Psych 146 Human Mating

What kind of MV partner do you want ideally?

a partner w/ the highest MV that will accept you

What was Belsky et al. (1991) Developmental Theory's schematic model of developmental pathways? (general)

a) family context -> b) childrearing (infancy/early childhood) -> c) psychological/ behavioral development -> d) somatic development -> e) reproductive strategy

In the schematic cognitive program for jealousy, what would be the contextual input? the behavioral output?

contextual input: Behavioral patterns of partner (time patterns, changes in mood/sexual responsiveness, etc.) behavioral output: Feelings of suspicion, Tracking partner/guarding, Aggression/preparation for conflict

In the schematic representation of the specialized mech of love, what is the contextual input? What is the behavioral output?

contextual input: Physical features, behaviors, personality traits Match with self (slightly more attractive?), Cues of interest in you? behavioral input: Idealization of partner, Involuntary smiling/physiology, Rumination/brooding

What is a way to fix problems with self-reports?

create a budget system so that actual weights are attached to each trait ; suggests what's most important to each sex

Give a general example of a cognitive program for a vertebrate courtship?

cues from females -> activation of limbic-hypothalamic structures (i.e. activate hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis) -> 1. immediate courtship behaviors 2. T increase (post 20 min)

What did DeSteno & Salovey 's experiment find about predictors of which type of fidelity would be predicted as worse? What conclusion about a specialized jealousy mechanism can be made from this?

degree to which think emotional predicts sexual (vs. opposite) predicts which type of infidelity is worse better than gender predicts this judgment (i.e. even men who think that emotional predicts sexual more than sexual predicts emotional then find emotional more disturbing) - conclusion: men and women don't have distinct jealousy mechanisms, simply have different beliefs about predictors of double shot

What are the direct and indirect benefits of choosing symmetrical partners?

direct: Symmetry may indicate better overall condition and thus greater ability to provide resources, compete against other individuals, etc. indirect: Symmetry may index possession of genes well-adapted to local parasites, genes able to resist toxins, lack of mutations

What is the mixed mating model ?

choose feminine, high investing men as long-term partners (spend majority of cycle time w/ this partner); cheat/ short term relationships with masculine, high testosterone men when fertile to get good genes

models for evolution of female choice: Sensory bias and chase-away What does this theory state about female biases and how they shape male secondary sexual traits?

- male secondary sexual traits may mimc female sensory biases (i.e. eyespots on peacocks may exploit widespread mechs that allocate F attention to their spots; some M insects smell like F food preferences) - If female choice mechanisms evolve in response to sensory exploitation by males (become less sensitive to stimuli to avoid poor matings), males may evolve more exaggerated displays to counter reduced sensitivity ("chase-away")

Why is it that these costly signals are interpreted by females as advertising genetic quality?

- males in many species don't provide paternal investment other than their genetics, so they advertise the genes with costly indicators ex: healthier males may have immune systems better adapted to local parasites, and females' offspring could then inherit those immunity genes. have brighter colors to indicate good health

What did Swaddle & Reierson do to test how T predicts RS? What did they find?

- manipulated faces to appear either higher or lower-T. Women then chose which face from a spectrum looked most attractive and most dominant. - found More T meant more dominance, but not greater attractiveness. - helped predict short term but not long term attractiveness

What does it mean for a gene to be polymorphic? Is the AR gene polymorphic?

- many different versions of the gene in population - yes, highly polymorphic

What is a fitness indicator in humans?

- many traits indicate genetic quality due to their association w/ androgens like testosterone

Physical attractiveness summary: What is body muscularity a marker of? What is is constrained by?

- marker of testosterone/immune quality - constrained by preferences for paternal quality

What are 2 possible benefits associated with facial averageness? What are the implications of these benefits?

- may signal greater heterozygosity (different alleles of genes inherited from mother and father); this indicates that the mate is not in-bred, and would have greater genetic diversity in immune system genes - may signal stabilizing selection; average traits are sometimes closer to the functional optimum

What did Thornhill do in 1995 to investigate the men FA/female orgasm relationship? what did he find? what was the conclusion?

- measured body FA of men and recorded couples' reports of frequency of women's orgasm - found More frequent reports of women's orgasm when male partner was more symmetrical - No evidence that women's symmetry predicted their partners' orgasm frequency - Their interpretation: some unknown cue perceived by women triggers orgasm as female choice mechanism (odor, penis morphology, something that cues body FA)

Why is love hard to fake?

- physiological costs - social costs - behavioral confirmation (i.e. time commitment, etc) - financial costs (engagement rings, etc)

What are the positive effects of T in males? What do they function to do?

- positive effects = more T (i.e. muscle mass, behavioral aggression) - function to promote mate-seeking

Physical attractiveness summary: What is facial masculinity a possible marker of? What is it constrained by?

- possible marker of testosterone/immune quality - constrained by preferences for paternal quality

What are two types of within-sex differences?

1. when to start reproducing? 2. how much commitment is required before sex?

What kind of relationship was observed between couples w/ no birth control but similar MHC?

Among Hutterites (no birth control), longer birth spacing in more MHC-similar couples

What is the commitment problem?

Commitment problem arises when it is in a person's interest to make a binding commitment to behave in a way that will later seem contrary to self-interest (Need some device to stop own brain mechanisms from continued searching/switching. How to signal to the other person that you will not abandon them if someone with higher mate value does come along? Allows other to risk investing in the relationship) kidnapper/victim: i promise i won't tell anyone if you let me go, but later that won't be interest

What is the process of courtship, generally?

Courtship may generally be two-step process: (1) signal attractiveness, mate value, dominance, etc (2) signal commitment to specific individual second (if jump straight to #2, what do to #1?

Physical attractiveness summary: What does recent data suggest about perceptual stimuli that mates find attractive?

Recent data suggests perceptual stimuli found attractive may not be arbitrary, but instead signal components of health, genetic quality (and maybe direct benefits)

What is the factual conclusion about gender-specific jealously specialized mechanisms?

even when experiments conducted control for single and double shot cheating, the two sexes DO have different jealousy mechanisms still see women rate emotional as worse and men rate sexual as worse

What do humans implement mating strategies based on?

evolved algorithms but they don't feel like that

What may have shaped male secondary sex traits?

intrasexual competition and female choice for direct benefits and/or indirect benefits.

What is heritability?

is an estimate of the fraction of differences between individuals that is due to genetic (vs. environmental) differences e.g., do two individual differ in height due to different genes, different environments (e.g., nutrition), or some combination?

Is kindness more important than (resources/physical attractiveness)?

issue of kindness: is it towards self? strangers? important or specific people? people's need for kindness varies based on the person the behavior is directed at

How does T predict RS of men then?

it is an indicator of success in intrasexual competition

How is love a legitimate signal?

its hard to fake - Involuntary vs. voluntary smiling - Difficult to fake physiological/psychological states (i.e. euphoria) - Irrationality of attraction - if reasons for attraction are too rational, suggests person is replaceable.

What emotions are involved in mating strategies?

jealousy and love

Even though men primarily use LTM, what determines how much of their NRG will go towards opportunistic mating?

likelihood of success of behavior calibrates how much NRG is diverted to opportunistic mating

What research designs might better demonstrate causal relationships for the T levels/relationship status/fatherhood relationship (than correlational data)?

longitudinal data that shows multiple measurements of same guy through time and see how T levels fluctuate.

Which is more attractive: higher or lower FA?

lower = more symmetrical higher = more asymmetrical aka less symmetrical

During which phase is conception absolutely not possible?

luteal

What are the reproduction rates like in a perfectly monogamous society?

male rate of reproduction = female rate; also see limited sex differences in sexual selection

What conclusion about female attractiveness is made from the obstetric dilemma ?

men should be attracted to cues that women can produce (aka survive childbirth and rear) many surviving offspring

Who has higher variances within their sex for number of partners and offspring?

men, on both accounts (means there is variance within the men's RS throughout the population)

Which sex falls in love faster?

men, women are more cautious

What do sex hormones signal? (in men and women)

men: testosterone signals immunocompetence and general condition/quality women: estrogen signals fertility

define: evolutionary psychology (EP)

metatheoretical position that the human brain contains a collection of specialized processing mechanisms designed by natural selection to address specific problems encountered by our ancestors over the course of human evolution

What does the Mixed Strategy Model say about women's mate selection for lifetime partners and cheating?

mixed strategy conclusion: - choose feminine, high investing men as long-term partners - cheat with masculine, high testosterone men when fertile to get good genes.

Does the "fertile window" actually effect sexual behavior?

no

Is the stopping rule going to produce the best possible partner?

no

modulations of responses, non human: sexual satisfaction/ exhaustion what is it?

no hormone or behavioral responses under conditions of likely sperm depletion.

Have learned from experiments that average faces and symmetrical faces are attractive, and considered more attractive than most individual faces. Are they the most attractive faces?

no, find that faces can be made more attractive than averaging by changing specific features

Does the actual amount of T directly predict RS of a man?

no, see very little correlation between T levels and amount of RS

What are follicles?

oocyte + surrounding support cells

What are the costs of infidelity for women? (if their partner cheats)

overall, at risk of losing resources and commitment to another women if mate cheats - Invest in other women's children? - Could lose time, resources, protection from male who may be channeling these to other women and their offspring

What are the costs of infidelity for men? (if their partner cheats)

overall, men are at risk of putting NRG and resources towards someone else's child when paternity is uncertain - lost time, resources, effort in courtship - lost parental effort from women who is pregnant by another man - cuckoldry (possible investment in another man's offspring)

What is the possible function of the responses associated with love?

possible solution to "commitment problem"

What have studies of rapid T increase (via administration) shown about men's behavioral responses?

rapid T administration has rapid effects on: - reduced fear response - increased risk-taking (financial gambles) - increased muscle metabolism (increased Glu uptake within minutes)

What role do sex steroids (T and E) play in the Limbic Hypothalamic Transducing Pathway?

regulate the signaling properties of the neurons within the structures of the transducing pathway

What is a specialized mechanisms vs and unspecialized mechanism in terms of genetics?

specialized: Mechanism is specialized if genes INCREASED in frequency because they contributed to the development of the cognitive program (i.e. if there was natural selection for this program). unspecialized: Mechanism is unspecialized in biological sense because very unlikely that genes involved increased in frequency BECAUSE they caused a behavior (i.e. chess playing - there's no natural selection for chess). Instead, the behavior (i.e. chess playing) program develops as a BY-PRODUCT of other types of processing mechanisms.

What is the formula for when one should stop searching for new partners?

stop searching when: Benefits of current partner > [benefits of better partner - costs of searching for better partner]

What does the high variance in RS amoung men create?

strong intrasexual competition

What did the infant and cross-cultural findings suggest about specialized attractiveness mechanisms in humans?

suggests there may be species-typical criteria for categorization of facial stimuli in terms of attractiveness

What is the Coolidge Effect?

tendency for males to be re-aroused by novel females

What about humans makes the hypothesis of direct benefits more important?

the fact that the male has a greater investment in paternal care and mate provisioning

What term does the schematic explanation of specialized mechanisms replace?

the idea of "innate"

PI Theory: What is a man's typical constraints?

the number of mates he has access to

What is the function of transient T elevations vs sustained?

transient T increase has rapid effect to calibrate brain and body mechs towards mate pursuit; the quick spike that quickly returns to baseline doesn't do much to redistribute NRG sustained T increase would result in the changes in muscle mass and immune function

What in women creates selection pressure on men?

variance in reproductive capacity creates selection pressure on men

Cycle Phase Summary: What is the EPC (extra-pair copulation) model a specific argument for?

why a woman's preference shifts occur within a cycle

So, can specific genes possibly bias some individuals towards greater relative investment in mating vs survival efforts?

yes

What variations in T levels are seen when a man is ill? a woman?

• As we go through days of treatment, immune system is less taxed, and testosterone increases each day in males. • For men, having malaria, suppresses T, but when you recover it increases. • For women, there is no effect because women don't increase T as part of mating effort.

What is the case study of John/Joan? What does it suggest about the importance of early hormonal exposure?

- "John" born male (normal)but at 8 months during routine surgery his penis was accidentally burnt beyond repair - (based on belief that individuals are psychosexually neutral at birth) child was treated as a girl and surgically reassigned to be "unambiguously raised as a female" (Joan) - "Despite Joan's rearing, she did not feel to be a girl, preferred association with boys, and pursued typical boys' activities and interests." - At age 14, "Joan dramatically rebelled at living as a girl. ..."despite orchiectomy and estrogen therapy, which led to breast development and rounded hips" (activational effects of hormones) "Without knowing her history, Joan, at age 14, revealed to her endocrinologist, from whom she had been receiving estrogen therapy since age 12, 'I suspected I was a boy since the second grade.' "...subsequently requested and received a mastectomy and phalloplasty and without hesitation lived and was accepted as a male." "After John transitioned to living as a boy, his interest in girls was quickly evident. He rapidly sought female erotic company." - demonstrates how lasting the organizational effects of early androgen exposure is on gender ID, despite minimal activational exposure + gender role socialization

What Direct Evidence for Facial Masculinity Signaling Health/Fitness did Thornhill and Gangestad find in: 2003? 2006? What are the implications of these findings?

- 2003: men w/ more masculine faces also had more symmetrical bodies; indicates that body symmetry measures developmental stability - 2006: Men w/ more masculine faces self-reported fewer respiratory infections over past three years and Facial asymmetry predicted more respiratory infections

How did Wedekind (1995) test MHC-dependent Odor Preferences in Humans?

- 44 men and 49 women gave blood samples to determine MHC genes. had Men wear T-shirts to bed for 2 nights. Women sniffed 3 T-shirts of men MHC similar to them and 3 T-shirts of men MHC dis-similar to them, and Rated shirts for pleasantness, sexiness, intensity

What is the theory of target-specific dominance?

- A mate's dominance over others may acquire resources for self - A mate's dominance toward self may be detrimental to own interests

If CAG repeat # promotes mating effort, might predict men with shorter repeats will be more responsive to potential mates?

- ARs modulate responsiveness of mechs' pathway in the activation of the limbic-hypothalamic system - so Men with more sensitive receptors (shorter CAG) may (if other things equal) have more sensitized pathway structures that lead to greater hormonal responses to females

Why do humans have specifically 2 sexes? (biologically speaking)

- bc their gametes are haploid (each has 1/2 the amount of DNA needed for a zygote)

What cues are there that ancestral men used when faced with the strong selection pressure of choosing fertile v infertile females to mate with? (what was attractive and unattractive)

- Age (post-pubertal and pre-menopausal) and cues to age (Universals of attractiveness: e.g., smooth, unwrinkled skin) - Cues of poor health, insufficient energy should be unattractive

Are there specific genes that differ in individuals that may predict individual differences in mating psychology, physiology, and behavior?

- Androgen receptor gene - may calibrate whole suites of functional mechanisms within organism.

How do you use estimates of MV?

- By estimating where the individual falls on the curve, can get a sense of how they would compare to other available choices - Allows for evaluation of how likely finding someone better

What repeat is variable in # in the AR gene? What is the normal range of repeats? What do different numbers of repeats mean for ARs?

- CAG - # of repeats varies from 9-31 in normal range - Short # of repeats associated with MORE active receptors Long # of repeats associated with LESS active receptors

What was the Ejaculate Adjustment Study? (procedure?) What were the results?

- Couples asked to collect semen in condoms from both acts of intercourse and masturbation. Indicated on questionnaire with each sample: time since last ejaculation, time since last copulation, % time couple together since last copulation. results: • When people spend 100% of time together, there is low sperm count. • Men who have been apart from partners, are putting a lot more sperm into ejaculation. (This is true even if you control for time since last ejaculation. (not just that they have saved up sperm)) • No trend in amount of times guys have masturbated when mate is away. conclusion: this mechanism Shows this is really targeted towards sperm competition.

What did Rhodes do in 1999 to Langlois and Roggman's test of facial averageness to control for possibility that averaging makes more symmetrical and thus more attractive?

- Created composite average faces from 24 faces. Then warped real faces toward or away from the average, making them more or less average w/o making symmetrical - controling for symmetry found that averageness independently does increase attractiveness, thus proving that increasing both averageness and symmetry are cues for attractiveness mechanisms

What effect does estrogen have on fat in a woman's body?

- E effects fat distribution, not total body fat

What does the production of E by support cells surrounding the dominant follicle result in?

- E primes an LH surge that triggers ovulation - also causes uterine lining to develop in preparation for possible zygote implantation

What kind of inheritable traits does EP usually focus on? What does behavioral genetics focus on?

- EP tends to study species-typical (universal) mechanisms with low heritability - Behavioral genetics focuses on individual differences

Over what time scale do changes in T levels occur?

- Effects so far demonstrated on fairly long time scales (days, weeks, months) - But the same basic system may operate at short time scales (minutes, hours) as part of a rapid courtship response

What is Fluctuating Asymmetry (FA)? What does it indicate in humans? why? What are causes for this indication?

- FA: Asymmetry of the two sides of traits that are symmetrical on average in the population - indicates "developmental instability" (because two sides are regulated by same genes, asymmetry implies disruption of the developmental program for traits) - Causes of developmental instability: pathogens (bacteria, viruses), plant toxins, mutations

What physical cues detected by females are associated with high T in men?

- Facial masculinity has been proposed as a cue to testosterone exposure in humans - greater facial masculinity proposed as costly signal of genetic quality.

What did Roony find about target-specific kindness/trustworthiness, and dominance, in women's preferences for their mate?

- Female preferences like high trustworthiness, high kindness, low dominance. (towards themselves) - Want males who are more dominant than kind to other men. - Want man to be not dominant, kindness, or trustworthy to other women.

How does Love solve the commitment problem?

- If desire to be with other person is based on "love" for and idealization of that specific partner vs. rational calculation of costs and benefits of relationship, then people will be less tempted to leave if someone with better cost/benefit package comes along - "Why do you love me?" Commitment problem - "Love" provides insurance against abandonment (or cuckoldry) that allows mutually beneficial partnership for producing offspring to take place

Direct empirical evidence for signals of genetic quality: barn swallows

- In barn swallows, strong female preference for length and symmetry of male tail feathers - study: cross-fostered ½ nestlings of fathers with longer vs. shorter tails and infected nests with a common parasite - found that: Biological fathers' tail length predicted resistance to the parasite, but foster fathers' tail length did not (biological father's tail length remained consistent to if parasite resistance was present or not) Gluing longer tails onto naturally short-tailed males reduced their survivorship (showed if not equipped to have longer tail, makes you more likely to die - keeps system honest )

modulations of responses, non human: social role effects - what effects are seen? use ex of marmosets - where are these effects absent?

- In marmosets (pair-bonding primates), males generally show rapid T increases after exposure to female vaginal secretions. - These effects absent in males currently providing paternal care for offspring.

What is the role of the medial pre-optic area (mPOA) in the Limbic Hypothalamic Transducing Pathway? What do lesions to this brain region result in?

- Integrates cues from visual/auditory/tactile cues to Create courtship behavior (like the dance of birds of paradise) - Abolish copulation, Reduce courtship, Eliminate T response

models for evolution of female choice: Costly signals/fitness indicators (indirect benefits) - what is it? - what type of traits are looked at with this model?

- M secondary sex traits may indicate the health/genetic quality of the males so its selected for ( i.e. more ornamented Ms might have healthier offspring --> females who choose ornamented males produces healthier offspring) - M traits are non-arbitrary, bc they are cues of M's condition/genetic quality

What role do major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes play in the body? How is this related to mate selection? What 2 possible functions are there to this MHC / mate preference relationship?

- MHC genes encode for proteins that recognize foreign antigens - see that mice and humans both prefer odors of dis-similar individuals as mates (women prefer odors of males w/ fewer MHC genes in common) - possible functions = avoid inbreeding or diversify immune system genes

What performs tasks of male physical attractiveness judgements? What are those tasks?

- Male physical attractiveness judgments may in large part be medical examinations and "job interviews" performed by perceptual machinery specially designed for that task.

What did Roony find about target-specific kindness/trustworthiness, and dominance, in men's preferences for their mate?

- Male preferences like high trustworthiness, kind, low dominance. - Want females who are dominant towards other women high. - Men want high kind and trustworthy and low dominant women towards themselves and friends. If it towards other women, they want woman to be less so.

What sex differences are seen between men and women's sexual fantasies?

- Males like fantasies where they are around multiple sexually available attractive women. - Females like fantasies where it is a women with one man of really high reproductive value. Strong, dominant, protective, rich, and really loves her.

Example of commitment problem in mating context?

- Man pursuing short-term mating strategy could signal desire for long-term partnership but then abandon woman once he obtained sex. - In cases where man really does want long-term partnership (raising children) he faces the problem of signaling his commitment when he could be faking. - Analogous circumstance apply to women? (face same problem of signaling commitment)

What ancestral situations may have created the quick T increase observed in men today?

- Meeting a young, interested woman may have rapidly altered cost/benefit structure associated with competition/risk-taking in ancestral environments - Testosterone increases may quickly promote willingness and ability to compete for new mating opportunities

What modulation of responses have been observed in humans? (men + naturally occurring interactions) what rule is this consistent with?

- Men in a Dominican village had higher T when samples were collected within 20 min. of naturally occurring interaction with a young woman (vs. samples collected without such interaction) EXCEPT when the woman was the mate of a friend. - Consistent with general rule: no hormone responses when mate of pursuit is absent.

What do men w/ lower body FA report about lifetime # of sex partners? What other variable could affect this?

- Men with lower body FA report greater lifetime # of sex partners - Still true if facial attractiveness held constant

What other evidence about MHC-similar couples is there about effect of similarity on RS?

- More similar couples longer time to get pregnant in IVF studies and have > rates of spontaneous abortions in MHC similar couples

What is nutritional/resource stress related to? What other factors in this category are also tied to this?

- Nutritional or energetic stress is Consistently related to delayed puberty - Lower fat reserves, higher WHR associated with later puberty - High energy expenditure (e.g., female athletes) associated with delayed puberty

What are the symptoms of love?

- Obsessive thinking about target/intrusive thoughts - Idealization of partner - Involuntary physical symptoms (giddy smiling, trembling, heart rate) - Euphoria/elation

Overall conclusions from the UCSB Ovarian Hormone Study: - what evidence does it provide about a human "estrous" phase? - what effects were seen on sexual motivation? - what effects were seen on sexual receptivity?

- Provides evidence that desire greater on average in fertile window - see (+) effects of estradiol and (-) effects of P on motivation/desire - see (+) effects of E and (-) effects of P on sexual receptivity (also seen in macaques)

How does love serve as a behavioral regulator to solve the implementation problem?

- Say that fidelity is in long-term interests to maintain mutually beneficial relationship - Problem with behaving consistent with that interest is that pleasure of infidelity occurs NOW and costs are only probabilistic and in the future - Humans tend to discount the future and weigh present rewards more heavily - If love produces guilt at thought of hurting partner, feelings of guilt in effect transfer future costs of infidelity to the present to be weighed against the benefits of the infidelity - emotional device to implement long-term interests

How can secondary sex traits sometimes advertise direct benefits? examples?

- Secondary sex traits may sometimes advertise parenting ability or delivery of other benefits to female ex: - Males with brighter plumage may be better at finding food and delivering it to females/offspring (caretonids and red color dependent on diet) - Male song rate may index food abundance in territory and thus direct benefits vs. genetic benefits - Male size/dominance may be preferred for protection (direct benefit) vs. for good genes (primate species like chimpanzees) - Healthier males may provide better paternal care to offspring

So why is the high skeletal muscle mass cue of high T considered a costly signal/fitness indicator?

- Skeletal muscle mass is energetically expensive to construct and maintain. NRG is finite (must be taken from somewhere) - Testosterone promotes fat catabolism (breakdown) as source of energy to construct/maintain muscles. - means NRG is taken away from energetically-expensive Immune system (via T slowing the immune system down aka make it use less NRG) and give the NRG to promoting muscular development

What enforces the honesty of costly signals? (why don't weaker, less quality males just mimic the traits of the higher quality males to get mates? (name the concept and use the example of sparrow throat patches)

- Social control: took small patch males, and painted 1/2 with larger patches. (patches signal better quality). release into flock of birds. saw that painted larger-chest males were challenged by naturally larger-chested much more than the smaller chested ones. so "faking" a larger chest invites the cost of being beat up by genuinely stronger males. it's safer for them to have a smaller chest patch, since they may not have the health or strength to fight off real dominant males when challenged

When does a woman form all her oocytes?

- before birth (prenatally) aka born with a set amount

Summary of MHC: - what do studies support about MHC preferences? - what species are these findings consistent across? - what are some implications of the findings?

- Studies support preferences for the odors of MHC dis-similar others - Consistent in humans and mice - implies a Compatibility effect may eliminate some third variable problems - implies Mate choice for immune complementarity (a form of indirect benefits) - are there Olfactory soul-mates? A smell for everyone?

What does testosterone (T) appear to act as? What evidence is there for this? (injections, castrations, food supply, seasons)

- T appears to act as a signal that allocates energy to mating effort (including growth of secondary sex traits) vs. survival functions (immune responses) - T injections can increase secondary sex traits (humans: muscle anabolism) but decrease immune function/fat storage - Castration(lower T) increases immune responses/fat storage, decrease muscle. - T drops with decrease in food supply/illness (human/nonhuman) - T drops in nonbreeding seasons along with atrophy of secondary sex traits.

What does the androgen receptor function to do biologically? What does this mean overall for gene expression? What developmental phenomena does this explain?

- T binds to it, and the bound complex formed then binds to DNA and regulates the production of other genes - allows T to turn on/off whole suites of other genes - = how T produces sex differences during development

What variations in T levels are seen in seasonally breeding species? why?

- T drops to castrate levels in non-breeding season - no fertile females available

How would high T cues in men indicate genetic quality?

- T imposes costs such as immunosuppression - physical cues associated w/ higher T may signal a man is in good enough condition to afford the costs of high T, thus indicating a man's condition (immune system genes that could be passed to offspring)

What is the heritability of universal traits? give ex using arms?

- Universal traits have a heritability close to zero - ex: Number of arms has a heritability of zero (practically). Yet number of arms is still strongly under "genetic control"

What other timing factor reported highest sexual desire? how is this related to hormone changes?

- Weekend timing was highest sexual desire. (More opportunities?) - is independent of hormonal predictors

In what circumstances do you see T levels drop in men? (like how it drops in non-breeding season for certain species)

- When no females are around - When male already has partner/in a relationship - When male has kids, paternal investment more important

What is the overall summary of Buss's findings?

- Women > men preference for resource provisioning (good earning capacity, ambition/industriousness) - Men > women preference for physical attractiveness - Men prefer younger mates, women prefer older

By what design do sex differences in eagerness for sex/sexual variety occur by?

- Y chromosome contains SRY gene (testes-determining factor). this turns on productions of androgens like testosterone, which turns on some genes vs others = the differential gene activation that contributes to sex differences in development

How are hormone increases a code? What are the downstream effects of this code?

- a code in that its signal sent to the rest of the organism that announces mate pursuit - Organism-wide coordination of mechanism settings for mate pursuit

What is the theory of target-specific kindness?

- a mate being kind to strangers may be giving up resources that could be invested in yourself or your offspring (don't want mate giving away all their money to charity) - mate being kind to you, your family, or friends would be interpreted as beneficial to you

What is sexual selection? What determines if a trait is sexually selected?

- a subset of natural selection and operates according to same mech (differential gene replication) - if it confers and advantage over same-sex rivals but isn't necessary for survival or for reproduction in the absence of rivals

What happens to follicles in the absence of FSH and LH?

- absence of LH&FSH = follicles die

What mating qualities is waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) a possible cue for?

- age - sex - pregnancy status - health - fertility - estrogen

What sex differences are seen between human males in intrasexual selection?

- aggression - risk-taking - mortality

What is the non-human mammalian period "estrous" ? What does it mean about her attractiveness? her preferences? What hormone regulates these effects?

- aka "heat" - days in female's menstrual cycle in which contraception is possible aka female is only sexually receptive at this time - F's attractiveness to males increases during this time - prefer males w/ putative fitness indicators (ie prefer normal T to castrated) - Estrogen

How is taste an example of EP's problem of people of today having ancestral traits?

- ancestors' predisposition for fatty foods did not anticipate an environment where such foods were readily available in surplus. since the predisposition still exists, it accounts for our obesity epidemic currently happening

Are masculine faces considered most attractive? explain the model that answers this

- answer: depends on the women's cycle position - answer explained by the Mixed Strategy Model - when choosing attractive face, women generally select faces that are slightly feminized relative to average male face. (bc masculinized faces generally rated lower on qualities like "good father" or "quality parenting") BUT when tested near ovulation, preference shifts towards masculine end of continuum

What does EP say about the importance of instincts vs learning?

- argues that the specialized mechs guide many learning processes

specialized mechanisms: when are they formed/developed?

- argues that these mechs aren't fully formed at birth, but instead develop over time

What study did Clark and Hatfield conduct? what was the conclusion?

- asked male and female participants at random (aka participants being asked by complete stranger) if they would like to either go on a date w. stranger, go back to stranger's apartment, or have sex right now with the stranger - Having sex with someone they have never met is appealing for a male but not appealing for a female since there is no sex without a cost to females.

Gangestad and Simpson Position on context sensitive mechanisms and SOI in men: What is important about the cost-benefit structure of high SOI behavior?

- benefit of short-term strategy: inseminate many women and have lots of offspring - cost of short-term strategy: opportunity cost of not investing more in own offspring, or helping offspring's survival prospects

What did complete development (in offspring) mean in ancestral environments?

- bigger - stronger - more skills - navigation knowledge

How do birth control pills work hormone wise?

- block FSH (follicles die instead of developing) OR - block LH surge (prevents ovulation)

If cycle phases shift mate preferences, what question is the brain asking the body? What does it mean if the answer is yes? no? What is the proposed function of these two answers?

- brain mechs read "am i currently in the fertile window (FW)?" yes/no ~ yes: focus shift to potential indicators of genetic quality more than other times of cycle ~ no: focus shift onto direct benefits - implementation of "mixed" mating strategy

Gangestad and Simpson Position on context sensitive mechanisms and SOI in men: What did they propose about how brain mechanisms that regulate SOI are calibrated? How does this affect men with high SOI strategy?

- brain mechs that regulate SOI are calibrated based on feedback men receive regarding their own attractiveness - Men with success being chosen as short-term / extra-pair mate invest relatively more energy into pursuing these mateships.

What does the gating mechanism do to a cognitive program of vertebrate courtship? What is it triggered by?

- breaks input-output relationship when other adaptive problems are more pressing triggered by: Stress/Illness Seasonal Cues Subordinate Status Presence of offspring (fatherhood)

PI Theory: What is a woman's typical PI?

- breastfeeding - carry baby to term (9 months) - losing sleep (during and after pregnancy) - tending to child for at least 4 years - opportunity cost of time delay before being able to have another child - birth is dangerous point: woman's investment is enormous

How do researchers obtain symmetrical faces?

- by constructing chimeras (combine left w/ left and right w/ right to create averaged symmetrical face) - or by averaging the symmetrical components and adjusting each side to that average

How can CAG repeat # act as a dial?

- by increasing or decreasing the effects of T in different ppl

How is FA measured?

- by measuring left and right sides in a series of traits ( i.e. feet width, elbow width, ear length, etc.) and then computing overall index of asymmetry - These traits expected to be symmetrical if developmental program proceeds without problems.

How can the media affect mating psychology using MVs?

- by shifting the construction of the MV curves upwards via unrealistic representation (people we see on TV are not actually in our world in any functional way)

What is the facial masculinity/body muscularity relationship?

- can infer strength from facial photos - so facial masculinity may in part signal muscularity/strength

What is the null hypothesis to the EP approach to humans specialized mechanisms for attractiveness? What is the argument behind this hypothesis?

- compare against the null that attractive traits are arbitrary (beauty in the eye of the beholder) - argument says that humans are only species where ideas of beauty are learned over time instead of instantly determined like other animals (children learn norms of attractiveness in early years of life)

What are the selection pressures associated with extra-pair copulations (EPC) for women?

- cost of cheating on long term mate constantly high throughout the cycle. the benefits only spike during FW - indirect benefits (the genetic benefits) of EPC usually lower than the cost (i.e. losing long-term mate) except while in fertile window

How does muscularity correlate with body FA?

- could be physical cue of men's body FA - could index developmental instability

How did Perrett figure out what makes a face "most" attractive? (what specific adjustments did he make to average faces? what did he find? What does this suggest makes a face most attractive?

- created composite average female and male faces. he then took each gender. then "feminized" each by exaggerating differences between average female and average male; and "masculinized" each by reducing differences between the two averages. then compared to feminized and masculinized version to plain average. - found subjects prefer feminized faces to average female faces - suggest feminization improves attractiveness above and beyond averageness

What did the UCSB Ovarian Hormone Study find about within-cycle predictors of sexual behavior?

- current-day estradiol was the only significant hormonal predictor of probability of sex - found that each 1 SD increase in estradiol, odds of sex increases by 34% relative to other days in same cycle - behavioral trends towards (-) effect of P - weekend timing was a very strong predictor of sexual behavior

What is the "fertile window?" when is it?

- days when conception is possible - (up to 5) days before ovulation plus day of ovulation

What things can affect T levels in a man? How do they affect levels?

- decreases T: immune challenges, food shortages, stress, fatherhood - increases T: mate-seeking/females

What is 5-α Reductase Deficiency (5αRD)? In what kind of people does this occur?

- deficiency in enzyme responsible for converting T -> dihydroT (DHT) - high levels of DHT needed for masculinization of genitals in organizational phase - occurs in otherwise genetically normal, T-producing males

What did Belsky et al's research show about pubertal timing and developmental stress? What is critical to the theory? What three types of this are there?

- developmental stress leads to early pubertal timing and reproduction, higher SOI - critical to theory is "stress" experienced 1. nutritional/resource stress 2. socioeconomic stress 3. father absence

What happens to follicles in the presence of FSH and LH?

- develops further into one "dominant follicle" in which the support cells around it increase and produce E

What are frames? (in specialized mechanisms) How do they vary? What is the frame problem?

- devices that ID the stimuli the organisms should pay attention to, as well as how to categorize those stimuli - frames vary by species (i.e. human infants learning to speak vs songsparrrow sensitive period) - stimuli can be categorized in an infinite # of ways, so frames are necessary to make learning possible

possible causes of within-sex differences: Heritable differences - what is it?

- different genes in different individuals - important: differences in genes (allele A or B) will encounter the same environmental input, but develop different brain structures, both will encounter same contextual input but produce a different behavior output

What is the difference between direct and indirect benefits?

- direct benefits: stuff the male can provide the female (i.e. food, territory, protection) - indirect benefits: the genetic benefits the male can provide to the female's offspring

does EP deny the importance of learning? what does it propose about learning?

- doesn't deny importance of learning - proposes specialized learning

What modulations of responses are seen in non human species?

- dominance effects - social role effects - sexual satisfaction/exhaustion

Summary of female sex hormones effects on men: - when are men most attracted to women? - what cues are there for the cycles phases? - what are men actually responding to ? (hormones? cycle phase?)

- during FW than other phases - odor, facial appearance, voice, behavioral cues - likely men are responding to cues of E, not just the FW

What is the sex hormone version of the schematic model of specialized mechanisms? (male only)

- early hormonal exposure (of T and androgens) can take place of organizational effect (ex various hormone concentrations in early development can effect the way to medial Preoptic area develops ) - testosterone can take place of activational effect

What can affect T levels in men (in terms of immunity) (a big sickness? small?)

- even small immune system stressors (i.e. a flu shot) have an effect on T levels

What relationship between father absence and developments in somatic and reprodcutive stages are there evidence for? What relationships have been unable to connect clearly?

- evidence for father absence causing earlier pubertal development - evidence that pubertal timing or father absence affects SOI is unclear

What are some indirect pieces of evidence for effects of hormones on a woman's sexual desire?

- evidence of greater desire near ovulation - see desire tend to drop at menopause when hormones drop - hormone replacement therapy results in increased desire

What kind of physical cues are there for signaling high estrogen (E) in women?

- facial characteristics - voice pitch - body features (waist-to-hip ratio and breast size)

How do men compete with each other: murder evidence?

- far more men kill other men than women kill other women - see men murder rates spike in late teens/early 20s - partnered men commit fewer murders

Cycle Phase Summary: What does evidence of cycle phase effects suggest about similarity to non-human species? Why is it difficult to explain?

- findings suggest homologies w/ estrous-cycle effects in non-human species - hard to explain using traditional socialization accounts of human psychology

What is the example of the barbed penis as a sexually selected trait in flies? cats?

- flies: penis is barbed to scratch vagina on the way out, in order to remove other flies' sperm. is product of sexual selection bc don't need the barbs to fertilize, and in absence of rivals the barbs wouldn't be necessary - cats: barbed penis stimulates female ovulation to increase chance of fertilization.

How does a woman's facial attractiveness a cue of estrogen/fertility? (how does it change throughout her cycle?) How was this tested?

- follicular phase more attractive than luteal phase - Roberts took photos of the SAME women during late follicular phase (near ovulation) and in luteal phase. had raters choose which photo of the two was more attractive/ results: follicular phase photo chosen as more attractive ~54-58% of time (significant)

PI Theory: What is a woman's typical constraints?

- food and energy - window of fertility (time is valuable) - physical health - keep away predators/pathogens - care for offspring

What did Langlois and Roggman do in 1990 to test facial averageness and attractiveness? What did they find? What possible explanation is there for this?

- formed composite faces by averaging shape/texture of multiple faces - found these faces to be rated more attractive than individual faces - Averaged composites tend to be very symmetrical: is this why averageness is more attractive?

What group studies of 5αRD were done in the Dominican Republic? What was the result? conclusion?

- found 18 boys w/ 5αRD in dominican republic. were raised as females in a very sex-differentiated environment (household v agricultural work). at puberty (17/18 yrs) switched genders to M - result: most (15/18) married women and only 1/17 denied sexual interest in females - conclusion: despite being strongly socialized as females, most switched male ID and sexual preferences - evidence that: 1. socialization alone doesn't explain gender ID 2. T acts in wiring of brain mechanisms over time (i.e. T doesn't need to be converted to DHT in order to masculinize)

possible causes of within-sex differences: facultative developmental processes - what is it? - where does input come in during life time? - ex using rich vs poor?

- idea that different mechanisms develop depending on exposure to different environmental inputs - input comes during development and calibrates the mechanism during development - ex: Rich people implement strategy A and poor people implement strategy B. In childhood, gets information of if poor or rich and either builds brain mechanism for A or B depending on input. *important: it's two different brain structure developments based on two environmental contexts A or B. one develops and is used to create output*

Explain the EP idea of specialized learning using the example of songbirds singing: include - what 3 periods do the songbirds have in their life? what crucial events occur in each? - what did the study of songbirds find in relation to proving the specialized mech theory?

- found that juvenile songbirds show ability to pick out their own species' song from a medley of different species' songs; birds have an inattentiveness to other songs - found that the birds have 3 periods: sensitive period (acquisition), subsong (feedback tuning - they can sing it and correct their own errors via biological mech that tells them its wrong), and crystallization (deafening has no affect on song). found that must hear their own species' song within the sensitive period (7 weeks from birth) to produce a good imitation - the birds have a genetic predisposition to being attentive to their own song, and inattentive to other species' songs. this specialized mech allowed them to hear their song and imitate that one alone. didn't know the song from birth, they had to hear it to learn it. but had a specialized mech that made it easier for them to catch on

What did the polish experiment find about WHR and female attractiveness?

- found that the women with the highest E levels (small WHR and large breasts) had a small BMI and body fat % than the other groups of women - high E actually diverts the fat to breasts so men should be attracted to a HIGH WHR and LARGE breasts as a cue for high E summary: high WHR = high E = fertility low WHR = low E = low fertility

Are hormone increases simply automatic responses to mating stimuli or are they functionally modulated? explain

- functionally modulated; responses are suppressed when mate pursuit is less functional. - only increase in certain contextual situations. ex: where female is available vs female is in another relationship

How does 5αRD effect the body's development?

- genitals appear female at birth - puberty causes large enough amounts of T production to: 1. overcome DHT deficit = cause the genitals to masculinize 2. develop typical secondary sex characteristics

How do women compete with each other?

- gossip - derogation - non-cooperation basically social warfare

How do men w/ shorter CAG repeat #s compare to men w/ longer?

- greater risk of prostate cancer - higher rates of sperm production - higher rates of violent crime

What was the longitudinal fatherhood study of T levels? What were the 2 main findings?

- group of 624 men in early 20s at start of study. measured their relationship/fatherhood status and T levels at beginning of study and again 4 years later - 2 main findings: 1. Among initially single men, those with higher T at year one were more likely to get married and have kids (T may promote mating success) 2. Those who married or had kids had bigger longitudinal drops in T than those who stayed single (stay fathers = goes down slightly due to aging; stay single = slightly more steep down due to aging; start single and get married = steeper T decline; start single, get married, have child = steepest T drop)

What does FA indicate in non-human species?

- growth rate, survival probability, mating success

What study was done with blind men to see if the WHR preferred ratio was a specialized mech or social constraints?

- had blind men feel mannequins of varying WHR and still they picked 0.7

What experiment was conducted using strippers to test the idea that female attractiveness to men changes with the cycle?

- had strippers record period, and nightly tips for 60 days. some on pill, some not. - results: women not on the pill showed a spike in earnings mid-cycle ~ suggests men are responding to E, not necessarily FW - conclusion: evidence that woman's attractiveness to men may increase near ovulation, but effects are smaller than in other species

What kind of relationship is there between women's sexual desire and P? why?

- have an inverse relationship, its a stop signal - Sends signal of prioritizing facilitating healthy and successful pregnancy so it sends negative signal of sexual desire.

types of within-sex differences: When to start reproducing? - what are the options? - what is the result seen in the offspring?

- have children early means having more children, but foregoing some development= each child of little less quality - delay having children means having fewer children but with complete development = each child may be better quality

How could wearing red be a sexual signal in women? (what physiological changes involving the color red could be linked to why red is perceived as sexual)

- high E woman has redder skin due to vasodilation - skin redness indicates arousal

How do women compete with each other: non-cooperation

- high fertility (slow fertility) less cooperative w/ other women who are more attractive

What are the vocal cues of estrogen? How was this tested? when does this relationship not hold true?

- higher E women have higher voices (which are perceived as more attractive) - changes in vocal attractiveness track hormonal changes across cycle - as conception risk increases, so does voice attractiveness - not true in women using the pill (pill = no hormone fluctuations; proves hormone changes have to do with it)

What correlational evidence is there about behavioral effects of T in human males?

- higher T men score higher on measures of: ~ status-seeking ~ dominance ~ aggressiveness (small effect) ~ sensation-seeking ~ risk-taking (financial measures) ~ extraversion - More violent criminals have higher T than less violent criminals - Hockey players with greater penalty minutes have higher T than those with lower minutes *correlational has issues of causality*

How could cycle phases shift mate preferences?

- hormonal events associated w/ cycle read by brain mechs that then can adjust mate preferences and sexual desire

What is the obstetric dilemma?

- humans evolutionary transition to bipedalism (walking upright) forces our hips to be more narrow to support the vertical position, making the female birth cancel more narrow + our head are large = labor/delivery of an infant is extremely painful and dangerous for female and infant

models for evolution of female choice: fisherian runaway selection - what is it? - what type of traits are looked at with this model?

- if enough Fs prefer a male trait, the trait can spread in males even if it harms survival - traits chosen do not indicate greater health of "quality" of the male, the traits must be somewhat arbitrary

How do cycle phase shifts affect male attractiveness to women?

- if phase shifts are produced by mechs to acquire good genes when fertile, then these same mechs should increase preferences for phenotypic cues that may indicate genetic quality ( i.e. if androgen cues indicate immunocompetence, then whole suite of T-linked traits may be affected during FW

models for evolution of female choice: Costly signals theory - what makes M's signals (traits) regarded by Fs as more reliable and honest? - what is the idea behind this specific theory ?

- if traits are costly, expensive, or hard to fake - idea is that only organisms of high quality can afford to produce these costly signals (or are able to produce them to a greater extent than those of lower quality) - if the organism can afford to produce these signals, means it must have the NRG to do so after doing other, survival-related things

What was the limitations on Buss's research of sexual vs emotional infidelity and gender rankings of its disturbance?

- if we have specialized mechs for jealousy, they aren't designed to consciously judge whether emotional or sexual is worse - doesn't fully address cognitive design of jealousy (need to specify input cues that activate the jealousy mechs and map onto specific outputs)

Why don't men exclusively pursue short-term mating?

- in ancestral environment, there'd be very few available fertile women at any one time, reducing the benefit of the STM strategy - meant men primarily pursued LTM w/ opportunistic mating on the side

How does a woman's cycle compare to non-human's "estrous" phase?

- in human females, sexual receptivity isn't confined to just the "estrous" phase unlike non-humans but sexual desire is greater during that time

How do we know that T causes NRG to be taken away from the immune system? (in vitro and w/ hypogonadism)

- in vitro, adding androgen to cell cultures of immune cells causes those cells (i.e. antibodies) to replicate less - hypogonadism = low LH T causing delayed puberty. measured antibody before and after synthetic LH treatment. saw T increase and antibody counts decrease - many cells w/in immune system express T receptors means that T causes immune system to function less

What do Experimental studies in nonhuman species show about behavioral effects of T?

- inject T into paternally investing birds results in: (1) reduce offspring provisioning (2) increase aggressiveness toward other males and attempts at territory expansion (3) increase pursuit of extra-pair females

How does the stress of father's absence affect pubertal timing? (explain using Ellis's study of girls at 5 years and at 7th grade)

- interviewed families when girls were 5 and then measured pubertal development in 7th grade - results: 45% girls w/o father completed pubertal development by 7th grade vs 24% of girls w/ father - amoung girls w/ father, those w/ closer relationships to father had later development

modulations of responses, non human: dominance effects - what effects are seen? use ex of macaques - what does this mean?

- introduction of available F into group of M triggers T response in dominant M but not in subordinates - remove dominant M see subordinate response means just seeing the fertile female isn't enough, opportunity plays a role

What issues are there with the theory of runaway selection?

- issues are how to start the process - maybe slightly longer tail is associated w/ higher survival probability (then positive feedback eventually pushes the length beyond optimum and makes having the long tail costly)

How is muscularity a good proxy for T exposure?

- its a costly signal that indicates the man can afford NRG investment in muscle mass, and NRG diversion from fat storage and immune responses

How does developmental noise/accidents differ from the 3 other possible causes of within-sex differences?

- its non-systematic - ex: greater prenatal exposure to androgens

What is the key variable in PI theory? explain

- key variable may be the typical rate of reproduction - the sex that reproduces more slowly limits the reproduction of the faster reproducing sex

Explain facial averageness and attractive scale (what face is attractive ? what face is most attractive?)

- know average faces are attractive - average faces are considered more attractive than most individual faces - but can make face more attractive than averaged faces but changing specific features

What is all the evidence for the idea that shorter repeats may predict greater physiological and behavioral investment in mating efforts ?

- larger T response to women (Roney, UCSB men study) - greater physical strength - greater dominance - higher rates of sperm production

Gangestad and Simpson Position on context sensitive mechanisms and SOI in men: Which type of men (attractive vs less sexually attractive) will benefit from high SOI behavior? Why? low SOI behavior?

- less sexually attractive men (lack cues to good genes) will be rejected as short-term mates more often, so high SOI strategy doesn't work for them - more sexually attractive men will be accepted as short-term mates, so high SOI strategy pays off

- What does LCFA stand for? - What are they made up of? - What are they important for? - How does a mother acquire LCFA? - when is LCFA used?

- long chain fatty acids - made up of omega-3 and omega-6 - important for brain development in utero, they make up 20% of the dry weight of the brain - scare in diet so acquired over periods of time and stored in the protected gluteofemoral fat - LCFA protected fat can only be then used in late pregnancy and lactation

What study with identical twins was conducts by Mealey in 1999 to support idea that developmental instability and symmetry affect attractiveness? (procedure and findings)

- looked at Identical twins for whom genes are same but developmental stability may vary - then Rated twins' faces for attractiveness - also rated similarity of left/left and right/right chimeras - found that similarity ratings (more symmetrical) predicted attractiveness ratings

How did researchers tie T levels to muscle mass/strength in men?

- measured males' T levels, fat free mass (to measure muscle mass), and lifting strength. then treated all participants with GnRH-blocking drug (to eliminate natural T production to control for natural variations in T levels w/in participants). then randomly assigned participants weekly T injections of varying doses (25mg (below normal) to 600mg (2x normal)) . measured fat free mass and lifting strength after 20 weeks. - found: higher doses = higher gains and lifting strength

What type of food was big in ancestral times? What selection pressures were present back then because of this? How is that pressure expressed today (use ex of farmers market study)?

- men and women (especially) gathered plant foods - selection pressure for cognitive strategies for efficient foraging (i.e. having memory for location of valuable foods) - in farmers market study participants were able to ID/find high calorie foods with higher efficiency

Which sex should be most sexually jealous of their partners?

- men are more upset by sexual infidelity - women are more upset by emotional infidelity

What are the differences between men and women's RS in terms of # of offspring and # of marriages?

- men have an increase in # of offspring with increasing # of mates - women tend to plateau after 1 mate

What does the evidence about men's # of offspring and # of mates say about selection pressures? What did this pressure create?

- men have faced selection pressure to mate with additional women when possible, thereby creating a desire for sexual variety

What do the differences between women's and men's PIs and constraints mean for sexual strategies?

- men should be more eager to mate (benefits of extra mateship are really high and cost is very low) - women, there's no such thing as cheap mating so they have to be picky when choosing a mate so, see men's RS depend on access to women

What evidence is there to support the Gangestad and Simpson Position on context sensitive mechanisms and SOI in men?

- men w/ low FA (high genetic quality) seem to adopt more short-term strategy - see men w/ low FA be in demand as sex partners as they are targeted differentially during FW in women - low FA men report relative to high FA men: greater # of sex partners, more EPC and being chosen more often as EPC - see FA correlated significant;y with SOI scores

What is monogamy a predictor of? explain using total polygamy vs almost near monogamy

- monogamy predicts sexual dimorphism - in environment of total polygamy, has large sexual dimorphism. ex: elephant seal populations, females clearly make a larger investment. one male has a section of the beach and mates w/ any female in that section, prevents other males from mating with them via aggression (use noses to headbutt). males are much larger, aggressive, have big noses - in environment of nearly perfect monogamy, there's very little sexual dimorphism. both male and females make significant investments, so its hard to tell which is which sex.

What kind of traits does short CAG repeat # predict?

- more androgenized traits

What weight did the role of direct benefits play in evolutionary biology?

- more minor role, bc in most species the male only provides sperm and nothing else so only want indirect benefits (which indicate genetic quality)

How do men compete with each other?

- murder - showing off/risk-taking - resource displays

So whats the biological reason muscularity is a cue for high T?

- muscle cells express T receptors, and skeletal muscle mass increases under T exposure

What are the specific facial cues on women that cue for high sex hormones?

- nature of specific cues not clear: something about feature sizes color cues small facial expressions

Give an example of an unspecialized mechanisms using cars

- need to be able to grasp the wheel and to see to drive a car - those abilities did not evolve bc of the pressure to be able to drive a car. they each individually evolved due to other pressures, and as a by-produce of their development, we are able to drive a car

What are the effects of castration?How can the effects be reversed? (how can normal courtship behaviors be restored?)

- no copulation, no courtship behaviors, no T response - reverse via direct T implantation into mPOA

How can FA be detected by observers? (directly? indirectly? explain)

- no evidence to say FA can be detected by observers (can't just look at someone and estimate it) - but there appear to be observable cues (ex: muscularity, facial attractiveness, odor, more aggressive behaviors - all correlate with FA)

Do women find muscularity attractive?

- not a linear relationship but an inverted U, see a preference in a medium range (not too much not too little)

What is the male desire for variety in sexual partners NOT grounded in? What IS it grounded in?

- not grounded in conscious desire to have more children - Rather, output of mechanism that was shaped by selection ie Those males who took advantage of opportunities with more than one partner were 'rewarded' with increased offspring. These offspring probabilistically carry copies of the genes that build designs that seek partner variety

What are scent cues for a woman's attractiveness? how was this tested using t-shirts?

- odors produced during follicular phase more pleasant and sexy (but not more intense) than those worn during luteal phase - had women wear t-shirts to bed during various phases of cycle, froze them than had men smell them - result: on average, most men pick follicular shirt vs luteal shirt for each subject

What did the results of Roney's test of UCSB males hormonal response to women show?

- overall pattern consistent w/ idea that shorter repeats may predict greater physiological and behavioral investment in mating efforts

What behavioral changes do men experience when their partner is ovulating?

- participate in more mate-gaurding - see males lower on sexy vs investment attractiveness scale exhibited higher mate guarding and jealousy during fertile vs luteal phase

Why develop sexes at all?

- pathogens are especially problematic with long generation times; don't want to "train" pathogens to offspring - solution = mix up genes (i.e. protein variability) via sexual intercourse

What does the EP approach say about humans possession of specialized mechanisms designed to find particular physical cues attractive? What is the null hypothesis to this?

- predicts that any such cues should have signaled health, fertility, or other beneficial traits (i.e. resource acquisition abilities, parenting abilities) in ancestral environments - compare against the null that attractive traits are arbitrary (beauty in the eye of the beholder) - argument says that humans are only species where ideas of beauty are learned over time instead of instantly determined like other animals

How are pregnancy craving patterns examples of EP?

- pregnant women need extra energy to support fetal growth, but fetuses are especially vulnerable to toxins/pathogens. - patterns of cravings and aversions show that women are seeking sugar and avoiding meat while pregnant to prevent exposure to pathogens/toxins

How many oocytes does a woman have throughout her life? (prenatally, birth, puberty, menopause)

- prenatally begin to develop at rate of ~1000/month - at birth have ~1 million small follicles - puberty have ~0.5 million left - menopause = 0 left

What experiment did the Roney Lab conduct to avoid rater bias?

- presents series of faces to raters and had them rate for traits (kind, intelligent, attractive, dominant) and also for mate attractiveness found: People self-report that kindness and intelligence are most important to them, but physical attractiveness is actually strongest predictor of mate attractiveness Unconscious factors: Women's attractiveness ratings affected by testosterone levels of men in photos, though women not consciously aware that affected by these cues Cues that generate mate attraction may not be those to which subjects have conscious access

- Where is the primary storage site for LCFAs? What does this mean for WHR values?

- primary storage site in gluteofemoral fat (thighs and butt) - aka low WHR predicts high LCFA which predicts larger, healthier offspring brains

Other than high T, what do androgens promote investment in?

- promote investment in skeletal muscle mass

What did the experiment Brown conducted in 2005 on Jamaican young men and women propose about motion cues of FA? What was the experiment? What did he find for both men and women? What was the overall implication of the study?

- proposed that fluidity of motion might be a cue to FA, hypothesizing that low FA/high quality men with have better calibrated muscles/nervous systems, muscles, etc - Videotaped subjects dancing and used motion capture technology: subjects wore 41 infrared reflectors and 8 cameras captured the motion; computer program mapped it onto a standard animation. Using motion capture, he isolated movement cues from physical appearance of person dancing by making animations of movement without association to any other cues. Subjects watched animations and rated on scale from 'bad dancer' to 'good dancer' - found that symmetrical men (Lower FA) are rated better dancers than asymmetrical men - found the same trend in women, but with a weaker effect (less of a difference in ratings) - overall: Body asymmetry correlates with body movement which might be one way in which asymmetry is revealed and can be seen through attractiveness.

What does the inverted U shape of women's muscularity preferences, like faces, argue about tradeoffs?

- proposes that both cues involve trade-offs between indicators of genetic quality and predictors of paternal quality

How common is the full-blown syndrome of love ?

- relatively rare (<5x/lifetime)

What is the "Child Development Theory" that Ellis created from his studies?

- reproduction starts earlier when investment from parents is lacking, even if still play low SOI strategy

PI Theory: What is a man's typical PI?

- resource providing - protection - social status - shelter - sperm (minimal investment) point: man's isa LOT less than women

How do many non-human males respond to females/cues from females? via what?

- respond w/ specific suites of courtship - via internal hormonal responses

What is the Endocrine code for motivational state directed toward mate acquisition? (applies to human and non-human)

- responses suppressed when mate pursuit is absent - responses larger when courtship behavior is more pronounced/ potential mate present

How does socioeconomic stress effect pubertal timing?

- retrospective studies (recall level of conflict as an adult) find more stress associated w/ earlier puberty - but prospective studies (observe the families and childhood, then come back later to measure pubertal timing) finds little evidence for effect - mixed evidence on if this actually is an effective stressor

What was Belsky et al. (1991) Developmental Theory based on the idea of facultative developmental processes for within-sex differences? how does this affect children and their development? what concrete evidence is there for the change in children?

- said that human mating systems vary (strong pair-bonds w/ high paternal investment; unstable pair-bonds w/ inconsistent paternal investment; frequent partner switching) - child's early environment may provide clues regarding the system they are growing up in. is the father present? is there conflict in the home? - if receive clues that they're in unstable pair-bond environment, the child's brain will implement a developmental program that promotes early and fast rates of reproduction (bc waiting for commitment that's unlikely to occur is a waste of time) ~ these children have earlier puberty, more unrestricted sexuality (high SOI)

What did Bateman's Fruit fly experiment show to support the PI theory?

- saw males reproduce in positive linear correlation to the # of females they have access to - saw females plateau at a certain number of mates why? bc females' have more limiting resources (time, energy, food, etc) while males only limiting resource was # of available females i.e. female = more invested, thus is a limiting factor to males' reproductive success

What are the problems with self-report surveys?

- target specificity - Asking people what they want in a mate does not provide a cognitive description of mate preference mechanisms; this raises many possible issues.

How did the UCSB Ovarian Hormone Study test the fact that hormones are known to have some effects at time delays? What did they find about within-cycle predictors of sexual desire? (estradiol, P, and T)

- tested effects of current-day hormones and hormones measured 1-2 days earlier - found: ~ estradiol had (+) effect at a 2-day lag ~ P had (-) effect at all 3 time frames ~ T had no effect

What is the "double shot" hypothesis about cheating? explain the differences between men and women's perspectives on this

- says getting cheated on in 2 ways is worse than one. depending on view can be cheated on 1 or both ways - if you think emotional infidelity predicts sexual more than sexual predicts emotional, then you will find emotional infidelity worse because it is a "double shot" (2 types vs just 1) ex: if men are more likely than women to have sex w/o attachment, then sexual infidelity by man would be single shot, as opposed to the other way around being a double shot, thus women pick emotional as more disturbing if women can feel attachment w/o sex, but will only have sex if they feel attached, then sexual infidelity by women predicts double shot vs emotional infidelity predicting single shot, thus men pick sexual infidelity as more disturbing

What is the argument against the conclusion that WHR cues for fertility?

- says that low WHR may be a cue for presence of LCFAs that are important in infant brain development

What is the Parental Investment (PI) theory? (greater investing sex = ? to less investing sex? what does less investing sex display?) What is PI defined as?

- says the sex with the greater typical parental investment in offspring becomes a limiting resource for the reproductive success of the opposite sex - also says the lower investing sex should typically show more eagerness to mate, greater competition for mating opportunities (often resulting in larger size), and more elaborate courtship displays/traits - PI = any cost associated w/ raising offspring that reduces the parent's ability to produce/invest in other offspring

What evidence is there for the neurodevelopment argument about WHR?

- see positive correlation between between LCFA intake by mothers [prenatal vitamins] and child's IQ - mother's WHR increases as # of births increases (as women have more children, thighs/hips become smaller as the LCFA fat stores become more depleted with each pregnancy)

What strong selection pressure was there on ancestral men?

- selection pressure to choose fertile vs infertile females

Which sex benefits more from aggressive intrasexual selection behaviors/traits? Give an example using 2 genes with different RS/survival rates?

- sex w/ faster possible rate of RS has more to gain/less to lose from aggression/risking mortality - gene A = 50% chance of death, but 50% chance of 10 offspring vs gene B = 99% survival but 1% chance of 1 offspring see gene A spread throughout population

What did cross-cultural studies show about physical attractiveness ratings that also supported EP's theory about specialized mechanisms ?

- showed raters from distinct cultures generally show good agreement on judgments of facial attractiveness

How do men compete with each other: showing off/risk taking evidence?

- showing off = competence, dominance, condition - more likely to preform riskier tricks when attractive female observer than male - make riskier bets in public than private (presence of women has no effect)

What did Buss predict men forming "emotional attachments" to other women signaled?

- signals to LTP that there is a diversion of resources

possible causes of within-sex differences: context-sensitive mechanisms - what are they? - explain the schematic model? - give an example using men and the NRG they put into novel vs single mates

- single mechanism designed to produce different outputs depending on CURRENT circumstances (i.e. different strategies based on own attractiveness, resources, etc.) - in the cognitive program: instead of just one option for contextual input, there is contextual info either A or B, and the program reads it and decides what output to do based on this - ex: more attractive men put more NRG into novel mates, while less attractive men put more NRG into one mate. both types of men are using the same brain mechanism, but that mech is designed to get a reading of how attractive that male is in his environment, and responds with NRG input accordingly *important: it's the same brain structure responding differently to input A or B and gives behavioral output A or B*

What are some physiological effects of jealousy?

- skin conductance and pulse rate

What major belief is there about men's FA and women's orgasms? - what evidence is the basis for the belief? - what does this evidence suggest an orgasm could be?

- some evidence that women may retain more sperm when they experience orgasm vs when they don't (blowback studies, "up suck" hypothesis) - If so, orgasm could function as form of "cryptic female choice": increase retention of sperm from men with indicators of good genes (bc they orgasm)

Do human males exhibit similar changes in T levels/ behavior after exposure to female?

- some studies show increased T levels 10-20 min after exposure to erotic or sexually explicit films (problem = not realistic setting)

What is someone's "mate value" (MV)? How is it operationalized? What does MV function as a cue to?

- someone's effective market value as a romantic partner - MV operationalized as the proportion of others who would accept someone as a romantic partner - MV a function of cues to: (1) fertility (2) parenting ability (direct benefits) (3) good genes (indirect benefits) weighted according to unknown function

so What does it mean to say that a specialized mechanism is developed by design?

- specialized mechs are developed by evolutionary design, and are designed to develop over time via specialized learning

Direct empirical evidence for signals of genetic quality: peacocks

- study randomly assigned Fs to mate with each male. incubated all eggs the same. measured males' eye spot size. then measure weight of offspring 84 days later - found directly correlation between size of eyespot and weight of offspring = eye spots are indirect costly signal of young offspring health - took it further: released offspring into wild and surveyed how many survived after 2 years. found same positive correlation between eye spot size and offspring survival rate

What major traits are determinants of female physical attractiveness? What does each indicate?

- symmetry: indicator of developmental stability (genetic quality) - averageness (indicator of heterozygosity) - MHC dis-similarity - general health/good condition cues (clear eyes/skin, has NRG, no obvious infection)

What test did Roney preform at UCSB to test if men with shorter CAG repeat # have a greater hormonal response to females?

- tested men's saliva samples before and after interactions with either flirty female or friendly male. tested saliva for T levels, and cheek cells for DNA (to see # of CAG repeats) - results: - men w/ woman = higher cortisol and T - men w/ men = no response - men w/ longer CAG repeats had smaller increases in T levels

What external condition should then regulate T? why?

- the CURRENT importance of mate-seeking (i.e. the potential to mate at that given time) - don't want to pay costs of higher T (immune suppression, behavioral risks, fat loss) if there are no current mating benefits

What did Buss use to generate his hypothesis about sex differences in mate preferences? What was his overall theory?

- the PI theory - said sex investing more will be selected to exert stronger preferences about mating partners

What effect does makeup have on female attractiveness?

- the effects of high E being more attractive only applies to women not wearing makeup - indicates makeup may mimic cues of higher sex hormones

Why do females have so much variance in their reproductive capacity?

- the obstetric dilemma - human infants are especially helpless offspring, require long periods of intensive care

What is natural selection? What does it mean for the specialized mechanisms that exist today?

- the process where some genes replace others in a population bc they have effects that cause their own replication at higher rates than alternative genes at the same locus - Mechanisms exist TODAY because they caused greater reproductive success in the PAST, relative to alternative designs

Why do humans have specifically 2 sexes? ( socially speaking)

- there is a division of labor, with distinct difference in size or appearance between the sexes of an animal in addition to difference between the sexual organs themselves.

What did the songbird study show about the argument of specialized mechs and nature v nurture? how?

- they aren't separate entities - the ability of the songbirds to learn their own song is both: nature in that the bird has the ability to learn their song, and nurture in that it has to hear the song, and within a certain period of time, in order to produce it

What does it mean to say that humans have anisogamy?

- they have 2 gamete sizes - the bigger the gamete size, the greater probability of survival, but lower # that can be produced - females defined as the sex that produce larger gametes

How is taste an example of EP?

- things that are fatty, salty, and sweet are nutrient-rich, but were hard to obtain in the environment of our ancestors. so, liking those tastes were selected for (taste is a mech of motivation) - bitter things are usually toxic, so liking that tastes selected against/ disliking that taste was selected for

How did we discover that there are facial cues for high estrogen in women?

- took 18-24 yr old women (peak fertility) and sampled urine for estrogen levels. - made composite face out of all women w/ high E and one of of the women w/ low E - found that high E composite was rated more attractive, healthy, and feminine than low E

What was done in the UCSB Ovarian Hormone Study? What were the two dependent variables in the study? What were the results?

- took 43 heterosexual women not using hormonal contraceptives and Collected daily saliva samples across 2 full menstrual cycles plus completed daily online survey. tested each sample for estradiol, T, and P. and compared hormone levels with self reports of desire - 2 dependent variables: 1. Desire: "How much did you desire sexual contact?" (1-7) 2. Behavior: (Yes/No) sexual behavior on a given day ("intercourse or other forms of genital stimulation with another person") - results: desire increased throughout follicular phase (along with rise of E) to its peak on the day of ovulation (E dropping and P rising), then beginning a decline in desire a few days into the luteal phase (along with the peak of P and its decline. peak of P = point where desire began decline)

Explain the study conducted on polish women's body shape and estrogen levels. What did they find? (explain the procedure of the experiment and the results)

- took women and tested salivary E levels for one menstrual cycle - found that women with: ~ narrow waist, small breasts ~ broad waist, large breasts ~ broad waist, small breasts all had relatively similar E levels BUT women with narrow waists and large breasts had significantly higher E levels

What happens to the follicle after ovulation? (whats it called? what hormones does it secrete? why?)

- turns into corpus luteum - secretes progesterone (P) (necessary for hospitable environment for embryo) and E

Where do we stand right now about WHR and what it signals?

- unclear if WHR signals R, LCFA, or both

types of within-sex differences: how much commitment is required before sex? - what standard scale is used to measure this? - what are the high and low points in term of type of sexual strategy? what does this mean for sex parnters?

- use sociosexual orientation index (SOI) - high SOI: "unrestricted" sexual strategy; means they are comfortable and eager to have sex with novel partners w/ no commitment - low SOI: "restricted" sexual strategy; requires more commitment and emotional involvement with partner before engaging in sex with them

What rodent experiment did Aikey conduct to test the fast effects of T on risk taking?

- used a maze with open and closed arms to measure risk-taking in male mice (rodents prefer dark, covered spaces; time in open arms a measure of boldness) Male mice randomly assigned to be exposed to either (1) water, or (2) female urine (known to trigger testosterone increases). Tested in maze 30 min. after first exposure - found: mice exposed to female urine spent more percentage of time in risk arms of maze. - next: injected male mice with different doses of T to test whether testosterone could reproduce same effects as female urine, even when female stimuli were absent. - found: Testosterone spikes seem to rapidly (within 30 min.) increase risk taking. (same result) means that exposure to female urine elicited same response as T increase

How did Gangestad and Thornhill prove that there are odor cues for symmetry in men?

- used data from experiment with MHC genes and shirt smelling, but added some info: asked women about pill use/first day of last period to estimate their cycle position. used estimation to compute "conception risk" (probability sex would result in conception on any day of cycle w/ ovulation unknown) - plotted attractiveness ratings of shirt and symmetry of men wearing them; found higher correlations = greater preference for symmetry - then plotted that graph against each woman's conception risk to see if fertile women like symmetry more OVERALL: find Women at higher conception risk show a stronger preference for the scent of symmetrical men.

What did the UCSB Ovarian Hormone Study do to test if women actually are more likely to wear red during their fertile window?

- used same data from libido study but coded what women were wearing on the days they came into the lab - found that: ~ The odds of wearing a red top are 2.5x higher in the FW than in the rest of the cycle ~ For every 1SD increase in E:P, the odds of wearing red increase by 188% (FW effect is mediated by the ratio of Estradiol to P)

What is policy-capturing methodology?

- used to prevent reporter bias - Present a series of individuals who vary on specific traits to raters, have raters judge their mate attractiveness. Then test correlation between traits and mate attractiveness ratings. - Example: say women met 20 men who varied in height. Correlation between men's height and their mate attractiveness ratings is estimate of women's preference for height (even if women do not consciously know they are choosing based on height).

With shorter CAG repeats in the AR gene, what does this mean for expression of T in the body?

- w/ shorter repeats, the same levels of T get mapped into larger effects than with long repeats (men have ~same amount of T produced, but the shorter repeats have more receptors thus can amplify the signal more)

What are some species that show sex role reversals in the PI theory? what is the evidence for this reversal?

- wading birds, seahorses - both: the males brood the eggs and females can lay a second clutch before males finish brooding first clutch i.e. females limited by # of males they can get to brood their eggs also see the females larger, more aggressive, more colorful, and more eager to mate

Which body features predict sex hormone levels in females?

- waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) - breast size

Why a a "cheater detection mechanism" an important thing in humans?

- we're in a highly cooperative society, and its important for us to cooperate only with those that will reciprocate. a cheater would take advantage of a social exchange without paying the cost, therefore it would lead to decreased fitness to cooperate with a cheater - i.e. humans should have developed a cheating detection mechanism to avoid this note: look for cheaters as people who are likely to cheat again in the future, not just acts of cheating (bc people make mistakes)

What was the UCSB Ovarian Hormone Study's discovery about weekend timing and sexual motivation/receptivity? what does this suggest about sexual motivation?

- weekend timing was a strong (+) predictor - suggests women's sexual motivation responds to a combo of external stimuli and internal hormonal signals

Why does fertility matter? explain using an ex of a woman that can birth a child ever 4 years vs 3 years over a 30 year fertility career + survival rates

- woman birthing a child every 4 years @ 80% survival rate = 6 children - every 3 years @90% survival rate = 9 children 1 year fertility difference has a multiplied effect in child #

How do women compete with each other: gossip evidence?

- women at high fertility (vs low fertility) rate other women as less attractive - tend to derogate the sexual fidelity of other women wearing red

What is the relationship between women's cycle phase and men's voice pitch?

- women generally rank lower pitch as more attractive, but see greater preference for lower pitch male voices when tested near ovulation - another enhanced preference for high T w/in fertile window

What did budgeting / trade-off methods surveys find about desired traits in men and women?

- women said resource as most important necessity, men said physical attractiveness but both treated "kindness" as a necessity and a luxury investing in high levels

What are alternative explanations for the findings of Gray's experiment on the T levels/relationship status/fatherhood relationship?

- women seek lower T men to have kids w/ bc they are less aggressive and more investing in offspring

What is the vocal pitch/E levels relationship in women? How has this been proven? What does vocal attractiveness predict?

- women with higher E have higher voices - can track vocal attractiveness across hormonal changes in the menstrual cycle (but it doesn't apply to women on hormonal contraceptives) - vocal attractiveness was found to predict visual attractiveness

What WHR do men find most attractive on women of normal body weight?

0.7

What experiments did Langlois conduct in 1. 1987 2. 1990 that began the theory of humans possessing attractiveness judging specialized mechanisms? What did both experiments find? What did this mean for the theory?

1. 1987: exposed infants to pairs of adult women (that had been pre-rated by adults as attractive or unattractive), one of each category. then tracked infants' eye movements. found that infants eyes focused longer on the attractive women than the unattractive, as young as 2 months old. showed young children that had no time to learn the ideals of beauty already focused on attractiveness 2. 1990: recorded play habits/time with 12 month olds in presence of adult strangers in both attractive and unattractive masks. found they played more and had a more positive effect with attractive mask. also played more with attractive doll than unattractive.

What are 3 possible alternative explanations for the association between mother's WHR and child's IQ? (alternatives to the idea that low WHR causes high IQ?)

1. Low WHR women are more attractive and attract more attractive men who have better genetics that they pass to their offspring. 2. Low WHR women are more attractive and can secure partner who is more educated or wealthier and there children benefit from better schools, area, after school programs. 3. Low WHR women have healthier lifestyles, diet, exercise and therefore pass on lifestyle to their children (not necessarily genetics).

What 3 cues do humans readily ID in their cheater detection mechanism?

1. Someone had ability to take benefit. 2. Someone took benefit on accident or chance. 3. Someone took benefit without cost on purpose.

What are possible causes of within-sex differences? (4 types, no definition)

1. context-sensitive mechanisms 2. facultative developmental processes 3. heritable differences 4. developmental noise/accidents

What is the schematic model of specialized and unspecialized mechanisms?

1. developmental program: genes + environmental input = brain structures 2. cognitive program: brain structures + contextual input = behavioral output

What is the sex hormone version of the schematic model of specialized mechanisms? (general M and F)

1. developmental program: genes + organizational effect = brain structures 2. cognitive program: brain structures + activation effect = behavioral output

intersexual selection: What are the 4 models for evolution of female choice?

1. fisherian runaway selection 2. Costly signals/fitness indicators (indirect benefits) 3. Direct benefits 4. Sensory bias and chase-away

What are the phases of the menstrual cycle?

1. follicular phase: end of menstruation to ovulation 2. luteal phase: ovulation to start of next menstruation 3. menses: menstruation

What two types of comparative evidence is there when using non-human mating mechanisms as evidence for human mating mechanisms ?

1. homology: similarity in behavior due to descent from common ancestor; ex: 4 limbs are found throughout mammals of common ancestors 2. analogy (homoplasy): similarity due to natural selection acting on the distinct species (human and non-human) in similar ways, without common descent; ex: wings of birds and insects are not linked by ancestors, but are Very similar because they have same function, designed to solve same adaptive problem.

What is the (general) process of T production?

1. hypothalamus releases gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) to anterior pituitary 2. ant. pit. releases LH and FSH to blood stream 3. LH and FSH circulate to Leydig cells in the testes to produce T 4. circulating T levels detected by hypothalamus to stop production signals * system sustains itself via feedback loop*

What are the 2 forms of mate competition? define? what does this form select for?

1. intrasexual selection: direct fights with others/ contests members of the same sex; selects for larger size, aggressiveness, earlier mortality (ex: male bucks w. antlers use them to win contests with other males over access to females. but females don't especially care for antlers) 2. intersexual selection: choice by members of the opposite sex; selects for traits that members of the opposite sex find attractive (ex: F peacocks have preferences for big eye spots in M tail feathers)

What were the findings in Wedekind's (1995) test of MHC-dependent Odor Preferences in Humans in: 1. women not using contraceptives/naturally cycling? 2. women on the pill/ hormonal contraceptive?

1. naturally cycling women rated dis-similar men more pleasant than similar men. no notable difference in intensity, just found it more pleasant/sexy 2. hormonally controlled women rated the opposite: similar men more pleasant than dis-similar

What are the 2 types of effects of T/androgens on the male body? define each

1. organizational (developmental) effects: produce relatively irreversible effects on body and brain (i.e. sex differentiation of genital) and has possible early effects on brain organization 2. activational effects: produces more temporary and reversible effects (i.e. many secondary sex traits)

What are the 2 types of causations for certain sex-specific behaviors? explain each

1. proximate causation: addresses HOW outcome occurs on mechanical level 2. ultimate causation: addresses WHY a trait exists or outcome occurs

Female swamp sparrows do not sing, even if exposed to the same songs as males. Why? (explain with the 2 causation types )

1. proximate causation: males possess specialized frames for guiding the learning of song that females don't possess (i.e. brain structures are present in the juvenile males that guide the construction of a singing machine) 2. ultimate causation: singing is a courtship behavior and males of this species evolved to court females, not vice-versa

Cycle Phase Summary: What 3 things does evidence exist for cycle phase effects on?

1. sexual receptivity 2. preferences for T-dependent traits in men 3. attractiveness

What 3 general characteristics determine human physical attractiveness?

1. symmetry 2. averageness 3. MHC compatibility (genes for odor detection play role in mate choice)

What are the 2 general properties of specialized mechanisms?

1. they are developed by design 2. they originate by natural selection

What parallels are seen between human and non-human responses to potential mates?

Both: - occur on a similar timescale (20-60 min) - response absent after similar exposure to other males (i.e. not a response just to ppl, but specifically mates) - fast increase in cortisol (NRG mobilization) on similar time-scale - Appears to be same basic response in humans and in many nonhuman species - strongly suggests operation of homologous brain mechanisms

Whom should you accept as a relationship partner? Whom should you pursue?

Do not want to accept someone if can do much better. Likewise, don't want to waste time pursuing someone unlikely to accept you

Gangestad and Simpson Position on context sensitive mechanisms and SOI in men: What characteristics are associated with Low SOI? High SOI? (attractiveness? NRG directed to what mate? how much investment in offspring?)

LOW SOI: - less sexually attractive - Less energy pursuing new short-term mates - More investment per offspring HIGH SOI: - More sexually attractive - More energy pursuing new short-term mates - Less investment per offspring

What are the social costs of love?

Love can make you look foolish Love signals similar to submission signals in many respects - may signal low dominance/attractiveness What happens to attractiveness of someone who signals "in love" too soon?

Does heritability index the importance of genes for development?

NO, just shows differences in ways it can be inherited

What is Zahavi's argument for why most exaggerated male traits are more likely to be costly signals of quality than arbitrary targets of female preferences?

Other males seem to fear and defer to males with exaggerated traits: should not happen if traits are arbitrary

Physical attractiveness summary: What kind of MHC preference is good for RS?

Preference for MHC-dissimilar individuals

What does this study imply for use of hormonal contraception?

Suggests potential costs to use of hormonal contraception during process of mate choice

What is the general theory about the activational effects of T on men?

T promotes physiological and behavioral processes related to MATING EFFORT, and directs NRG away from competing processes related to SURVIVAL EFFORT

What are we mainly talking about with male sex hormones?

Testosterone

What is the premise of Target-specific kindness?

The reproductive consequences (to oneself) of a mate's behavior depend on the targets of those behaviors

Men rate intelligence higher than attractiveness. True or False?

True, but in reality they still find women attractive even if dumb

Summarize the behavior output of Type I and Type II children according to Belsky et al. (1991) Developmental Theory?

Type I: earlier sexual activity, short-term and unstable pair-bonds, limited parental investment Type II: later sexual activity, long-term and ending pair-bonds, greater parental investment

What was Belsky et al. (1991) Developmental Theory's schematic model of developmental pathways in Type I families? a) family context? b) childrearing? c) psychological/ behavioral development? d) somatic development? e) reproductive strategy?

a) family context: marital discord, high stress, inadequate $ resources b) childrearing: harsh, rejecting, insensitive, inconsistent c) psychological/ behavioral development: insecure attachment, mistrustful internal working model, opportunistic interpersonal orientation; men are aggressive, noncompliant; females are anxious, depressed d) somatic development: early maturation/puberty e) reproductive strategy: earlier sexual activity, short-term, unstable pair-bonds, limited parental investment

What was Belsky et al. (1991) Developmental Theory's schematic model of developmental pathways in Type II families? a) family context? b) childrearing? c) psychological/ behavioral development? d) somatic development? e) reproductive strategy?

a) family context: spousal harmony, adequate $ resources b) childrearing: sensitive, supportive, responsive, positively affectionate c) psychological/ behavioral development: secure attachment, trusting internal working model, reciprocally-rewarding interpersonal orientation d) somatic development: later maturation/puberty e) reproductive strategy: later sexual activity, long-term, enduring pair-bonds, greater parental investment

What is an individual's phenotype made up of?

always a joint product of genetic and environmental influences; heritability only makes sense with respect to differences between individuals

What is male physical attractiveness an indicator of?

androgen indicators

What gene codes for the androgen receptor?

androgen receptor (AR) gene

How do men perceive a woman in red?

as more attractive, more sexually receptive, stronger desire to date her, etc.

What experiment did Buss conduct in 1989?

asked subjects from 37 different cultures to rate/rank lists of attributes for their desirability in choosing a mate

How does the abortion drug RU486 work?

by blocking the Progesterone necessary for the embryo to implant and survive

models for evolution of female choice: fisherian runaway selection - explain w/ short v. long tail mating - what is "sexy sons" selection?

ex: bird species Ms have both long and short tails. long tail makes harder to fly. allow females to mate with them at random. see larger preference for long tails. see the genes for long tails spread. as these genes spread, they become linked to preference genes for long tails.now, linked and spread by sexual selection - females less likely to choose short tail males over time, because of the "sexy sons" selection idea: females want to produce male offspring that other females will want to mate with. i.e. reproducing with a short tail with produce short tail offspring, which won't be reproducing with females of his generation

Physical attractiveness summary: What are facial symmetry and averageness possible markers of?

facial symmetry = developmental stability averageness = heterozygosity

Which sex in most species typically makes the larger PI?

females

Summarize the hormonal shifts through the menstrual cycle

follicular phase: low Progesterone (P) and increasing estrogen fertile window = peak E and slowly rising P luteal = lower E (dips, peaks slightly, then decreases again) and peak P with decrease following

Physical attractiveness summary: What is body symmetry a further marker of?

further marker of developmental stability

Which non-human species is most relevant for examining homologous relationships to human mating mechanisms? What about analogous relationships? why?

homologous: chimps/monkeys; similar ancestor = similar structural components (of many mammals designed because of common ancestors not because of function. Have very similar bones, not likely to happen by chance.) analogous: birds; show similar mating behavior of long lasting partnerships and intensive parenting roles

Explain natural selection in terms of specialized mechanisms using ex of attraction to post-menopausal women

if genes cause construction of brain mechanisms that caused men to be attracted to post-menopausal women, those genes would reproduce at much lower rates than genes at the same locus that code for attraction to prime fertility women, since the post-menopausal women are much less likely to be reproducing and passing those genes along

What experiment was done to test the T levels/relationship status/fatherhood relationship? What was the hypothesis? Results?

• Gray collected saliva samples from Boston-area men (mainly Harvard undergrads and grad students) to measure testosterone. 29 men unmarried, 14 married without children, 15 married with children. • Hypothesized: lower T in married men and fathers (to avoid costs of T and promote paternal care) •Results: Unmarried highest, married with no children middle T, married with children lowest T.

What are possible alternative explanations for FA/orgasm relationship? (opposed to Thornhill's conclusion)

• Male symmetry gives men a better chance of mating with attractive women who are more likely to orgasm.

What is the body cue/E level relationship with female attractiveness?

• Measured women's hormones, got their bodies rated for attractiveness. • After controlling for BMI, estrogen predicted ratings of body attractiveness. (Only shows effect after controlling for BMI.)

What would be a more definitive test of the hypothesis formulated by Thornhill on FA/orgasm relationship? (i.e. how could you test it in nonhuman species?)

• Randomly assign mates (which we can't do in humans) and see if the females actually orgasm with more attractive males - with choice not having anything to do with it. (controls for differences in women) - or manipulate developmental stability and then measure orgasm rates

What beard growth experiment was done to prove that the presence of fertile mates affects hormone levels in men?

• Researcher doing research on a remote island. Recorded his beard growth (androgen-dependent) during periods of isolation, and also when he visited girlfriend on mainland or she visited island. Weighed beard shavings each day. • saw Peaks in beard growth when there is a mate available.

What study did Chicago University conduct on males to ID what kind of physiological changes occur when presented with potential mates?

• Subjects engaged in a 5-minute conversation with a male or female confederate. Saliva samples were taken before and 15 minutes after the interaction. Confederates rated the subjects' behavior during the interaction. (what display factors? polite interest? arousal?) - found Men interacting with women increased in T, while men interacting with man did not. - found in Behaviors assessed by confederates: - Men talking to women did more displays (try to impress, showed off, talk about self, reveal details of self, was talkative). - Change in testosterone was related to courtship-like behavior. - Men talking to men there was no relationship with displaying more.

If a male is functional system-wise, when should his testosterone be reduced? Increased?

• When ill, men should take energy away from sex efforts and towards health immunity. - when immune system is good or when around fertile mates

scent cues for men's T response: - How was this tested? - results?

• Women collected 2 types of samples (1. Armpit cotton pads 2. "panty protectors" for vulva odors) Wore at ~ end of follicular phase and a few days before predicted new menstruation (end of luteal phase). Samples were placed in a nebulizer that delivered puffs of air: men inhaled from nebulizer and saliva samples collected before and after. Men reported sexual attraction, has testosterone measured several times before and during smelling. baseline of just plain air - results: ~ highest T response to periovulatory (FW) armpit and vulva odors ~ luteal armpit and vulva odors caused T to drop and stay suppressed

What was the experiment testing the correlational relationship between caregiving and T levels?

• did 3-d imaging to measure size of guys testicles and obtained Ratings from children mothers on how good of fathers they are. • found that Bigger testes = less good caregivers, and produce more testosterone. • Higher testosterone score lower on caregiving rating from mothers of kids.