRAL CORTEX and PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM at same time *cortex: emotion becomes conscious *PNS: physiological responses (emotion created directly in brain) perceived event 1. physiological response 2. emotional experience see bear 1. frozen feet 2. being scared Cognitive Arousal/ Two Factor Theory of Emotion Emotions are influenced by how we interpret the cause of an event/arousal -Attributions: emotion comes from identifying cause of an event "love on a bridge study" is a misattribution of arousal Psychoanalytic Theories -Role of unconscious mind in the development of personality (psyche in constant turmoil, your unconscious controls your behavior) -Unconscious struggle to satisfy need for food/water/air/sex/aggression Id PLEASURE PRINCIPLE -eros and thandtos (life or death) "I want it NOW" -infantile libido, inner animal Ego MEDIATOR -reality principle, mediates the demands of the id and superego and real world "Maybe I can find a compromise?" Superego MORALITY -principles, rules, conscience, society values "Nice people don't do that" Psychosexual Stages 1. 0-18 months ORAL mouth, sucking, biting/chewing if stuck: dependency, smoking, sarcasm 2. 18-36 months ANAL anus, bowel, bladder if stuck: ordeliness, cleanliness, OCD behavior 3. 3-6 years PHALLIC own genitals, parent if stuck: attraction to people like opposite sex parent 4. Puberty LATENT sexually dormant 5. Puberty GENITAL genitals, sex acts, immature sexuality Social Cognitive Learning Theories -Personality in terms of how they think about and behave in response to situations *derived from learning principles -conscious thoughts are emotions Person Situation Controversy Behavior due to personality or situation factors Humanistic Positive Theories Humans are naturally interested in realizing their full potential. Believe that psychology needs to study humans at their best an worst. Self Actualizing Tendency Self actualizing people are able to readily solve problems with originality and novelty. Self actualizing creativity is found in everyday life. Unconditional Positive Regard Acceptance of another person regardless of his or her behavior. Trait Theories Trait: A consistent enduring way of thinking, feeling, behaving Assumptions: -traits remain stable/predictable over time -traits remain stable across situations -personality traits vary in degrees Central Traits -organize and control behavior in many different situations "He is reliable, hard working, lazy, deceptive" Secondary Traits SITUATION SPECIFIC -control far lass behavior (smallman being afraid of revolving doors) Big Five Model Openess to experience: artistic, curious, insightful, wide interests Conscienctiousness: ethical, organized, reliable, thorough Extraversion: active, assertive, outgoing, talkative, gesturally expressive Aggreableness: Appreciative, forgiving, generous, trusting, noncritical, straightforward Neuroticism: anxious, self pitying, touchy, vulnerable, impulsive, emotionally unstable Behavioral Assessment - direct observation -rating scales -frequency count (how often behavior occurs) pros: out in real world, hard to lie cons: lots of variables, bias (if you know you are being watched), observer bias Interview -open ended or structured -life outcomes pros: less observer bias cons: lies from interviewee, halo or first impression effects Personality Inventories - Ask direct questions -Quantitatively scored -Objective: unbiased, based on facts -Clearly stated items, yes/no true/false *face value: you can see what is being studied *imperically valid question: question doesn't look like its for a certain topic, bias responses are lessened. ex: -Minnesota Multiphasic Personality - Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Personality Inventory, Revised (NEO-PI-R) pros: cheap, widely available, easy, normed cons: subject to deliberate distortion Projective Tests -unstructured stimuli create response freedom - try to avoid lying, social desirability Ex: -draw a person test -thematic apperception test (TAT) -tests: achievement motivation, need for power/affiliation Different interpretations of abnormal -medical -psychodynamic -behavioral -cognitive -social cultural DSMV categories -Infancy/childhood/adolescence - Anxiety - Somatic Symptom -Factitious - Dissociative - Delirium/Dementia/Cognitive -Mood - Schizophrenia - Substance-Related - Sexual/Gender Identity - Eating - Sleep - Impulse Control - Adjustment - Intellectual - Personality - Other conditions that may be a focus of clinical attention Mental Disorders A wide range of conditions that affect mood, thinking, and behavior. Syndromes A set of related conditions Comorbidity The occurrence of two or psychological disorders at the same time. Supernatural Model According to this model, abnormal behaviors are caused by demons, spirits, or the influences of moon, planets, and stars. ... The belief that witches, demons, and spirits are responsible for the abnormal behavior continued into the 15th century. Biopsychosocial Model The biopsychosocial model is a broad view that attributes disease outcome to the intricate, variable interaction of biological factors (genetic, biochemical, etc), psychological factors (mood, personality, behavior, etc.), and social factors (cultural, familial, socioeconomic, medical, etc.). Diathesis-stress Model The diathesis-stress model is a psychological theory that explains behavior as both a result of biological and genetic factors ("nature"), and life experiences ("nurture").Diathesis is the heriditary predispostion to a disorder (from the Greek diathesis=arrangement, from dia=asunder+tithenai=to place). Specific Phobias A specific phobia, formerly called a simple phobia, is a lasting and unreasonable fear caused by the presence or thought of a specific object or situation that usually poses little or no actual danger. Social Anxiety Disorders Social anxiety disorder, formerly referred to as social phobia, is an anxiety disorder characterized by overwhelming anxiety and excessive self-consciousness in everyday social situations. People with social anxiety disorder have a persistent, intense, and chronic fear of being watched and judged by others and of being embarrassed or humiliated by their own actions. Agoraphobia An anxiety disorder involving fear of being in places from which escape might be difficult or in which help might now be available, should a panic attack occur. Generalized Anxiety Disorder A state of pervasive and excessive anxiety lasting at least 6 months. Panic Disorder An anxiety disorder characterized by panic attacks and persistent anxiety about having more attacks. PTSD A type of trauma and stressor related disorder that involves intrusive and persistent cognitive, emotional, and physiological symptoms triggered by catastrophic or horrifying events. OCD An anxiety disorder in which obssesive thoughts lead to compulsive behaviors. Major Depressive Disorder A mood disorder characterized by pervasive low mood, lack of motivation, low energy and feelings of worthlessness that last for at least two consecutive weeks. Persistent Depressive Disorder A form of depression that is milder in intensity but longer in duration than major depressive disorder. Bipolar Disorder Two poles of emotional extreme *Depressive episode *Manic episode -inflated self esteem -decreased need for sleep -more talkative -flights of ideas -distractibility -goal-directed activity -high risk pleasurable activity Cyclothymia A relatively mild but longer lasting form of bipolar disorder. Dissociative Amnesia A break in memory, consciousness or identity -inability to recall important -personal information-- too extensive to be ordinary forgetfulness -losing LONG TERM episodic memories -can occur w or w/o fugue Dissociative Identity Disorder Reports having more than one identity Causes: *psychodynamic: repressing threats *cognitive/behavior: thought avoidant *biological: brain activity differences Schizophrenia -Can't distinguish between reality/fantasy -disturbed thinking/emotion/perception -usually get during adolescence (early 20s, women get later) -40% can be treated w/ medication -"schizein" break from reality -Louis Wain (painter) + (add)= disorganized thoughts, hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech -(absence)= reduced speech, flat affect, social withdrawal, absence of pleasure/motivation causes: -biological factors -inherited -brain abnormalities -stress Cluster One Personality Disorder "odd/eccentric" -paranoid (suspicious, distrustful, hostile) -schizoid (negative symptoms of schizophrenia) -schizotypal (positive symptoms of schizophrenia) Cluster Two Personality Disorder "dramatic/erratic" -Histrenic (excessive emotion, must be center of attention) -Narcisstic (exaggerate own importance, arrogant, lack empathy) -Borderline (intense, unstable emotion/ relationships, suicidal thoughts) -Antisocial (lack of remorse, superficial charm, violation of people's rights) Cluster Three Personality Disorder "anxious/fearful" -Dependent (excessive need to be taken care of) -Obsessive-Compulsive (preoccupation with order/cleanliness -Avoidant (oversensitive to criticism, feelings or inadequacy) Psychoanalytic Therapy Therapy aimed at uncovering the unconscious motives that underlie psychological problems. Free Association A psychotherapeutic technique in which the client takes one image or idea from a dream and says whatever comes to mind, regardless of how threatening, disgusting, or troubling it may be. Dream Analysis Dream analysis is a therapeutic technique best known for its use in psychoanalysis. Sigmund Freud viewed dreams as "the royal road" to the unconscious and developed dream analysis, or dream interpretation, as a way of tapping into this unconscious material. Transference The process in psychotherapy in which the client reacts to a person in a present relationship as though that person were someone from the client's pass. Humanistic/Positive Therapy Also known as humanism, humanistic therapy is a positive approach to psychotherapy that focuses on a person's individual nature, rather than categorizing groups of people with similar characteristics as having the same problems. Humanistic therapy looks at the whole person, not only from the therapist's view but from the viewpoint of individuals observing their own behavior. The emphasis is on a person's positive traits and behaviors, and the ability to use their personal instincts to find wisdom, growth, healing, and fulfillment within themselves. Behavioral Therapies In behavioral therapy, the goal is to reinforce desirable behaviors and eliminate unwanted or maladaptive ones. Behavioral therapy is rooted in the principles of behaviorism, a school of thought focused on the idea that we learn from our environment. Token Economies A behavioral technique in which desirable behaviors are reinforced with a token, such as a small chip or fake coin, which can be exchanged for privileges. Systematic Desensitization A behavior therapy technique, often used for phobias, in which the therapist pairs relaxation with gradual exposure to a phobic object, generating a hierarchy of increasing contact with the feared object. Flooding A form in vivo exposure in which the client experiences extreme exposure to the phobic object. Cognitive Therapy Any type of psychotherapy that works to restructure irrational thought patterns. Beck's Cognitive Therapy Beck's (1967) system of therapy is similar to Ellis's, but has been most widely used in cases of depression. Cognitive therapists help clients to recognize the negative thoughts and errors in logic that cause them to be depressed. The therapist also guides clients to question and challenge their dysfunctional thoughts, try out new interpretations, and ultimately apply alternative ways of thinking in their daily lives. Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) is a short-term form of psychotherapy that helps you identify self-defeating thoughts and feelings, challenge the rationality of those feelings, and replace them with healthier, more productive beliefs. REBT focuses mostly on the present time to help you understand how unhealthy thoughts and beliefs create emotional distress which, in turn, leads to unhealthy actions and behaviors that interfere with your current life goals. Once identified and understood, negative thoughts and actions can be changed and replaced with more positive and productive behavior, allowing you to develop more successful personal and professional relationships. Biomedical Treatments Biomedical therapies are physiological interventions that focus on the reduction of symptoms associated with psychological disorders. Three procedures used are drug therapies, electroconvulsive (shock) treatment, and psychosurgery. Psychosurgery Psychosurgery involves severing or otherwise disabling areas of the brain to treat a personality disorder, behavior disorder, or other mental illness. Modern psychosurgical techniques target the pathways between the limbic system (the portion of the brain on the inner edge of the cerebral cortex) that is believed to regulate emotions, and the frontal cortex, where thought processes are seated. Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is a procedure, done under general anesthesia, in which small electric currents are passed through the brain, intentionally triggering a brief seizure. ECT seems to cause changes in brain chemistry that can quickly reverse symptoms of certain mental illnesses. Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS) A treatment for severe depression involving exposure of specific brain structures to bursts of high intensity magnetic fields instead of electricity. Deep Brain Stimulation Implanting electrodes into the brain to allow for electrical stimulation of specific brain regions and clusters of neurons. Dispositional Situational attributions Dis:The tendency of assigning the cause or responsibility of a certain behavior or action to the internal characteristic, rather than to outside forces is called Dispositional Attribution. It is also referred as Internal Attributions. Sit: The tendency of assigning the cause or responsibility of a certain behavior or action to outside forces rather than international characteristic is called Situational Attribution. We often explain our new actions and behavior using the environmental or situational features, something that is beyond our control. fundamental attribution error The tendency to explain others' behavior in dispositional rather than situational terms. self serving bias The tendency to make situational attributions for our failures but dispositional attributions for our successes. Attitude An individual's favorable or unfavorable beliefs, feelings, or actions toward an object, idea, or person. Components of Attitude Change Cognitive Dissonance: The feeling of discomfort caused by information that is different from a person's conception of himself or herself as a reasonable and sensible person. Environment on attraction Proximity, nearness in physical space functional distance: not all nearness is equal Similarity on attraction Similarity breeds attraction -age, race, education Familiarity on attraction Mere exposure effect we like things better the more we see them Triangular Theory of Love Sternberg's idea that three components (intimacy, passion, commitment) can explain all the forms of human love. Consummate love exists when all three components are equally shared. Descriptive Norms How people ACTUALLY behave Injunctive Norms How people SHOULD behave Deindividuation Mindlessly following norms that can be a problem. Diffusion of Responsibility Diffusion of responsibility is a sociopsychological phenomenon whereby a person is less likely to take responsibility for action or inaction when others are present. Considered a form of attribution, the individual assumes that others either are responsible for taking action or have already done so Group Think A situation in which the thinking of the group takes over, so much so that group members forgo logic or critical analysis in the service of reaching a decision. Social Facilitation When the presence of others improves one's performance. Social Loafing The phenomenon in which the presence of others causes one to relax one's standards and slack off. Foot in the Door Initial small request followed by gradually larger requests. Door in the Face Asking for large favor first, then retreating to smaller favor. Milgram's Study Experts consulted by Milgram prior to the study predicted that, at higher voltages, participants would refuse to administer further shocks to the learner. They were wrong, at the highest voltages, when the experimenter told them to continue, 60% listened.

(Feist) Chapter 9

What terms did Skinner use to explain the progression of language development in children from birth till the age they are able to utter short phrases and sentences? Successive approximations, observation, and interaction Interaction, reinforcement, and shaping Shaping, successive approximations, and reinforcement Reinforcement, observation, and interaction Shaping, successive approximations, and reinforcement Which of the following is true in the context of language development in infants? Language comprehension occurs in the right hemisphere of the brain, in the region called Broca's area. It is suggested that Wernicke's area develops earlier than Broca's area. Language production is associated with the left-hemisphere region called Wernicke's area. The ability to understand words develops after the ability to produce words. It is suggested that Wernicke's area develops earlier than Broca's area. Which of the following is true in the context of Chomsky's views on language development? Grammar is universal, but it may not always follow universal principles. Not all languages have the same components of speech. The language acquisition device must have principles of universal grammar. The components of speech seldom vary in where they can be put in sentences. The language acquisition device must have principles of universal grammar. According to the theory of linguistic relativism, which of the following is true? Learning of a language is often relative to a child's age and gender. Language determines our way of thinking and our perceptions of the world. Language is the same as thought since thoughts are expressed in language. Language influences rather than determines our thinking. Language influences rather than determines our thinking. Which of the following is a view linguist Noam Chomsky would second? Humans speak because they want to convey an idea or a feeling and not because they have been reinforced to do so. There is essentially a single universal grammar underlying all human languages. There are many learning processes involved in the actual process of language learning. All human beings learn languages through the process of reinforcement and shaping There is essentially a single universal grammar underlying all human languages. David, 15 years of age, has trouble in all his language subjects. This is because he did not get proper exposure to human language from birth to: 3 years of age. 8 years of age. 5 years of age. 12 years of age. 12 years of age. In babies, the babbling stage usually ends at around: 2 months. 6 months. 18 months. 12 months. 12 months. According to Uylings' study in the context of language development in humans, which of the following is true? Sensitivity periods begin after the plasticity of neural connections becomes more flexible. Pruning increases the plasticity of the neural connections. Sensitivity periods end after neural pruning and neural wiring reach their peak. Neural wiring plummets when the sensitivity period begins. Sensitivity periods end after neural pruning and neural wiring reach their peak. Annie has learned to use certain words such as "jam," "apple," "book," and "hand." It suggests that these words are mostly used: in the middle of a sentence. at the end of a sentence. at the beginning of a sentence. only in isolated cases. at the end of a sentence. Which of the following brain cells fire when an individual performs a task or observes another person do the same task? Spindle neurons Mirror neurons Inter neurons Neurons Mirror neurons Nancy is a 4-month-old infant who utters repeated vowel sounds such as "aah and ooh." Until 6 months of age, her speech consists almost exclusively of vowels. Nancy is said to be in the ______ stage of language development. twaddling cooing babbling crib talk cooing According to Benjamin Whorf and Edward Sapir, language creates thought as much as thought creates language. Taken to its logical conclusion, this view leads to the ______ hypothesis. sensitivity period linguistic determinism innate perception rational choice linguistic determinism Which of the following is true in the context of babbling babies? They can hear less sounds than their parents can. They can make lesser sounds than they hear in their native language. They tend to retain the sounds that are not used in the native language. They can hear more sounds than their parents can. They can hear more sounds than their parents can. Which theory holds that language shapes our thoughts and perceptions to such an extent that people who speak languages that lack a common foundation have difficulty directly communicating and translating their ideas from one language to the other? Nativist theory Theory of innately guided learning Linguistic determinism hypothesis Skinnerian theory of language Linguistic determinism hypothesis Which of the following best describes the language acquisition device? An innate capacity to come up with novel words and utterances. A device that imitates adult speech to aid language development in children. An innate and biologically based capacity to acquire language. An interactive device that helps a child learn different languages at a time. An innate and biologically based capacity to acquire language. Which of the following makes human language unique? It can be used to express one's needs and desires. It can be spoken in different ways by different people. It can be used to transmit ideas in abstraction. It can be used for the purpose of metacommunication. It can be used to transmit ideas in abstraction. __________ comprises the set of rules for combining symbols and sounds to speak and write a particular language. Semantics Prototype Syntax Grammar Grammar Which of the following describes linguistic determinism hypothesis? Environmental and genetic factors determine a child's language capacity. Learning to speak a language is like any other behavior that exists because it is reinforced and shaped. The biologically based language acquisition device has principles of universal grammar. Language determines our way of thinking and our perceptions of the world. Language determines our way of thinking and our perceptions of the world. Frieda learns to make two-word utterances. As others usually do not grasp the meanings of the words she utters, her parents often serve as translators. Considering these factors, Frieda's age would be about: 6 months. 18 months. 24 months. 12 months. 18 months. Which of the following best describes child-directed speech? Changes in the child's speech as a result of imitation Speech that a child engages in talking to himself/herself Normal speech that is used while talking to the child Changes in adult speech patterns to encourage imitation Changes in adult speech patterns to encourage imitation Which of the following describes critical thinking? Using theological principles to deduce only the weaknesses and flaws in ideas Solving problems through a nonrational approach to new ideas Employing an interdisciplinary method to analyze how humans should, can, and do reach conclusions through intuition Solving problems by analyzing, making comparisons, drawing inferences, and evaluating arguments Solving problems by analyzing, making comparisons, drawing inferences, and evaluating arguments Dan, a German, is preparing to take a standardized test in a non-native language. Psychologists would argue that the test he would be taking will not be valid because: he would perform better in the non-native language rather than the native language. standardized tests usually have a lower internal consistency. different versions of standardized tests are designed for students taking tests in nonnative languages. the scores would not accurately portray the aptitude of the test taker. the scores would not accurately portray the aptitude of the test taker. Which theory posited that when given a choice between two or more options, humans will choose the one that is most likely to help them achieve their particular goals? Optimal decision theory Choice modeling theory Causal decision theory Rational choice theory Rational choice theory _______ refers to how common some phenomena, be it people or events, are in the population as a whole. Regression analysis Gambler's fallacy Phase average Base rate Base rate Neil uses the premise that all squares are rectangles. On the basis of this premise, he states that all rectangles have four sides. Therefore, he concludes that all squares must also have four sides. In which of the following is Neil engaged? Bottom-up logic finding Deductive reasoning Abstract thinking Hypothesizing Deductive reasoning Which of the following represents the most basic unit of knowledge? Concept Abstract Schema Experience Concept Miriam engages in deductive reasoning. Which of the following is a prerequisite if her conclusions are to be correct? Her general conclusion from specific evidence is not a causal inference. The conclusion is corroborated by an independent party. The general statement upon which she bases her specific premise is true. Her ability to selectively attend to information that supports her general beliefs is logically fallacious. The general statement upon which she bases her specific premise is true. According to psychologists, which of the following is most likely true of Marta, who is fluent in Spanish and English? She performs better on cognitive tasks than those who speak only one language, but is most likely not to do so later in life. She is most likely to be capable of more efficient cognitive processing than those who speak only one language. She is most likely to develop dementia more than four years earlier than do elderly speakers of only one language. She is most likely to have a lesser neural density than those who speak only one language. She is most likely to be capable of more efficient cognitive processing than those who speak only one language. A bird has feathers and wings. It is a living thing, and it can move. It is a puffing or a canary. What does the example illustrate? A mind map Visual imagery A mental model A parallel distributed network A parallel distributed network While working on his post-doctoral thesis, Simon reads several scientific articles and carefully analyzes and evaluates the conclusions based on the facts and evidence at hand. He then makes sound judgments based on his own research and previous researches, both of which are validated through repeated experiments. Which of the following is Simon doing? Nonrational reasoning Critical thinking Availability heuristics Intuitive mapping Critical thinking Which of the following is true of mental representations? They are less useful for thinking about things one sensed in the past. They usually do not allow one to imagine things in the future. They are frequently not about things one is currently sensing. They are not useful for thinking about abstract ideas that have no physical existence. They are frequently not about things one is currently sensing. ______________ is a strategy people use when they make decisions based on the ease with which estimates come to mind or how available they are to their awareness. The representativeness heuristic Anchoring and adjustment Integrative thinking The availability heuristic The availability heuristic Which of the following explains inductive reasoning? Reasoning from general statements of what is known to specific conclusions Proving something by showing that all other possibilities are not possible Understanding something by considering it as a whole system and splitting it into parts Drawing general conclusions from specific evidence Drawing general conclusions from specific evidence Which of the following best describes a scenario exemplifying the availability heuristic? Kelly concludes that tall men are intimidating on the basis of just one bad experience with a tall man. Once the tossed coin comes down heads, Gogol expects the next coin to be more likely to be tails than heads. Once Jon scores two goals, most of his teammates start passing him the ball more often on the assumption that he is "on the ball." After a recent news story about a disastrous plane crash, Terry is skeptical about flying in an airplane. After a recent news story about a disastrous plane crash, Terry is skeptical about flying in an airplane. What did Einstein engage in when he imagined himself traveling at the speed of light in an elevator? Verbal formulation Visual imagery Visual perception Verbal representation Visual imagery Research on gender differences in spatial ability has shown that: males and females perform at the same skill level on mental rotation tasks. females generally do better than males on mental rotation tasks. both males and females are rarely if ever skilled at mental rotation tasks. males generally do better than females on mental rotation tasks. males generally do better than females on mental rotation tasks. Gabrielle teaches her fourth-grade students about abstractions such as beauty and justice. Which of the following can aid the students' understanding of such abstractions? Parallel distribution Mental representation Verbal prototype Physical event Mental representation Who among the following demonstrates metacognitive thinking? Lionel, who makes profits and gives half of it to child welfare. Brad, who visualizes the universe before he sets about doing physics. Karen, who repeats and validates all the chemistry experiments mentioned in the text by conducting them at home. Donna, who uses a frying pan to iron her clothes as the iron is dysfunctional. Karen, who repeats and validates all the chemistry experiments mentioned in the text by conducting them at home. n the context of verbal representation of one's thoughts and perceptions, ______ lets us know that certain concepts are related in a particular way, with some being general and other specific. inductive reasoning concept hierarchy mental rotation complex distribution concept hierarchy _________ requires the ability to think and then to reflect on one's own thinking and to question it. Intuitive thinking Parallel thinking Perceptual reasoning Metacognitive thinking Metacognitive thinking

exam 3

stimulus control. The ability of a stimulus to encourage some responses and discourage others is known as which behaviors the person has recently not had an opportunity to do. Suppose we want to find an event that will serve as an effective reinforcer for a given person. According to the disequilibrium principle, we should begin by determining Reinforce the rat for something simple, like sitting up. To use shaping to train a rat to press a lever, what will the experimenter do first? They both strengthen a behavior. What do positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement have in common with each other? food Which of the following is an example of a primary reinforcer? Stop providing positive reinforcements. What procedure produces extinction in operant conditioning? Did the individual's responses control the outcomes? If you want to determine whether some example of learning qualifies as classical conditioning or operant conditioning, which question should you ask? every correct response is reinforced. In operant conditioning, a continuous reinforcement schedule is one in which variable-ratio You attend every new movie that appears at your local theater. You find that most of them are dull (not reinforcing) but really enjoy about one-fourth of them. This is an example of a __________ schedule of reinforcement. operant conditioning In the presence of a light, an animal makes a response that is followed by food. The food is given only when the animal makes the response. Which type of learning is this? after every response. Under a continuous schedule of reinforcement, when is the animal reinforced? Learning is based on strengthening responses, not on insights. Thorndike's cats improved their ability to escape his puzzle boxes gradually, not suddenly. What conclusion did he draw from this observation? money Which of the following is an example of a secondary reinforcer? We can draw none of these conclusions. Children who are frequently spanked tend to be ill-behaved. What conclusion (if any) can we draw from this result? Listen to the crying without responding. A little boy has learned to get candy by crying. What procedure would lead to extinction of this response? variable ratio The more lottery tickets you buy, the greater your chances of winning. However, you have no way of knowing how many tickets you will have to buy before you win. It might be fewer than ten; it might be more than a million. This is an example of which type of schedule of reinforcement? the animal's behavior controls the outcomes (including reinforcers). The main difference between classical and operant conditioning is that in operant conditioning The punishment is slow and unpredictable. The threat of cancer is not always effective in discouraging people from smoking. Why not? You can be reinforced by a chance to do something that you have not been able to do recently. Which of these states the disequilibrium principle? negative reinforcement. If you learn to turn off a dripping faucet to end the "drip, drip, drip" sound, your behavior was changed through to find a simple behavioristic explanation of learning What was Edward Thorndike's research goal? reinforcing successive approximations to a desired behavior. Shaping (in the context of operant conditioning) means You have learned to buy Ida brand potato chips, which are always fresh, and to avoid Hoe brand, which are usually stale. Which of the following is an example of discrimination in operant conditioning? law of effect. Responses that are followed by satisfaction to the animal will be more firmly connected with the situation so that they will be more likely to recur in the future. This is a brief statement of the escape or avoidance learning. Negative reinforcement is also known as fixed interval An individual receives a reinforcement for the first response after a 1-minute interval, but not again until the next 1-minute interval has passed. This is an example of which type of schedule of reinforcement? an event that became reinforcing as a result of previous experience What is a secondary reinforcer? variable interval An individual receives a reinforcement for the first response after some period of time, but the amount of time changes. Sometimes the individual has to wait as much as 3 minutes, sometimes as little as 10 seconds. This is an example of which type of schedule of reinforcement? variable interval A professor gives unannounced quizzes at unpredictable times. Therefore students must study equally every night. Which type of schedule of reinforcement is this? variable interval You scan the night sky looking for meteors. Sometimes there is a brief time period between meteors, but sometimes you have to wait for a long time after seeing a meteor until another one appears. This is an example of which type of schedule of reinforcement? reinforcing successive approximations to a behavior. What did B.F. Skinner mean by "shaping"? We don't have enough information to answer the question. It depends on whether the food always occurs after the bell, or only if the animal sits up. When an animal hears a bell, it sits up on its hind legs and drools. Then it receives food. What kind of conditioning is this? variable interval You enjoy getting e-mail messages, so you occasionally check your e-mail to find out if you have any new messages. Which schedule of reinforcement is present in this case? shaping...chaining Skinner trained a rat to raise a flag and salute during the playing of the "Star-Spangled Banner." The training involved a combination of __________ and __________. variable interval Reinforcement on which schedule produces a slow but steady rate of responding? shaping. An operant conditioner such as B. F. Skinner might provide you with a reinforcer after you make a sound, then after a louder sound, then after a more pleasant sound, and so forth until you are singing. This procedure would be an example of chaining. A rat learns to climb a ladder to a platform where it can pull a string to raise the ladder and then climb the ladder again. The reinforcement for each response is the opportunity to perform the next response. This procedure is known as the animal's responses do not control the reinforcements. The main difference between classical and operant conditioning is that in classical conditioning Cats don't solve the problem by understanding. When Thorndike found that cats gradually improved their performance in a puzzle box, without any point of sudden improvement, what did he conclude? variable-interval If you like to go fishing, and the fish are biting on some days and not others, you are reinforced on which schedule? fixed interval Your boss provides free coffee and donuts daily at 10:30 am. Showing up at the right time and place is reinforced on which schedule? True Fixed ratio is a "count" based schedule of reinforcement. True Positive punishment refers to adding something undesirable to an organism's environment. True Variable interval is a "time" based schedule of reinforcement. True Positive reinforcement refers to adding something desirable to an organism's environment. True Operant conditioning uses a "schedule of reinforcement" to train animals and people. True The term negative means removed. False Classical conditioning primarily works with the skeletal muscles. True The term positive means added. True Operant conditioning uses a "schedule of reinforcement" to train animals and people. True The term operant is derived from the word operate. After a response is extinguished, the subject is given a delay and then tested again. Under what circumstances do we see spontaneous recovery of a learned response? waking up to your alarm Your clock makes a clicking sound just before the alarm goes off. Even though you didn't wake up to the clicking sound initially, now you do, due to classical conditioning. What is the unconditioned response? Present the sound without food, and then wait a long time before testing again. In Pavlov's experiment on classically conditioning salivation to a sound, what procedure produces spontaneous recovery? conditioned stimulus. Your clock makes a clicking sound just before the alarm goes off. Even though you didn't wake up to the clicking sound initially, now you do, due to classical conditioning. The clicking is the both the conditioned response and the unconditioned response. Your clock makes a clicking sound just before the alarm goes off. Even though you didn't wake up to the clicking sound initially, now you do, due to classical conditioning. Waking up is Repeatedly present the conditioned stimulus by itself. How can one extinguish a classically conditioned response? all behavior follows cause-and-effect relationships. In general, behaviorists accept the assumption that conditioned stimulus...conditioned response A tone is followed by a puff of air to the eyes. After several repetitions, subjects blink their eyes when they hear the tone. The tone is the __________ and blinking is the __________. mental experiences. Behaviorism began, in part, as a protest against psychologists who tried to study conditioned stimulus. Pavlov paired the presentation of food with a sound and measured salivation to each. In this experiment the sound was the an unconditioned response In a classical conditioning experiment, what (if anything) occurs on the first trial? Repeatedly present the CS alone, without the UCS. After classically conditioning some response, how might one produce extinction of the response? the word "fire" When the drill sergeant shouts, "fire," the artillery shoots, making a loud sound that makes you flinch. After a few repetitions, you flinch at the word "fire." What is the conditioned stimulus? the loud sound When the drill sergeant shouts, "fire," the artillery shoots, making a loud sound that makes you flinch. After a few repetitions, you flinch at the word "fire." What is the unconditioned stimulus? human thought processes Which of the following would a behaviorist be least likely to study? a learned response to the conditioned stimulus What is a conditioned response? conditioned stimulus...unconditioned stimulus A tone is followed by a puff of air to the eyes. After several repetitions, subjects blink their eyes when they hear the tone. The tone is the __________ and the puff of air is the __________. events in the past and present environment cause your thoughts and feelings. A behaviorist would state that your thoughts and feelings do not cause your behavior, because conditioned stimulus. A tone is followed by a puff of air to the eyes. After several repetitions, subjects blink their eyes when they hear the tone. The tone is the interest in the difference between conscious and unconscious thought Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of behaviorism? the puff of air A tone is followed by a puff of air to the eyes. After several repetitions, subjects blink their eyes when they hear the tone. What is the unconditioned stimulus? both the conditioned response and the unconditioned response. A tone is followed by a puff of air to the eyes. After several repetitions, subjects blink their eyes when they hear the tone. In this experiment blinking is flinching When the drill sergeant shouts, "fire," the artillery shoots, making a loud sound that makes you flinch. After a few repetitions, you flinch at the word "fire." What is the conditioned response? true A green cowboy hat is a good example of a neutral stimulus for dog salivating. true Spontaneous recovery is usually temporary. true Ivan Pavlov did research on dog salivating. false A "conditioned response" follows the presentation of an "unconditioned stimulus." true All "conditioned stimuli" began life as a "neutral stimulus." true Classical conditioning refers to behavioral responding that occurs without conscious effort. false It takes many months for an infant to learn how to blink, but eventually they do. true A person's wave is an observable stimulus. true A person's wave is an observable response. true Behaviorists considered the study of consciousness inappropriate for a scientific psychology. People don't always know their own thought processes. Why do cognitive psychologists usually rely on reaction times, etc., instead of asking people to describe their thought processes? Even listening to your passenger's half of a conversation is distracting. What does psychological research say about using a cell phone while you are driving? observations of behavior Which of the following is the main basis for diagnosing attention deficit disorder? an attentive process. You are looking for a well-camouflaged animal in a forest. Finding it will require an attentive process In an experiment on change blindness, people typically take many seconds to notice something. When they finally do, what does their detection depend on? Stroop effect If you look at words written in various colors, you find it difficult to say the colors instead of reading the words. What is this phenomenon called? Write the words in a language the student does not know. A student in one experiment is showing the Stroop effect. Which change in the usual procedure would probably stop the student from showing this effect? The delay to answering is proportional to the angular distance of rotation. When you are asked how something would look from a different angle, you say you "imagined rotating the object in my head." What evidence did Shepard & Metzler present to show that what you did really is like watching an object rotate? preattentive processes Dr. Rhea D. Zeiner wants to improve the cockpit of an airplane. She observes that a row of control gauges has needles pointing in several directions. She corrects this problem by designing gauges with their safe zones in the same direction. This is an application of what? You decide to shift attention from one item to another. What is meant by a "top-down" process in attention? True Bottom up processing is preattentive processing. True "Change Blindness" is a failure to notice changes in 2 versions of the same scene. False Top down processing isn't even a real thing. True Attention is used to focus cognitive resources on things around us. False Laptops in class is good for everyone. a typical example of a category What is a prototype? why you think of a particular word at a particular time What does the concept of spreading activation attempt to explain? spreading activation. When people are asked how many animals of each species Moses took on the ark, many people answer "two" instead of noting that Noah, not Moses, was the ark-maker. This error has been interpreted in terms of People answer faster when asked whether a canary is yellow and slower when asked whether a canary has skin. According to the conceptual network approach, we learn that a canary is a kind of bird, which is a kind of animal. We also learn the distinctive characteristics of canaries, birds, and animals. What evidence supports this view? priming If you are asked what word starts NEP---, you are more likely to think of NEPHEW if you had recently heard the word NIECE. What do we call that effect? Do politicians sometimes give speeches? Which of these questions would people answer most quickly? We compare the item to the most typical members of the category. According to the concept of prototypes, how do we decide whether an item belongs to a particular category? False In the non-hierarchical network model, similar concepts are connected by long links. True Priming means to make a memory easier to access. True In the non-hierarchical network model, knowledge is a node. True Spreading activation is a way to prime related memories. True The hierarchical model of memory organizes knowledge from general at the top and specific toward the bottom. you have too many hypotheses to test In which situation would a heuristic be most useful? when there are too many possible hypotheses to test them all When is it better to use heuristics than an algorithm to solve a problem? satisficing. In decision making, searching until you find something that is good enough is called it takes about 10 years of concentrated effort to become an expert in most fields. Research on the development of expertise reveals that, in general, strategies for simplifying a problem or for guiding an investigation What are heuristics? What shape is a circle? For which of these questions would you be most likely to use System 1 instead of System 2? when you want to simplify a problem Under what circumstance would you prefer to use a heuristic instead of an algorithm? how much attention they require You can answer questions by either System 1 or System 2. How do the systems differ? a good decision that the person endorses with confidence Compared to a satisficing strategy, what is the usual outcome from maximizing? mechanical, repetitive mathematical procedures for solving a problem What are algorithms? functional fixedness If you are trying to think of uses for a brick and you can't think of anything other than building a wall, what error have you made? heuristic When faced with an unfamiliar item on a test, some students follow the advice, "When in doubt, choose the longest answer." That advice is an example of what? False All living things possess language. True "ing" is a morpheme. True The set of words that make up this statement refers to surface structure. False Phoneme and morpheme are two words for the same thing. True Productivity means I can make up tons of sentences using the English language. It is easy to please John. Which of these sentences has the same deep structure as "John is easy to please"? surface structure. The sequence of words as they are actually spoken or written is called the ____ Your attention is wandering. Ordinarily, you have short eye fixations when reading something easy and long fixations when reading something difficult. If your fixations start to become about the same for easy and difficult material, what is probably happening? transformational grammar. The system for converting a deep structure into a surface structure in language is called 3 How many morphemes are in the word "triangle"? we hear words as a whole, rather than a group of separate sounds (letters). In an experiment a cough or a tone replaced the first "s" in the word "legislatures" in a sentence the subjects were listening to. The results of this experiment support the idea that someone who is just learning how to read Who would be LEAST likely to show the word-superiority effect? People don't fully process or trust negative statements. Students watched an experimenter fill two jars with sugar. They were then given two labels and instructed to label either jar with "sucrose, table sugar" and the other with "not sodium cyanide, not poison." Then the students could use either jar to make Kool Aid. What did the results indicate? the ability to create new sentences What is meant by the "productivity" of human language? Wernicke's aphasia What condition is marked by fluent speech despite few nouns, and impaired language comprehension? use their symbols almost exclusively to make requests. Common chimpanzees that learned to communicate by sign language or visual symbols Dolphins and whales do not have language. Which of these is evidence AGAINST the idea that human language evolved as an accidental byproduct of brain size? overgeneralize grammatical rules. When 2- to 3-year-old children speak, they A person may hear dent or tent, influenced by preceding context and the next two or three words. Suppose people hear an ambiguous sound that is half-way between dent and tent. What determines what they hear? False The eyes take in information even while moving. True Broca's area is critical for speech production. True Wernicke's area is critical for speech comprehension. True A "saccade" is movement of the eyeballs while reading. True An average reader makes 4 fixations per second while reading. A consciously perceived image activated large portions of the brain. When researchers measured brain activity during a binocular rivalry task, what did they find? brain death In which of these does a person have the LEAST amount of brain activity and responsiveness? brief periods of purposeful action and speech comprehension Which of the following is characteristic of a "minimally conscious state"? Instructions to imagine something activated the same brain areas as in intact people. What evidence suggested that some people in a vegetative state are conscious? Her brain activity responded to commands such as "imagine playing tennis." What evidence indicated that a woman in a vegetative state may be conscious? tendency to be unconscious of the left side of the body and the world Damage to the right hemisphere of the brain often leads to which of the following? damage in the right hemisphere of the brain Which of the following often produces spatial neglect for half of the body? something halfway between one and the other In binocular rivalry, you see one image in the left eye and an incompatible image in the right eye. What do you perceive? The description neglects the right side. Someone with right-hemisphere damage ordinarily neglects the left side of objects. What happens if the person closes his/her eyes and tries to describe a scene form memory? coma In which condition does the brain show a low, steady rate of activity and no response to any stimulus? They presented interfering stimuli before and after the stimulus. Researchers wanted to present a stimulus that would become conscious on some trials and not on others, while keeping the stimulus itself the same. Which of these methods did they use to make the stimulus unconscious? We don't perceive a brief masked stimulus, but a slightly longer one seems to last the whole duration. What evidence suggests that we sometimes consciously perceive a stimulus afterward, instead of simultaneously with it? The activity spreads through much more of the brain. What happens to the brain's representation of a sensory stimulus on occasions when people are conscious of it, that does not happen when they are unconscious of it? True The brain is an electronic device. True Detecting electric fields on the head is a way to detect and measure brain activity. True A person is considered conscious if they are aware of themselves and their surroundings. False The ears are most like a radio antenna. True To experience smell, our brain detects molecules. Cats are in less danger while they sleep. Why do cats sleep more than sheep? REM sleep is deep in some ways and light in others. The terms "light sleep" and "deep sleep" are not very useful because a deficiency of the brain chemical orexin. Narcolepsy may be caused by a rhythm generated within the person's own brain Someone who stays in a cave with no light alternates between sleepiness and wakefulness on about a 24 hour cycle. Why? Some neurons are active but others are as inactive as in sleep. After a prolonged period of sleep deprivation, what happens to the brain? Part of your brain is awake and another part is asleep. What does it mean if you wake up and find yourself temporarily unable to move? mostly toward the end of the night's sleep. For most people, REM sleep occurs They often stop breathing while they are asleep. What problem do people with sleep apnea experience? The postural muscles are so relaxed that they would not support a person. Why is it impossible for sleepwalking to occur during REM sleep? It really is difficult to move the muscles during REM sleep. How would the activation-synthesis theory explain why people dream of an inability to move? conserving energy What is one important function of sleep? dreaming is likely to occur. During REM sleep, REM During which stage of sleep is the brain most active? dream content was similar in both cultures. Research examining the content of dreams in American and Japanese college students found that Neurons generate normal activity but their axons fail to release neurotransmitters. Which of the following is true of brain activity during sleep? It has less sensory input and less voluntary control. How does dreaming differ from other thinking? Move her to the 4 p.m. to midnight shift, then to midnight to 8 a.m. shift. A worker at International Amalgamated, Inc., is currently working from 8 a.m. to 4 p.m. The company wants to shift her to a different work time. For the sake of her physical and mental health, which of the following would be best? Circadian rhythms are generated by the body, but reset by light-dark cycles. Which of the following best describes the relationship between light-dark cycles (from the rising and setting sun) and circadian rhythms? Sleepiness decreases at the end of each sleepless night, as morning arrives. If a person goes without sleep for several days, what happens? stage 1 sleep. The brain activity associated with REM sleep is most similar to that associated with east. After staying awake late many nights, Gloria has become accustomed to going to sleep late and awakening late. Now she tries to shift to going to bed earlier and waking up earlier. This shift is similar to the difficulties people face when they travel a cycle generated by a mechanism in the brain. Our tendency to feel wakeful and sleepy on a 24-hour basis depends mainly on the person has been asleep less than an hour. When a normal, healthy person falls asleep, REM sleep is least likely when You would alternate between sleep and wakefulness on a 24-hour cycle. If you were on a submarine with constant artificial light and no sunlight, what would happen to your sleep-wake cycle? True Unpleasant dreams are called nightmares. True A less synchronized bran is a "more" active brain. True Sleep spindles tend to occur during stage 2 sleep. False Most dreams do not include visual content. False A lucid dream refers to a dream someone forgets. True In the context of the brain, a "nucleus" refers to a group of neuron cell bodies. True SCN stands for suprachiasmatic nucleus. True Sleep progresses through a series of stages. True Re-synchronizing the circadian rhythm is easier after flying west, the same direction as the sun seems to rise. True One explanation as to why animals sleep is to save energy.