PSYCH 318 EXAM 2

Describe one looking-time study and one behavioral study that suggest that 12 month olds understand that other people don't know everything they know (other people can be ignorant)

Infants' understanding of knowledge vs. ignorance • Do infants know the difference between when a person is likely to know something and when they don't know something? • (Luo & Johnson, 2009 - discussed in Part 2, suggests they do) • At 12 months, also see evidence for this understanding in actions • Liszkowski et al. (2008) But understanding that someone else can be ignorant is simpler than understanding that they believe something different from what you know. Can infants understand that other people know something different from what they know?

Describe the development of reaching between 3 and 7 months?

Reaching is increasingly prospective (anticipatory) - 5 months - contact, then form hand - 7.5 months - pre-form hand in anticipation of dowel orientation - 9 months - open hand while reaching, begin to close in anticipation of contacting object • Reaching lays groundwork for perceptual and cognitive advances: -Inter-sensory integration (visual-tactile) -Tool use -Means-end understanding

What are some challenges for our society in providing good quality care for infants?

Run out of money for daycare. Rapid increase in number of mothers of infants who work. Center care more than average college tuition. About 50% of average income for single mothers. Why is it so expensive?•...bottomline: it is labor-intensive •Recommendations are for infant: adult ratios of no more than 4:1 More younger moms and more moms working in general. Its getting more expensive.

Types of grasps

Scissors grasp - close hand around object. Pincer grasp - pick up small things like cheerio or button with fingers.

Describe the vocabulary spurt

about 18 months. •at about 50 word mark, rate of learning increases •beginning of 2-word combinations •Age of vocabulary spurt is quite variable •Lexical insight - insight that everything has a name

How does back (supine) vs. front (prone) sleeping affect motor development?

prone = face down supine = face up experience plays a role in how fast it happens, part is a preprogrammed sequence, and partly each new thing builds on thing before it. But actual timing of those things could be affected by experience. Whether spending a lot of time on front of back will develop different muscles. fronts- pushing up with arms like arm strength.

Some examples of intercessory integration that are present in newborns?

synchrony, tempo, intensity, frequency such as texture, higher or lower pitch sounds help infants link of senses. •Size •Shape •Weight •Location in space •Color •Taste •Texture •Alive/not alive

Kellman & Spelke - understanding object unity

• 4 month olds preferred to look at broken rod • They perceived it as more novel • They used continuity as a cue as long as motion was present • CONCLUSION: MOTION is an important cue to object boundaries early in development main findings - didn't have preference for either rod, but shown it moved together they would know it was a single rod

What is an amodal invariant?

• Amodal - not tied to a particular sense • Invariant - not changing, constant Ecological View Amodal invariants are abstract similarities or correspondences in the information coming in from different sensesImportant in detecting correspondences between senses, and in detecting informa-on about the world Example 1 : temporal information (-ming) Example 2: ? Modality from specific sense, the thought of amodal invariant some things cross senses - synchrony such as hitting a coffee cup with pen the visual impact where pen touches cup is linked up in time. timing is one variance. important because helps infants link up senses. synchrony, tempo, intensity, frequency such as texture, higher or lower pitch sounds. place in space if amodal invariant - sounds come from certain location and sights also do too.

What did the NICHDstudy of early childcare reveal about how early out-of-home care was related to children's attachment to their mothers?

• Attachment security in Strange Situation measured at 12 and 18 months • No effects of childcare variables on attachment security. -Except: Mothers who were insensitive and who had children in poor quality care were more likely to have children with insecure attachments Conclusions: Childcare experiences do not influence quality of attachment, even for children with high quantity of care.

Why are beliefs thought to be the most difficult aspect of theory of mind to grasp?

• Beliefs are thought to be the most difficult part of theory of mind to understand • Beliefs can be counter-factual (wrong) • To fully understand beliefs, you have to maintain 2 separate representations of reality -Yours -Theirs • To demonstrate children's understanding of beliefs, you have to show that they understand false beliefs Understanding Beliefs -Long assumed that children under 4 do not have understanding of beliefs •They are not good at deceiving •Their answers to questions about false beliefs are peculiar. 4-year-olds: people act on the basis of their beliefs, even if they are false 3-year-olds: people act on the basis of reality

Summary: Preverbal Communication

• Between 9 and 15 months, infants begin to engage in coordinated joint attention more frequently, and in a greater variety of contexts -Following points, pointing, following gaze, requests • Starting around 11 months, they sometimes invent their own symbolic gestures • At the same time, they are acquiring conventional (learned, standard) gestures -E.g., wave bye-bye, kiss, dance, etc.

What are the characteristics of Infant Directed Speech?

•Adults around the world use a special type of speech when addressing infants -Higher pitch -Exaggerated intonation -Slower and clearer -Lengthened pauses -Exaggerated facial expressions • Infants prefer IDS (even when it is not in their own language) • IDS facilitates word learning (Golinkoff & Alioto, 1995) • But IDS is not necessary for learning-Some cultures do not use IDS -Recall the Ifaluk? They believe no point in talkingto infants -Children in these cultures still master language

What are the 3 categories of depth cues and when do infants develop the ability to use them? Know examples of each type.

•Binocular cues -Binocular disparity, convergence •Static monocular cues -Interposition, relative size, texture gradient,... •Motion cues -Motion parallax, things that move together belong together, ... Three kinds come in at different ages. Of the 3, the motion cues are the earliest for infants to detect, next would be binocular cues, and then static monocular cues. Right from birth sensitive to some of these motions cues. Binocular cues - not until 4 months Monocular cues - not until 7 months (5-7 months)

What are the different types of infant care?

•Center based •Family child care •Nanny •Relative Care •Parental

Does teaching infants Babysign speed up their language development?

•Early research on gestural symbols inspired a lot of books and advice for parents Some possible benefits • Improved parent-child communication • Less child frustration • Fostering social interactions conducive to language learning -Kirk et al (2012) •1 group of mothers used baby sign (8 - 20 months) •1 group did not -No differences in language at 20 months -Mothers who used using sign were rated as more responsive, and encouraging more independent actions

What are some government policies and programs in the U.S. related to childcare?

•Family medical leave act- up to 12 weeks unpaid leave for new parents •Dependent Care Tax Credit-offsets some child care costs as a tax deduction •Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunities Reconciliation Act - welfare to work for mothers with infants > 6 weeks •Public childcare subsidies for mothers on public assistance

Pre-reaching - when does it disappear?

•Infants do show some reaches at birth •About the same amount with or without objects present until 10 weeks •Reaching hits a low point at 7 weeks -Why? 2 possible reasons •Disappearance of reflex? •At 7 weeks, coordination of vision and reaching a new skill, looking actually inhibits reaching? Not goal directed may be reflex and kinda declines at 7 weeks. looking takes more attention and takes away from their reach.

What are some examples of social communicative behaviors that occur in triadic engagement?

•Joint attention behaviors -Gaze following -Showing -Pointing -Following a point •Requests -Gestures, vocalizations -Eye-contact •Social Referencing -Using another's emotional signals as information in an uncertain situation Show that they are sensitive to the relation between another person's mental state and the world.

What is lexical insight?

•Lexical insight - insight that everything has a name

What is high quality infant care? (How is it measured or assessed?) Licensed, accredited, for research purposes.

•Licensed - Meets minimal health/safety/ratio standards set by state. •Accredited - Has met demanding standards set by National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). •For Research purposes: - a variety of measures are used - such as rating scales (such as how good is the physical space) licensed does not mean much and accredited means a lot they go through long process and minute by minute observations.

What are symbols? Why might they be difficult for infants to understand?

"A symbol is something that someone intends to standfor or represent something other than itself." (Deloache, 2000) -It may be arbitrarily related to what it stands for "chicken" -But symbols are difficult • They can be arbitrarily related to what they refer to • They can refer to abstract things or very broadcategories • They can refer to absent things • They depend on understanding a user's intention to communicate

Why are some important changes occurring in the sensorimotor stage, according to Piaget?

(birth - 24 months) •Achievements -Distinguish self from world -Understand the difference between cause and effect, and learn specific means-end relationships -Develop concept of object •Limitations -No planning -No remembering -No bringing concepts of absent objects to mind

How does Luo and Johnson's study of 6-month-olds understanding of intentions support the idea that infants have a mentalistic interpretation of an actor's actions?

-Do infants have a non-mentalistic understanding of goals as outcomes of action sequences, or do they attribute a mental state to the actor? -Used a task like the Woodward task. -6-month-olds •Luo & Johnson's conclusions-Infants can understand when an actor has anincomplete representation of a scene -Infants distinguish between their own representations and those of others, and use this information in accounting for agent's actions. -Infants use psychological reasoning from a young age (in this Expt., 6 months)

What is fast mapping? Describe one study demonstrating fast mapping

-fast mapping - rapid acquisition of at least partial word meaning from a single exposure •Carey & Bartlett (1978) -In preschool, exposed children to new word on one occasion. -"chromium" - olive color -Lexical contrast: bring me the chromium tray, not the blue one -Most children learned that "chromium" was a color word. -fast mapping - rapid acquisition of at least partial word meaning from a single exposure • Anne Fernald • Speed of processing known words facilitates learning new ones

What age do they show signs of interpreting actions as goal-directed?

Around 6 months that they are starting to show signs of interpreting actions as goal-directed.

What are dyadic and triadic engagement and at about what age does triadic engagement increase substantially?

Around 8-9 months increase in interactions like this. If trying to communicate with peoples minds why would they want to if they didn't think so. NOTE: Age of emergence of triadic engagement corresponds to age of Coordination of secondary circular reactions (8-12 months) Now infants can coordinate people schemes and object schemes Dramatic increase in triadic engagement between 9 and 13 months

The NICHD Study

Comprehensive longitudinal study1364 children born in 199110 sites nationwide participatedMostly representative sample Children were followed until 9th grade •Basic questions: What are the effects of child care on different aspects of development? -Attachment -Self-control, compliance, problem behavior -Cognitive and language development •Year 1 - Neonatal assessments - Maternal sensitivity (2 observations of mother- infant interaction in 1st year) - Family Variables •Income to needs ratio •Mothers psychological adjustment •Many demographic variables: parental education, ethnicity, marital status, etc. - Child Care Variables •Age of entry, stability, quantity, quality, type

3 Methods for studying infant abilities

1)Preference - Preference for one implies discrimination We need to be careful to consider all possible reasons for the preference, and rule out alternatives. We can't assume that infants see the same things we do in our stimuli. Infants may not have the same categories and interpretations as adults 2.) Habituation/Familiarization -Show infant repeated presentations of stimulus until looking time drops, then show new stimulus. Increased looking time (recovery from habituation) implies discrimination of 2 stimuli. 3. • Violation of expectation (VOE) • Show infants events that violate their expectations. • If expectations are violated, they will look longer. • You can learn what they expect. • Contrast looking times to Possible and Impossible Events • Game: make Possible and Impossible events as similar as possible in every way to eliminate alternative explanations for differences in looking times • Preference • Habituation/Familiarization + Preference • Violation of Expectation • All methods require careful controls to eliminate alternative explanations for infants' looking times.

What is the head-turn preference procedure (used to determine whether infants discriminate between 2 different types of linguistic stimuli, such as stress-first vs. stress-last words)

1. Infants attention drawn forward 2. Light to right or left signals that one speaker will play sound 3. As long as infant looks, sound continues 4. If infant looks away, sound stops -Can tell us whether infant can discriminate 2 sounds -Can tell us whether infant prefers one sound over another Sensitivity to stress patterns of native language (Juszyck et al. 1993) •Do English language exposed babies prefer stressed first syllables? (Stress first is typical in English) -6 and 9-month-olds -Head turn preference procedure -Stress first words on one side -Stress second words on the other Where will infants look longer to produce the sound? •6-month-olds - no preference •9-month-olds - prefer stress first •Between 6 and 9 months, learn the stress patterns characteristic of their native language When do babies learn allowable sound combinations in their native language? Jusczyk, 1993 Subjects: English and Dutch 9-month-olds Head turn preference procedure Kn at beginning (legal Dutch, illegal English) examples: knaap, knecht, kneus, kneukel Ed at end (legal English, illegal Dutch) tried, slimmed, opened • 9-month-old Babies prefer (look longer to produce) sounds that are legal in their native language • Dutch babies like to hear "kn" at beginning • English babies don't • English babies like to hear "ed" at the end • Dutch babies don't • They know about allowable sound combinations in their native language •Universal baby: 0 - 6 months: -Infants have the ability to distinguish between all the speech contrasts used in all human languages -Don't know native language phonology rules •Native language specialist 6 - 12 months -Expert at phonemic distinctions in own language, lose phonemic distinctions from other languages -Learn native language phonology rules.

10 components of quality child care

1. Licensed programs following appropriate health and safety practices 2. Well trained staff 3. Developmentally appropriate physical environments 4. Small groups with optimal ratios (infants group size = 6-8; ratios 1:3 or 4) 5. Primary care-giving and continuity of care (should be one special care giver - so child can form relationship and caregiver knows child best like what helps them go to sleep, the routine, what family is like, what they like to eat. 6. Active and responsive care-giving 7. Curriculum and individualized programming 8. Support of emergent language and literacy 9. Family involvement and cultural continuity 10. Comprehensive support services hard to establish because lots of turnover in field due to lack of money •Primary care giving-one caregiver is assigned to take primary responsibility for the child. One caregiver forms a special relationship with the child. •Continuity of care-the relationship with the primary caregiver persists over time. There is not high turnover in caregivers.

How did Onishi and Baillargeon study understanding of False Belief in 15 month olds? What did they find?

15 month-old infants saw events where object hidden in 1 of 2 boxes In some versions, the baby sees some events the hider does not They used different combinations of things that either both the infant and adult saw or things only infant saw and adult didn't see, and infants behaved (15 months old) like they understood that the other person didn't know everything they knew. •Conclusions - 15-month-olds keep track of where the actor last saw the object - They appear to be aware that the actors representations of the world can be FALSE, and that the actors actions are based on these representations, not on the true state of the world. - UNDERSTANDING FALSE BELIEF IN INFANCY!

At what age are they good at reaching out and grabbing and object?

4-5 months

At what age do infants typically sit independently? Crawl independently?

5.2 months sits alone briefly or 4-8 months is the normal age range.

How did Woodward test for understanding of intentions in 6 month olds? What was one important control in her study?

6-month-oldsHabituated to a hand reaching for one toy Test events: New location, same toy Old location, new toy New location, new toyWhich will seem more novel? • Reasoning: If the infant thinks of the hand reaching as "someone wants to get the toy", they should find reaching to new toys novel .• If the infant thinks of the hand reaching as "hand reaching toward location" then should find reaching to new locations novel. RICH INTERPRETATION: Infants understandthat the actor had the goal of reaching for thering. They notice that the goal has changed.They understand reaching in terms of goals! LEAN INTERPRETATION: Infants care moreabout objects than locations. They associated the hand with the ring. Now find the hand with CONTROL CONDITION Mechanical claw reaches for objects Reasoning: If first result was due to associating hand with toy, should get the same pattern. If first result was due to interpreting reach as driven by goal, mechanical

Why might gestural symbols be easier than verbal symbols for infants? What is the evidence that they are easier?

Acredolo & Goodwyn, 1990 Are gestural symbols common in early stages of language development? Where do they come from? 17-month-olds Interview study (asked mothers) Criteria for symbolic gestures -Sufficiently frequent -Non-auditory (e.g., not an animal sound) -Generalized (representing more than a single thing) -Not part of specific routine -87% of babies used symbolic gestures -Many had spontaneously invented them. Are symbolic gestures easier to learn than words? •Acredolo&Goodwyn(1993) •22 11-month-olds •Mothers taught 8 target gestures-Examples: »Fish (lip smacking) »Bird (arm flapping) »Airplane (hand swoop) »More (index finger tap) •Biweekly interviews with moms to assess when used, contexts of use •Results -Gestures acquired on average 1.1 months earlier than words -Small but reliable advantage -Possible reasons •Greater iconicity (symbols resemble what they represent) •Greater transparency (easier to check, compare) •Natural relation to sensorimotor schemes

State of mental representation

After 18-24 months they can run through future in head and figure it out in head. Can remember something that happened in the past - kid imitate something from a few days ago.

How does the structure of the newborn's vocal tract make it difficult to produce speech sounds?

At birth, the shape of the infant's vocal tract does not allow them to make many speech sounds.

Summary: Effects of Childcare Experience on development in the first 3 years

Attachment quality: no effect Problem behaviors: weak effect Favoring center care, high quality care Language and cognitive development: moderate effect Favoring center care and care with high frequency of language stimulation •But overall, family factors stronger predictors of all3 aspects of development

When can infants use social cues such as direction of gaze to identify the meanings of new words?

Baldwin (1993) tested 18-20-month-oldssensitivity to adultsdirection of gaze in word learning waited until infant attended to an object, then adult looked at another object and uttered a novel label •Babies turned around, looked at adults face, then looked at object adult was attending to •Correctly identified label as referring to what adult was looking at: 70% •Incorrectly identified label as referring to what they were looking at: 8% •Conclusion -18-month-olds know that speakers direction of gaze is an important cue to word meaning •Children are quite expert at using social information as cues to word meaning from about 18 months, the time of the vocabulary spurt.

SUMMARY of becoming native language specialist

Becoming Native Language Specialist (6-12 months) Perceiving -lose ability to distinguish non-native speech contrasts -come to recognize and prefer native language phonological patterns --Producing 0-2 months, can't make many speech sounds 2-4 months - vowels 4-8 months - vocal play 8-10 months - canonical babbling "bababa" 10-12 months - jargon babbling - like sentences, without words --Infant-Directed Speechhigher pitch, slower, exaggerated intonation and facial expressions; helpful, but not necessary

Describe some studies that provide evidence about how the skill of gaze-following develops between 9 and 12 months

Brooks & Meltzoff (2005) •When do infants really follow gaze direction, and not simply head turn direction? -Eyes open vs. closed task -Will infant follow gaze of a person with eyes closed? -Previous research showed 12 months + follow head turns more if actor has eyes open -When does this emerge?•9-month-olds •10-month-olds •11-months-olds gaze following in eyes open/closed task emerged suddenly between 9 & 10 months 9-month-olds turn as much when actor has eyes open and closed 10-month-olds only turn if actors eyes are open. CONCLUSION Gaze-following based on eye-contact develops suddenly between 9 and 10 months! found blindfolds harder for them to understand probably because they're not familiar with blindfolds, don't know can't see through blind fold. SECOND EXPERIMENT: Senju, Csibra & Johnson, 2008 9-month-olds Would they look more in the direction of gaze if an object was present than if no object was present? If so, it would suggest that infants relate the gaze and the object. Important control: Remove the object before they measure looking, so it does not serve to attract infant's attention. teacher's description - that when eyes move they find it meaningful and expect them to move in the same direction of object, they understand eye movements and gaze direction are about objects in the world. Why is gaze-following of so much interest? It gives us some idea of infants' understanding of others' minds (their perceptions). It may lay important foundations for language.

What are 3 views of how infants might come to understand that people's actions are driven by intentions?

By 6 months, infants appear to understand that human actions are guided by intentions. They treat human actions differently than non-human ones. When trying to explain human actions, they use a different framework than when trying to explain physical events.A lot like adults! •At 6 months, infants understand reach of a hand as goal-directed (treat differently from mechanical claw) (Woodward) •At 9 months, infants interpret movements of circles with self-propelled motion as goal-directed and expect agents to take rational and efficient paths to goals (Csibra, Gergely) •At 6 months, infants use information about what people know to make inferences about their goals from their actions (Luo & Johnson). Their understanding of goals truly involves some understanding of internal mental states, not simply understanding of external action sequences.What good is understanding goals and intentions for the infant? •Helps organize sequences of actions -(understand you do one thing in order to do another; groupgoal-related actions together even when they are not adjacentin /me) -(Sommerville & Woodward, 2005) •Helps distinguish intentional from accidental actions-Infants will imitate intentional more than accidental actions •Helps infer what an actor's goal is even when it is not accomplished -Infants imitate goal action even when they saw the experimenter try but fail to accomplish the goal (Meltzoff, 1995) •Helps predict what next action might be -Infants predicted actor would pick up object shelooked at (Phillips, Wellman & Spelke, 2002) Infants' eye movements anticipated hand reaching to preferred object (Cannon & Woodward, 2012) •Help predict emotions •Help develop scripts/schemas for everyday events -What are the essential vs. Incidental parts of brushing your teeth, eating dinner, etc.

Contrast the Constructivist and Ecological Views of perceptual development

Constructivism - We start with simple sensations - Through association, we learn which sensations co-occur - Drawing on these associations, we construct coherent interpretation of sensations - Perception involves inference - It involves top-down processing What does the sight of an apple mean to a baby? At first - nothing Sight + touch Sight + sound Sight + taste Etc. etc. The sight eventually elicits expectations based on past experiences. •the baby, assailed by eyes, ears, nose, skin and entrails all at once, feels it all as a great blooming, buzzing confusion(William James, 1890) •There is not involved, it goes without saying, any interest of the child in the objects themselves that he tries to watch. These sensorial images have no meaning, being coordinated neither with sucking, grasping or anything which could constitute a need for the subject. (Piaget, 1952) Ecological View The retinal image is full of rich information The information is enough to specify what we perceive about the world Perceptual systems evolved to pick up the information "Direct Perception" Bottom-up processing J. J. Gibson What does the sight of an apple mean to a baby?At first - baby probably understands some basics object is 3D, may know distance & size texture With experience, learns more details, e.g., what it tastes like, become more exact in judging distance, etc. •I think, as is the case with perceived shape, that an object tends to be perceived in its true size very early in development, not because the organism has learned to correct for distance, but because he sees the object as such, not its projected size or its distance abstracted from it.(Eleanor Gibson, 1969) constructivist - start with simple sensations such as baby with apple, baby sees it and touches it and through associations baby learns its an apples. need to learn all from experience. ecological - they assume baby already knows the apple is 3D and knows its size and texture and baby constructs to be an apple. from very start they know something about perceived size through vision and felt size through touch. ecological view is more nativist. also think info in world is a lot more detailed.

What are some major developmental changes occurring at about the same age as crawling?

Crawling fundamentally changes their whole world. Crawling as a "developmental organizer": Other changes at at about the same time However, just because 2 things develop at the same time does not mean they're related. It could be coincidence! It also does not mean crawling experience is necessary for the other achievements •However, it would make evolutionary sense for these abilities to develop at the same time as crawling ability. Why? -Social referencing -Stranger anxiety, separation anxiety -More fearful -Context independent memory doesn't cause but happens at the same time, but are more mobile.

What are average ages for beginning crawling, cruising, and walking?

Crawling motions - 5 months Cruising - 10 months Walking - 12-15 months

Gergely and Csibra conducted a study to see whether 6-12 month olds would attribute goals to moving circles (using the detour task). What did they find?

Detour task •6, 9, 12 months Used violation of expectation looking task Do infants expect abstract representations of animate creatures to behave in a goal-directed way? Which event will be more novel (more looking)? 9 & 12 month-olds found leap more novel CONCLUSIONS Infants interpreted circles as having goals, or at least as behaving in a goal-directed manner. They expect circles to behave in a rational and efficient manner in order to achieve goals. •Gergely and Csibra's interpretation -Infants tend to interpret action sequences by explaining them in terms of their outcomes. - They expect agents to take the most rational and efficient path to the end-state. - They don't understand the agent as having an internal mental state. - The circle jumped the barrier in order to get to the big circle. - NOT - The circle had the mental state of wanting, which motivated it to jump the barrier.

What is intersensory integration? Modality, amodal, invariant

Each sense provides unique informa-on. Perceiving the world involves relating information from different senses. What information is carried by only one sense? What information is carried by more than one sense? Can newborns relate information from different senses? • Modality - the sensory channel carrying certain information (visual, auditory, tac-le...) • Amodal - not tied to a particular sense • Invariant - not changing, constant

How did Meltzoff test for imitation in newborns, and what did he find?

How did Meltzoff test for imitation in newborns, and what did he find? Can imitate but there are limitations - study to see if they could imitate different facial expressions, could do mouth opening and tongue protrusion, could not wiggle fingers, and could not push out their lips. Could not do very many things. 48 hours old Tongue protrusion Mouth opening Lip protrusion Finger waving • Replicated in hour-old infants • Strongest results for tongue protrusion andmouth opening • Newborn chimps imitate the same expressions (from human model) (Myowa-Yamakoshi et al., 2004) Controversy over neonatal imitation •What does it mean? -A subcortical mechanism (reflex)? •It is restricted to only 2 gestures -A sign of sophisticated knowledge? •But still impressive - infants seem to have some innate knowledge of how their actions are related to those of other people.

What is maternal "following language" and how does it relate to children's language development?

Hypothesis: Mothers who are good at monitoring and responding to their child's focus of aCen5on will have children who learn language faster Maternal following language - utterances that attempt to follow the child's focus of attention • There is a relation between maternal following language and early communicative competence. • By focusing on the objects the child is interested in, and labeling those objects, the mother provides the child with more opportunities to learn new words.

What is the Sally-Anne Task? How do 3 and 4 year olds respond differently in the Sally-Anne Task?

Long assumed that children under 4 do not have understanding of beliefs • They are not good at deceiving • Their answers to questions about false beliefs are peculiar. 4-year-olds: people act on the basis of their beliefs, even if they are false 3-year-olds: people act on the basis of reality Review: In the Sally-Anne task, Anne moves the marble from the box to the basket while Sally is out of the room. Where do 3-year-olds think Sally will look for the marble? A.In the box B.In the basket C.They have no idea (weird, because they should know Sally thinks it is in the box. She didn't see it being moved.) Why do 3-year-olds fail Sally-Anne task Alternative explanations •Fundamental change (2 systems) (Perner) -Infants have a fast, inflexible system -Later develop a slower, more flexible system •Processing Demands (Baillargeon) Infants understand FB (False Beliefs) but the Sally-Anne task is difficult because of: -Inhibitory control -Verbal demands -Working memory Why do 3-year-olds fail Sally-Anne task Alternative explanations •Fundamental change (2 systems) (Perner) -Infants have a fast, inflexible system -Later develop a slower, more flexible system •Processing Demands (Baillargeon) Infants understand FB but the Sally-Anne task is difficult because of: -Inhibitory control -Verbal demands -Working memory

In what ways are newborns prepared to perceive faces?

May have features that infants find interesting. Border of hair and moderate stuff in middle they like. In early studies don't care if its regularly organized face or regular. Tried motion related to infants they found they like the face like ones with the 2 dots over the 1 dot. In study fetuses prefer face like stimuli. Babies didn't really prefer more face like stimuli like this versus that until about 12 weeks. Recognizing mom's face - can recognize mom's face as long as her hairline was included, they eliminated smell and other things and they can still recognize her face which is impressive. Babies were better at distinguishing between monkey faces at 6 months than they were at 9 months. About 6-9 months they could discriminate between novel faces of both monkeys and faces could at 6 months, but couldn't at 9 months, probably because they're better at making fine similar associations with human faces than monkey faces. 6-9 specialize in: difference between emotions - categorizing happy people as the same. -better at perceiving the differences between individuals of the race they're exposed to the most and less good of people at different races. same with speech --- Specialization of processing human faces Pascalis, DeHaan & Nelson (2002) -Humans better at human than monkey discrimination, while opposite holds true for monkeys. -As we become expert at processing human faces, do we lose ability to process non- human faces? • Newborns prefer features typical of faces -Medium amount of detail, high contrast edges • Face-like organization is special for infants from birth, but this is probably sub-cortically controlled, and declines around 6 weeks • Perception of schematic faces as meaningful pattern apparent by 12 weeks • Infants can recognize mom's face from the first days of life, but they need the hairline •Conclusion: -From birth, infants are biased to attend to faces -Initial bias probably reflects subcortical mechanism -Perhaps not the same as real understanding of faces as special •Newborns -Prefer low-level features typically found in faces -Prefer face-like configuration -Prefer faces that are gazing at them -Can recognize mom's face -Also prefer attractive faces

What did the NICHD find about associations or Effects of Childcare Experiences on Cognitive and Language Development in Toddlers

Measures 15, 24 & 36 mos •Background measures -Maternal vocabulary -Maternal sensitivity -Maternal stimulation •Care-giving measures -Positive care-giving -Frequency of language •Child measures -Cognitive Development -Language •Quality of care a consistent, moderate predictor of cognitive and language development -In particular, frequency of language stimulation in care- giving environment a strong predictor •Type of care predicted cognitive and language development -Children in center care did better than children in family daycare -Maternal care and out-of-home care were similar •Conclusions: Childcare experiences have a moderate influence on language and cognitive development. Biggest effects found - found quality of care was related to more advanced cognitive and lang development in toddlers.

What did the NICHD find about associations or Effects of Childcare Experiences on Compliance and Problem Behaviors in Toddlers

Measures 24 & 36 months • Temperament • Maternal reports of problem behaviors • Caregiver reports of problem behaviors • Observations at childcare • Lab assessments of compliance (e.g., clean- up task) • Resistance to temptation •Higher quality care predicted fewer problem behaviors and more compliance with mother •Type of care predicted problem behaviors -More center care predicted fewer problem behaviors -Predictions from childcare variables are weak -Family factors (e.g., sensitive mother) predicted more strongly •Conclusions: Childcare experiences have a weak influence on problem behaviors in toddlers.

Explain the trends of agency, prospectively, behavioral flexibility, and means end problem solving in motor development

Motor development involves increasing ...(Gibson & Pick, 1997) -Agency - knowledge of self and effects on world -Prospectivity - gearing actions toward future -Behavioral flexibility - adapting to circumstances -Means-end problem-solving - new ways of achieving goals • Motor development involves interplay of many factors(dynamic systems theory) - Each new skill depends on many factors - Each new skill is related to many other areas of functioning (cognitive, emotional, perceptual, etc.) • There is a lot of individual variability in motor development.

Percent of children under age 1 other chart

Over 50%

What percent of children under age 1 are in some childcare arrangement at least part-time while their mother works (in the U.S.)?

Over 50%

Explain why high quality, affordable infant care is in short supply in the U.S.

Rapid increase in number of mothers of infants who work. Center care more than average college tuition. About 50% of average income for single mothers.

What are some specific ways the infant goes from being a "Universal Baby" to a "Native Language Specialist" in the first year of life?

Perceiving Speech Sounds:Learning phonemic contrasts in the native language •Phonemic contrast -smallest difference in sound that makes a difference in meaning -/P/at vs /B/at -/Z/it vs. /S/it •Different languages use different phonemic contrasts -Examples /r/ /l/ contrast in English, not Japanese -/k/eep and /k/ool contrast in Arabic, not in English •Babiesarebornwiththeabilitytodetectallphonemic contrasts used in all languages.... BUT Loss of phonemic discrimination Learning a native language means losing the ability to detect some phonemic contrasts not used in that language. •Universal baby: 0 - 6 months: -Infants have the ability to distinguish between all the speech contrasts used in all human languages. •Native language specialist 6 - 12 months -By the end of the first year, they become expert at phonemic distinctions in their native language, and lose the ability to hear distinctions not present in their native language

What are some factors that might account for individual differences between children in rate of vocabulary growth? Describe one study suggesting that language environments plays a role in individual differences in vocabulary growth

Possibilities: Child factors: -Memory -Learning ability -Auditory processing ability ...? --Environmental factors -Amount of language exposure -Variety of language...? Longstanding assumption: Differences reflect child factors. Size of vocabulary is actually an index of intelligence (at least by early childhood). STUDY: Huttenlocher et al. (1991) • Examined assumption that individual differences in language growth reflect child factors • Followed 22 mother-child pairs from 14-16 months to 26 months -Longitudinal, observed every 2 or 4 months -Recorded child and mother speech in normal activities •Estimated child vocabulary •Mother amount of speech •Mother variety of speech RESULTS: • Wide variation in amount that mothers talked • Mothers stable over time •About 20% of variability in vocabulary growth accounted for by amount of mothers language • Later studies showed •Low income associated with less talk •(about 1⁄2 the amount of middle-class samples) • It appears that differences in the language environment account for some differences in the rate of child vocabulary growth. • But what is one alternative interpretaJon of these results? genotype/ phenotype graphs = talkative parent = talkative child = rich language environment

Contrast a rich and lean interpretation of these social communicative behaviors.

RICH INTERPRETATION - Triadic engagement indicates awareness of another's mind. It involves attempting to influence another's mental states, or read their mental state. LEAN INTERPRETATION - Not so fast. Maybe you are just getting smarter about influencing others' behavior. if are strict psychologist not enough to convince that babies understand others' minds. •Dramatic increase in triadic engagement between 9 - 13 months •But how does this relate to understanding of other minds? -RICH INTERPRETATION - infants understand that others have mental states (e.g., that they perceive things) -LEAN INTERPRETATION - infants use others' gaze as signal something interes0ng is there; infants make eye-contact because it is a better way of getting their requests satisfied....no mental understanding.

What social communicative behaviors are impaired in autism?

Specific impairments in joint attention: Autism • Children with autism have impairments in exactly the social-communicative skills that typically develop between 9 and 13 months. • Children with autism are thought to have specific impairments in understanding others' mental states. • Prediction: If children with autism lack understanding of mental states, pointing and showing should be more impaired than requesting. • Requesting is more easily explained with lean interpretations. picture: have trouble showing object. Results • Children with autism show dramatically lower rates of joint attention behaviors, especially high-level joint attention behaviors. • They show about the same amount of requesting as matched controls. Conclusions •Children with autism may have specific impairments in understanding mental states. •The communicative behaviors that are MOST impaired in autism are exactly the behaviors that are thought to be most related to understanding mental states. (pointing, following points, showing) • Their social-communication behavior may tell us what is reasonable to attribute to infants using a "lean interpretation"

What depth cue do newborns use to distinguish between 2D and 3D objects?

Static monocular cues •Infants seem to begin with the assumption that there is a 3D world -Motion cues (as early as birth) -Sensitive to looming -Use motion parallax to detect difference between 3D and 2D •They get better at using cues to depth over time -Binocular cues (at 4 months) -Static monocular cues (at 7 months) •Study 1: Showed newborns 3D objects and 2D photos of the same things paired. -Infants strongly preferred 3D •Could be binocular disparity •Or motion parallax (as they move) •Study 3: -monocular presentation •Still preferred 3D, though not as much •Must be using motion parallax to detect 3D 3D object photo CONCLUSIONS • Newborns can distinguish 3D objects from 2D representations. • Newborns can use motion parallax (a kinetic cue) to detect depth

How did Baillargeon's findings from looking-time studies challenge Piaget's ideas about object permanence?

Study on 5 month olds understanding of object permanence when they would not reach for an object . They are surprised when screen rotates through object and shouldn't be able to do if object is still there. Other studies look in slightly different way in even infants as young as 2 1/2 months seemed to have some expectations that the objects still there even when they can't see it which blows Piaget's idea that they discover this by their actions because they are not doing too many actions of objects on that age.

How can grammatical cues be used to identify the meaning of new words?

The dax What do you know about "dax" ? daxing What do you know about "dax"? The dax (dax is probably an object) daxing (dax is probably an action) The dax Daxing Brown (1957) Can preschoolers make use of grammatical information in interpreting new words? Showed preschoolers (3&4 year-olds) a novel event: hands kneaded dough-like substance in a container VERB CONDITION "Look, there's sibbing!" NOUN CONDITION "Look, there's a sib" MASS NOUN CONDITION "Look, there's some sib! • 3 test pictures • same action, new container, new substance (CHOSEN BY VERB GROUP) • same container, new action, new substance • (CHOSEN BY NOUN GROUP) • same substance, new container, new action (CHOSEN BY MASS NOUN GROUP) • Children chose picture that matched grammatical info. •Later studies with younger children showed that long before they produce morphemes like "the" or "ing", they use these grammaJcal markers to identify the likely meanings of words.

What is perceptual narrowing? How does it apply to face perception? At what age does it appear to occur?

The perceptual narrowing hypothesis - with increased experience with certain types of faces, and a lack of contact with other types of faces, perceptual narrowing takes place. • increased discrimination and recognition of familiar face types and decreased discrimination and recognition of less familiar face types • Use it or lose it! •6-9 month olds -Specialize in processing faces like those they see most -Lose some ability to make discriminations in non- familiar faces (other race effect) -PERCEPTUAL NARROWING •Results -3-month-olds good at task regardless of race of face -6-month-olds good at Chinese and Caucasian, not African or Middle-Eastern -9-month-olds good only at Caucasian •A follow-up study looked at Chinese infants, and found a similar specializa-on for Chinese faces at the same ages (Kelly et al., 2009)

What is the conditioned head-turn procedure (used to determine whether infants detect phonemic contrasts)?

Training Infants hear speech sounds presented repeatedly -When the sound changes, a puppet appears to the side Test -Will the infant anticipate the puppet (turn their head) before the puppet appears? Example of a phonemic discrimination experiment •Babies from English speaking families are tested on 2 contrasts not present in English •One from Hindi (da, da) •One from Nthlakapmx (kha,kha) Learning the phonology of the native language 1.) Stress patterns In English, first syllable is usually stressed Baby, carrot, diaper 2.) Allowable sound combinations In English, certain sound combinations are not allowed at the beginning of words Nk, Kn,...

Describe one study showing that words can help infants form new categories

Waxman & Markow (1995) Does hearing a label facilitate forming a category? Easy categories: basic level •These are categories we most open refer to in everyday speech •They share similar overall shapes and functions •Examples: cat, dog, cow, car, truck, cup, fork,.. -Hard categories: superordinate level • Broader categories • More abstract similarities • More perceptual variety • Examples: Animal (includes cats, elephants, worms, fish...), Vehicle (bus, car, golf cart, plane....) •What type of category? •Chair -- basic •Utensil -- superordinate •Cup -- basic •Tree -- basic •Clothing -- superordinate •Machine -- superordinate •Expt. 1 & 2 •Conditions -Word "look, a car!" "Look what's here!" -No word "look what's here!" "Look what's here!" •During test, no words were presented to either group •For Basic level categories -All children showed preference for novel category item •For Superordinate level categories -Only children who heard labels preferred the novel category item Conclusion •Hearing a label when encountering the superordinate items prompted children to no;ce that they belonged to the same superordinate category.

What were the conclusions of Needham's "sticky mittens" study?

What happens if we artificially enhance infantsreaching ability? •323-month-olds -1⁄2 received enrichment -1⁄2 did not •Enrichment -Infants wore velcro mittens and had opportunity to interact with toys covered in velcro (blocks, rings, cubes) -Practiced at home, 10 mins per day for 2 weeks •Both groups returned to lab and had opportunity to explore interesting toys. (without mittens) •Coded: -Exploration: Looking, holding, mouthing -Prehension: swat with looking, swat without look •Mitten group: -explored more -Swatted more -Used more swats with looking •Conclusions: -Acting on objects increases attention to objects -Motor development linked to perceptual and cognitive development main message? experience with reaching is helpful for learning. before reach out they know things about the object

What is the still-face procedure? How do infants respond in this procedure? What do infants' responses demonstrate?

What might infants be learning in these face-to-face exchanges? Theorists (such as Tronick) propose some important foundations are being laid... -taking turns -expressing emotions -maintaining social exchanges -regulating emotions -sense of self as powerful The Still-Face Procedure demonstrates the significance of these interactions to the infant. Parent interacts normally Parent maintains a still face Parent interacts normally Infant behaviors in response to still face •Less positive affect •More negative affect •Gaze aversion •Distress •Postural change •Self-comforting behavior The still face procedure tells us that early interactions are emotionally significant for infants. Shows even from a very young age, infants really care about these social interactions they are really sensitive to when they are disrupted, they are meaningful to them, they are connected up to their emotions. Does not tell us much about what they know about people's minds.

What is the A not B error?

Won't ask too much on exam other than that it exists.

What are some characteristics of the one-word stage? (how long does it last, what types of words are learned, what types of errors occur)

• Comprehension precedes production by a lot • First words may be hard to identify • Very first words comprehended tend to be actions; fits with idea that first symbols are derived from action schemes • Early vocabulary quite similar across children • Holophrases - one word to express a whole sentence • Over-extension - using a word too broadly • Under-extension - using a word too narrowly • Over-extensions do not reflect different concepts •underextensions - use of a word more narrowly than is standard (e.g., dog only for German Shepherds) •Holophrases-use of single word to convey entire sentence (e.g., milk for "I want milk" or "I just spilled the milk") It lasts from the infant's first word to the time they have about 50 words in their productive vocabulary. This is around the time they start speaking 2-word combinations. Because the rate of learning varies a lot from child to child, this stage can be longer or short in individual children, (and depending on how generous you are about crediting them with first words), but it can last up to a year. The 50-word productive vocabulary mark is the thing to remember.

Conclusion for lang 2.2

• In the early stages of word learning, hearing words may help children develop new concepts that they didn't already have. • Sometimes they may already know the concept and just have to learn the word that goes with it. • But sometimes, they may not have the concept at all and hearing the word helps them to develop a new concept.

Summary of still-face procedure

• Infants are born prepared to interact -Prefer faces, imitate, respond to voices • Early face-to-face interactions are thought to provide important foundations for social understanding and sense of self -Turn taking, emotional regulation, self as powerful • The Still-face procedure is a demonstration of the significance of face-to-face interactions for infants as young as 2 months

What did Spelke find about 4 month olds ability to detect synchrony between visual and auditory events?

• Infants looked to the film that matched the soundtrack. • They even looked to the film that matched the tempo of the soundtrack (fast vs. slow) when the impact was out of synch with the film. • 3-month-olds can use simultaneity and tempo to match visual and auditory events. bouncing up and down a hear impact was synchronized or out of synch and they preferred synchronized - if neither was but one was fast or slow they still look at one that matched tempo so speed of temp was matching they can do. didn't know - synchronized two changing directions just as happy at top or bottom more so supporting constructivist view. • There is some evidence for intersensory integration at birth Vision and touch Vision and audition •May be based on reflex behavior •May be fragile at first • By 3 months, infants are quite good at matching visual and auditory events. • But they continue to refine the ability over time. They learn how particular sights/sounds/feels correspond.

Needham & Baillargeon (1997)

• Let's make it easier for these 4.5-month-olds! • Gave babies a brief exposure to either object alone • Now they can do it! -They are surprised when the objects move together • A brief exposure is enough to give 4.5 month-olds expectations about object boundaries. After 4 or so months they were surprised if they moved together because they thought they were separate. Showed them separately before hand with experience then they would find it surprising if they moved together.

Summary of childcare total

• Over 50% of children under 1 year are in child-care. • There is a shortage of available spots. • High quality care is especially difficult to find. • High quality care is expensive - unaffordable for many families. • Low-income families least likely to find high-quality care. • Child-care providers are under-compensated and turn-over is high. • A large national study found effects of child care to be small overall. • Quality of care has been related to compliance and problem behaviors and to language and cognitive development through adolescence. • Quantity of care has been related to behavior problems and impulsivity in adolescence

Summary of all motor development

• Themes in motor development: Increasing agency, prospectivity, flexibility, problem-solving • Postural control important: cephalocaudal trend •Average age of some milestones - Roll over (3 months) - Reach and contact toy (4 months) - Sit with support (5 months) - Sit independently (7 months) - Crawl (8 months) - Cruise (10 months) - Walk (12-15 months) - Run (18 months) • But, timing is highly variable •Age of milestones is affected by experience(e.g.,back-to-sleep). •Motor development is linked to cognitive and perceptual development -E.g., object exploration, depth perception •When adopting a new means of locomotion or new posture, all judgments need to be recalibrated (Adoph)

Other parental behaviors contributing to early vocabulary development

• Use of infant-directed speech while naming things • Use of repetition • Using combinations of pointing, showing, andlabeling • Highlighting words through isolating them "dog", or using repetitions "There's a dog. Look at the nice dog. Don't you like dogs?" • Shared book reading

SUMMARY OF SENSORIMOTOR STAGES

•0-1 MONTH (REFLEXES) •1-4 MONTHS (PRIMARY CIRC. REACTIONS) -Discover how to produce effects on own body -No object permanence •4-8 MONTHS (SECONDARY CIRC. REACTIONS) -Discover how to produce effects in world -Find partially hidden objects (big change how they interact with objects) •8-12 MONTHS (COORDINATION OF SECONDARY CIRC. REACTIONS) -Can combine 2 schemes to reach a goal •E.g., use a tool, cause an action at a distance, uncover a hiddenobject, push aside a curtain to reach something, etc. -Can find completely hidden object but makes A not B error •12 -18 MONTHS (TERTIARY CIRC. REACTIONS) -Discover new means to ends by chance -Active exploration of variations on cause-effect sequences -Can solve A not B, but not invisible displacement •18-24 MONTHS (MENTAL REPRESENTATION) -Insightful problem-solving (just by thinking about it) -Fully adult-like object permanence

What are the stages of babbling?

•0-2 months - Reflexive vocalization-Crying, hiccups, burps, sighs •2-4 months - cooing-Vowels, laughing •4-8 months -- Vocal play-Fricatives, growls, squeals -/g/, /k/, /m/, /n/, /p/, /b/, /d/ • 8 months Canonical babbling-Bababa dadada-Reduplicated syllables • 12 months Jargon babbling -Badiga-Notreduplicated -Native language intonation -Use intonation to make questions, statements, etc

How do researchers decide between "high level" and "low level" interpretations of looking time differences? lean & rich interpretation

•Looking time studies with infants involve a constant series of attempts to distinguish between low-level interpretations -E.g., infants' preferences based on simple features such as amount of contrast, density of features, symmetry, etc. •And high-level interpreta-ons-People, objects, depth, gaze-direc-on, etc. high level - adult like communication rich - know when someone is looking at them and making eye contact low level - maybe don't know about faces and eye contact is more symmetrical. to prove they showed upside down faces did not have preference so rule out symmetry. maybe they don't know much about eye contact - their way of perceiving face in symmetrical way. gave them more complicated faces even with eyes looking at them and tilted

What are the 6 substages of the sensorimotor stage? (know ages, object permanence understanding, means-end understanding)

•Object permanence - the understanding that objects persist, continue to exist when we cannot see them. •Why did Piaget think babies lacked this ability? -It had to do with failure to search for objects 1-4 months reach out and touch sound can learn and do it over and over they just know they can do something interesting 8-12 months understood turning on a light switch

What are oculomotor skills? What are some examples?

•Oculomotor skills - movements eyes make to bring objects into focus, explore objects, adjust for different distances •Oculomotor skills improve substantially in the first 2 months -A) scanning -B) accommodation -C) smooth pursuit of moving objects •Newborns are able to make saccades -Jerky eye-movements •Smooth pursuit (smooth tracking of moving object) develops around 7 weeks -accommodation bringing objects into focus and takes a few months to get good - more likely to look at interior of face than exterior in scanning can't track moving object until about 7 weeks. infants bad at scanning and accommodating.

How do symbols develop?

•One proposal, Werner & Kaplan, (1963) -Initially, they start as context-bound actions •E.g., smack lips when see a fish, wave when mom waves -Gradually, they become decontextualized •Less dependent on context -smack lips when think about fish •Less tied to actions •Represent more general concepts -represent fish in general, rather than one specific fish

What are the main conclusions from Adolph's veritable cliff experiments?

•Results -Infants accurately judged what they could reach insitting, but not crawling posture -Similar results for crawling to walking transition •Conclusion -Each new posture involves re-learning what issafe and possible.

Piaget's theory: What does it mean to say he was a stage theorist, and a constructivist? What are schemas? What is adaptation?

•Stages- Qualitative change -Invariant sequence Jean Piaget, 1896-1980 •Constructivism -Neither nativist (knowledge is innate) nor empiricist (knowledge comes from experience) -Knowledge is built by the child in an active process •Schemes -Basic element of knowledge -Start as reflexes, then action schemes -Finally become mental representation, around 18 months •Adaption -Schemes change through experience -Assimilation - taking in input in a way that is consistent with an exis,ng scheme. E.g., iden,fy something as graspable, suckable, as an example of a familiar category -Accommodation - change scheme as a result of experience showing that it is inadequate. E.g., change scheme for what gap can be crossed as a result of falling into gap, reorganize category as a result of new example - e.g., some birds don't fly

Summary of perception 1

•Theorists differ on whether infants should be able to perceive objects in a 3D world without experience -Constructivists - NO -Ecological theorists - YES •Recent studies show even newborns have some ability to perceive objects in 3D-Prefer 3D to 2D at birth •By 4 months, they more sophisticated - Distinguish possible from impossible wire-frame objects (shows 3D knowledge) - Gain the ability to use binocular disparity to detect depth - Can use shared motion with continuity cues to make assumptions about object unity (Kellman & Spelke)

SUMMARY of theory of mind

•Understanding beliefs thought to be the most difficult part of theory of mind • 3-year-olds make surprising errors, acting as if everyone knows what they know (Sally-Anne task, representational change task) • But 12-month-olds appear to understand- A) the difference between ignorance and knowledge- B) False beliefs! •Why the discrepancy? 2 views -Fundamental Change - infant system different from 3-year-olds' -Processing Demands - infants and older children have the samecompetence, but traditional FB tasks (Sally-Anne) are hard for other reasons

What is an overextension? Do infants make overextension because they have different categories from adults? Describe one study that provides evidence to answer this question

•overextensions - use of a word more broadly than is standard in adult language (e.g., dog for all animals). Do overextensions reflect confusion about word meanings? (Thompson & Chapman, 1977) •Children who overextended a particular word heard that word, with two pictures. They found: •Children chose correctly for many words they over-extended.

What are constraints on word meaning? What are some examples?

•whole object constraint - assume a word refers to a whole object, not its parts or properties •taxonomic constraint - assume a word refers to a category of like objects (not thematically related or otherwise related) •mutual exclusivity constraint - assume that a new word refers to an object for which you dont already have a word •Which interpretation would be eliminated by the taxonomic constraint? A. That's a rabbit. B. That's an ear. C. That's Harvey. D. That's an animal.