PSYCH 460 UNIT 3
Biases in temperment studies
"social/outgoing is not the "best" temperament" - even the wording of "easy" is biased and does not - introverts can be reflective of people who are more focused, goal oriented, able to act on convictions, etc.
Gender & intelligence/ academic achievement
Main takeaway: if there is even an effect between genders on intelligence, Most gender effect sizes are small But culturally we tend to think that there is a bigger difference between genders with respect to intelligence
oral stage
the first psychosexual stage, in which experience centers on the pleasures and frustrations associated with the mouth, sucking, and being fed
Attachment
the positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual
Gender schema theory
the theory that children learn from their cultures a concept of what it means to be male and female and that they adjust their behavior accordingly • Knowledge framework about gender • Organizes info based on gender - How it works: we develop this framework (flow chate sort of) if we encounter something that does not conform our culturally gender informed schema, it is avoided • Gender schema can distort memory EXAMPLE: for activities that were not gender conforming (girls boxing) the kids were more likely to mis-remember who was doing it - they were better at remember the gender doing the role/ action that was gender conforming
What do we already know about development of the self in infancy?
things like: - theory of mind - intention actions/ goal oriented actions - following gaze - egocentrism
Infant self-recognition: Rouge test
• 3-4 mo.: little interest • 10 mo.: reach for reflection •18-24 mo.: reach for mark • 2 y.o.: recognize self in photos varies a bit among individuals
Parenting styles across cultures
• Across cultures, parents value warmth and positive discipline • For Chinese parents/children, authoritarian parenting --> more external problems than authoritative parenting (Zhou et al 2008) • But, authoritarian parenting in Chinese culture may only be harmful if it is coercive/punitive/hostile
Identity & the self
• Adolescence is an important time for the development of identity - primary period for foraging and figuring out identity • The family & social environment affect development of identity - not direct result of but rather, highly informed by • Higher levels of ethnic & racial identity may lead to higher self-esteem • Sexual identity emerges in adolescence Multiethnic identity: student documentary from a Texas high school - multiracial population is increasing 3 times faster than the overall population - multiraciality is not compatible with societies tendencies for categorization (stereotypes)
Fostering achievement
• Attribution retraining: - Failures due to unstable causes - Incremental theory: growth through experience •Dweck: "The mind is a muscle" -Growth mindset vs. Fixed mindset - Dwek study: saw that those with a growth mindset their grades increased over time and those with fixed mindsets had decreasing grades - later,: those taught the growth mindset had higher grades by the end of the year compared to those taught about fixed mindset - It changed their attitudes and caused their motivation to increase.
Bian et al 2017
• Do children endorse the "brilliance = males" stereotype? Studies 1 & 2: • children heard story about a person who was "really, really smart" • Children guessed who the story was about (a man or a woman) • children also heard story about a person who was "really, really nice" - predicted they would find an "own gender bias" for the really nice condition FINDINGS: - found a bias that own gender was nice (a little abov 50%) - Brilliance: 5 yo (both B & G) 75% said own gender - Brilliance: 6&7 yo boys maintained own gender bias 75% of time and girls are 50/50 for saying boy vs girl - gender bias disapeared and was replaced by a male stereotype STUDY 1 & 2 CONCLUSION: children do learn something about what they think is smart and not smart Studies 3 & 4: Do children's gendered beliefs about brilliance shape their interests? • two games, one for "children who are really, really smart," the other for "children who try really, really hard" • children then asked about their interest in the games FINDINGS: - boys were more interested in playing the smart game - girls were not interested in playing the smart game - boys and girls were equal in preference for playing the smart game - 5yo: no gender difference for smart game - 6 and older: difference in gender preference for smart game CONCLUSION: • stereotyped beliefs mediate the relationship between children's gender and their interest in the game • "Many children assimilate the idea that brilliance is a male quality at a young age. This stereotype begins to shape children's interests as soon as it is acquired"
How to Measure self recognition?
• Gallup (1970): Chimps in mirror - 1st, threatened - 2nd, explored self/ play with the mirror image - older chimps know it is one's self • Mark/Rouge test: an important indicator of an individual looking into a mirror as a measure of self-recognition
Questions about gender
• How does gender awareness and identity develop? • What factors influence gender identity? • How does gender relate to social, linguistic, and academic skills?
Keller (2018) Attachment styles across cultures
• In traditional farming communities, strangers are not frequent • In these cultures, stranger anxiety is not common • children may be socialized to express neutral emotions • strange situation task may not be valid across cultures • Children may have multiple social partners, not a single adult • Dyadic interactions may not be the norm • Parents may primarily instruct, rather than respond to the child
Post-Institutionalized Children:International adoption studies
• Lack physical and emotional contact with a primary caregiver • Problems establishing social bonds • Lack of appropriate stranger wariness
Gender milestones in PRESCHOOL (2-5 years)
• Learning gender •Gender identity by 2.5 years: Categorize self •Gender stability by 3: Gender same over time, but superficial (wearing skirts vs not wearing skirts) •Gender constancy by 5-6 years: Gender invariant (knows it isnt just about what people wear) •Trans preschoolers? Fast & Olsen (2018) • Less likely to view gender as stable for self/others • So are their (cisgender) sibs • In other ways, very similar to cis peers • Preferences, stereotypes, etc. - Video:
Gender milestones in Infancy
• Learning gender categories • 6 mo: distinguish btw. female & male voices • 9-11 mo: distinguish btw. male & female faces - this hearing distinction emerges earlier because hearing development happens in the whomb - not clear if this is perceptual (distinctions between facial differences) or conceptual (abstract conceptions)
Factors Affecting Parenting Style: SES
• Lower-SES parents: more likely to be authoritarian & punitive • Higher-SES parents: more likely to be accepting & democratic •An authoritarian style may be adaptive to protect kids in unsafe living conditions •Important not to be classist or judgmental • Economic stress: decreases quality of parenting ~ 21% of USA kids live in poverty ~ 43% of USA kids live in low-income families • Marital status • Depression • Substance abuse •multiple risk model • Moderated by supportive relationships
Behaviorist View
• Mother fills primary needs (hunger, thirst, pain) • Infant's closeness to mother is reinforced • Mother becomes associated with pleasure --------------> attachment -> love
Olson et al. (2017): gender socialization between trans and cis kids in middle childhood
• Olson et al. (2017): Trans kids(6-8 y.o.), their siblings, & matched cis controls • Trans kids all socially transitioned • Results: Trans kids & cis sibs < gender stereotyping than controls -more likely to befriend gender non-conformers •Related study: No increased risk of depression & anxiety for trans kids if supported by family
What determines attachment style?
• Opportunity to establish close relationship •Sensitive Caregiving: prompt, consistent, appropriate responses • Infant characteristics (temperament) • Family Circumstances • Epigenetics • Twin studies: no evidence that attachment styles are heritable!
What factors cause Variation in parenting styles
• Parent personality, mental health • Context/Time • For different kids in the same family • Effects of Temperament • Culture/SES
Factors of gender socialization in middle childhood
• Parents • Peers: punish non-conformity • Schools: Teachers' differential treatment • Media • Books: stereotyped gender roles • "New media" may be more stereotyped than "old media" (video games vs books/ old games) • Gender roles more rigid for boys than girls
Real-world Ramifications of mindsets and concept of self
• Praising/criticism based on effort --> incremental model & mastery orientation - you worked so hard • Praise/criticism based on traits --> entity model & helpless orientation - you did this because you are smart
Role of nurture in temperment
• Stability only modest • influenced by stability of environment - was there a radical shift in context - what changes in family and friends happen early on • Temperament alters environment: Self-fulfilling prophesies • N+N interaction - a child who is more outgoing and expressive of their interests can lead to them being put into certain contexts more often, thus nurturing a certain type of temperment
Posada et al 2013: Attachment styles across cultures
• Studied children and parents in Canada, Colombia, France, Italy, Japan, Peru, Portugal, Taiwan & US • Observation: do children use their mother as a secure base? • Smooth Interactions With Mother • Proximity to Mother • Physical Contact With Mother • Interactions With Other Adults FINDING found similar distributions across all cultures and shows that security attachment occurs relatively regularly across cultures
Moral Reasoning- Piaget & Kohlberg
• Tied to cognitive development • Invariant/Discrete Stages • Tested with vignettes and moral dilemmas • Tested mostly boys
Baumrind 1991
• US middle SES children & parents were studied at three time points: • children age 4 • children age 10 • children age 15 • Extensive observation, assessment & interviews at each time point
Anxiety disorders
• difficulty regulating fear and worry • separation anxiety • at any given time, 3% of US children aged 3-17 years have an anxiety disorder • nurture/nature: both genetic and family/environmental influences
Measuring temperament through implicit measures
• heart rate • EEG • cortisol limitations: questionnaires can be vague, interpreted differently, be hard to judge for parents with only one kid, and can be subject to bias or "good participant effect" implicit measures can be affected by children's physiological reactions to new and possibly scary lab settings and meeting new people
Prosociality: nature/nurture interaction
• reports of prosocial behavior: MZ > DZ twins • temperament -> prosociality • parents can: • model prosocial behavior • scaffold prosocial behavior • be constructive and supportive
Spanking
• spanking doesn't improve child behavior • spanking puts children at risk for negative outcomes • risk for negative outcomes is the same across cultures
Negative Emotions - Anger and/or sadness
•2 months — visible facial expression matches situation. •But adults cannot differentiate toddlers' anger, sadness, distress, or pain (without context). •It is not until age 2 years that adults can easily differentiate anger.
Negative Emotions - Fear and/or distress
•7-8 months —fear of novelty or unfamiliarity •Stranger wariness •Separation anxiety: found to be culturally universal •Stranger wariness: •First clear signs around 6-7 months, when unfamiliar people no longer provide comfort/pleasure. •Fear of strangers intensifies and lasts until about age 2 But child "fear" is often fear-sad or fear-mad
Dimensions of temperament (Rothbart)
•Attributes (p. 375): •fear: adjustment to new situations •distress at limitations: anger, frustration •attention span •activity level: amount of movement •smiling & laughter •Measured through parental questionnaire
Why does separation anxiety start?
•Better recall memory (familiar vs. new) •Better categorization (trustworthy vs. unknown) •Greater awareness of needs •Increased ability to signal needs and preferences
emotions
•Communicate our internal state to others - essential for human interaction - i.e. theory of mind •Move us to action, guide our actions - motivation and interpretation •Allow us to understand others - emerges early in infancy/ development
are emotions Evolutionarily determined (Nature)?
•Each emotion is a direct readout from the brain. - a certain brain state directly causes a specific emotion •Babies express emotions before they could be taught them. - they show emotions very early and naturally •Young children around the world produce similar emotion expressions. - evidence of innate (natural) emotions
Temperament Types
•Easy (40%):predictable, positive, adaptable •Difficult (10%):active, irritable, unpredictable •Slow-to-warm-up (15%):inactive, moody, slow to adapt •Other 35%?
Mental disorders (those involving internal emotional states)
•Equifinality: different factors can each lead to the same mental disorder •Multifinality: certain risk factors do not always lead to a disorder there is no easy linkage between genetics and mental disorders
different phases of gender reinforcement in preschool
•Gender socialization • Parents encourage gender-typed activities • Family variations (1) Channeling (shaping): parents create a gendered world for the child (2) Differential treatment: being more angy at a girl playing in mud than a boy (3) Direct instruction: "Boys don't cry." - gender essentialist statements (4) Modeling: Parents' gendered behavior e.g., division of household labor
gender milestones in adolescence
•Gender-role intensification - Tweens: more pressure for girls -> feminine, boys ---------> masculine - Currently: more gender role flexibility • Dating • Partially reverses gender segregation • Emphasis on heterosexuality • Reinforces (historic) gender roles • Femininity, appearance for girls • Masculinity, athletics for boys
reasons for why emotions are socially constructed (nurture)?
•Infants' emotions are not distinct from each other. •Experiences, contexts, and cultural knowledge shape our understanding of emotions.
Negative Emotions - Generalized distress
•Newborns — hunger, pain, overstimulation. •Distress is useful and easy for adults to recognize.
Infants experience two general emotions:
•Positive emotions •Negative emotions
Timeline for attachment
•Pre-Attachment (0-6 weeks): need close contact •Attachment in the making (to 6-8 mo.) • Respond more to caregivers •Clear-cut Attachment (to 1.5 years) • caregivers as secure base •Reciprocal relationships (1.5 years ->) • partnership with caregivers •internal working model of attachment
Attachment types: Ainsworth
•Secure(65%): caregiver as secure base, upset when s/he leaves, recover quickly •Insecure/Resistant(10%): don't explore, upset when mom leaves, ambivalent after return, anxious •Insecure/Avoidant(15%): little distress when mom leaves, ignore after return •Disorganized/disoriented (15%): insecure, confused, absence of pattern
Measuring Temperament
•Thomas & Chess:1950s • parent questionnaires, longitudinal • Asked parents to provide detailed descriptions of children's behaviors • Identified behavioral traits • e.g., mood, adaptability, activity level
authorative parenting
Supportive + Demanding A parenting style that encourages the child to be independent but that still places limits and controls on behavior. Parents: Show love and warmth, sensitive to child's needs BUT enforce limits on appropriate behavior. Kids: High in social/academic competence Low in problem behaviorAuthoritative
permissive parenting
Supportive + UNdemanding A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior. Parents: Indulgent, resist exerting control in favor of creativity, praise, warmth Kids: Impulsive -> lower grades Teens: more school misconduct & drug use
culture as evidence for emotions being nurture/ learned
- cultural differences in neuances: american smile vs japanese smile - a study with Chinese peopel in china, in the us, mixed chinese and american, and non-asian americans found that americans (non-asians) were better at identifying emotions from americans Elfenbein & Ambady, 2003 - culture matters - People recognize expressions of their own cultural groups better than other cultural groups.
Middle Childhood Gender segregation
- we see clear and cross cultural displays of differences in how boys and girls play - however, this is a bit of a Chicken and Egg paradox - does gender segregation --> toy/ game preference or does toys/ game preference --> gender segregation?
Self concept in childhood
(1)Categorical (4-7 years): - brown eyes, play baseball, Catholic, happy (2) Comparative (8-11 years) - bigger than others, good at school, upset easily - start using both external and internal attributes (3) Interpersonal implications(12-15 years) - "I'm very shy, so I don't have many friends" "I understand people, so they tell me their problems" - start to use more complex theories of interaction to others and to self as a result of these attributes Based on North American children and these milestones can change according to development and societal use of things like individuality or child-directed speach
anal stage
(18-36 months) pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with demands for control
other research evidence that emotions are natural
- blind and sighted athletes who just lost both have similar emotional expressions - most comparisons between blind and sighted people show similarities in expressions - Accuracy in Recognizing Vocal Emotion Consistent Across Age
three stages of emotional development
1. 1-6 months: emotionally undeveloped but can cry and use other indications like excitement and social smiles - 4 mo: laugh and early anger - 6 mo: smile if mother smiles 2. 6 - 12 mo: can have more distinct emotional expressions, have mixed emotions, more extreme positive and negative emotions, recognize theirselves in mirror, can have unique emotioal traits 3. 12-24: jelously, pride, social emotions at the behavior of others, tempertantrums, guilt, comfort objects, respond to other emotions fully after this people continue to develop emotions, traits, and emotional maturity
Freud's Psychosexual Stages
1. Oral Stage: 2. Anal Stage 3. Phallic Stage 4. Latency Stage 5. Genital Stage
Piaget: Autonomous Morality stage (10+)
10 years and older- children view rules as flexible socially agreed on principles that can be revised to suit the well of the majority. - Child who broke 1 glass is naughtier • Intentions > consequences • Cooperation and Equality • Rules are alterable
Positive emotions - Laughter
3-4 m.o. laugh when engaged 1 y.o . laugh at the unexpected 2 y.o . enjoy making others laugh
latency stage
6-puberty, dormant sexual feelings,
What is emotion?
A combination of physiological and cognitive responses to thoughts or experiences: •Neural responses •Physiological factors (excitement/ adrenaline) •Subjective feelings (joy, love, sorrow) •Emotional expressions (facial movements) •The desire to take actions (Textbook pp. 354)
Depression
A prolonged feeling of helplessness, hopelessness, and sadness • involves a sad or irritable mood along with physical and cognitive changes that interfere with daily life • At any given time, 2% of US children aged 3-17 years have depression • Transitions into adolescence and adulthood: risk of depression increases • Nurture/nature: both genetic and family/environmental influences • Girls are more likely than boys to develop depression
phalic stage (3-6 years)
According to Freud, the third psychosexual stage in which gratification is focused on the genitals
Gender in Sweden
Advertisements include boys and girls using the same toys, doing the same activities, and using the same colors. Shutts et al (2017) Gender-neutral Swedish preschool Gender Neutral School Policies: - Avoid gendered language as much as possible - Modify stories and songs to counteract traditional gender roles & family structures - Avoid behaviors traditionally directed at one gender Typical Schools: - Same neighborhood & similar demographics - But: No school-specific policies about gender TEST: - shown pictures of black boy and girl and white boy and girl - asked "who do you want to be your friend? - non-gender school kids showed more open to unfamiliar other-gender people - asked who was more likely to wear the dress between boy and girl - non-gender school kids showed less gender stereotyping EFFECTS OF PEDAGOGY TAKEHOME MESSAGES: • Hard to avoid encoding gender - gender is undeniably real and has been part of the evolution • Socialization affects how gender info is used - however, it is not innate and fixed
Attachment styles across cultures: active debate
Attachment to mother and/or other primary caregivers is the first relationship formed Sets the stage for socioemotional development Has lasting effects on children's socialability
what these parenting styles look like: 3-year-old grabs a toy from her friend
Authoritarian: Demand that child return the toy immediately. Permissive: Chooses not to intervene, and believes that child should be able to express herself; may also rationalize that her child was the rightful owner of the toy to begin with Uninvolved: Makes no attempt to rationalize or justify the behavior, or intervene. Authoritative: Responds sensitively, but firmly: "I understand you would also like to play with the toy." But also enforces limits: "Your friend is playing with this toy now. Perhaps in a few minutes, you can take a turn."
Harlow's conclusions
Biological needs such as hunger and thirst are secondary for monkeys in terms of the formation of attachment "the primary function of nursing as an affectional variable is that of ensuring frequent and intimate contact of the infant with the mother. Certainly, man cannot live by milk alone"
Altruistic helping, 18 m.o. (Warneken & Tomasello, 2006)
Experimental: help struggling adult Control: help non-struggling adult Exp > Control
Prosociality
Focusing on others' needs and interests by helping or cooperating with individuals or groups based on social norms and expectations. • Altruism • Sharing • Empathy
Harlow (1906-1981)
Hypothesized: Contact comfort (closeness, affection) may be as important as primary needs
Why did Harlow have his hypothesis? Harlow's monkey studies (1950s)
In Early studies monkeys raised by humans without contact with their mother, cages lined with cloth diapers, led to infant monkeys became attached to diapers • baby monkeys in isolation • wire & cloth surrogate moms • received milk from only one • Preference for cloth mom findings: • Poor outcomes: • Avoid other monkeys • Abuse own babies • Therapy: younger 'normal' peers!
Achievement attributions (AA)
Interpreting successes/failures Locus of causality: what was the cause of this success or failure 2 Locus of Causality factors:Internal VS external & Stable vs unstable Internal VS external: was this something that I alone affected or was it something that is due to factors beyond myself as an individual - player vs team Stable vs Unstable: is it something that is constant or does this change from trial to trial - rules vs referee Internal stable cause: ability internal unstable: effort External stable: task difficulty external unstable: luck profiles: using external reasons often does not lead to high motivation
Parenting styles across cultures
Lansford et al 2018 • 12 cultural groups in 9 countries (China, Colombia, Italy, Jordan, Kenya, Philippines, Sweden, Thailand and US) • 1300 kids age 10 & 12 yrs • 5 aspects of parenting: expectations about family obligations, monitoring, psychological control, behavioral control, warmth/affection • 5 aspects of youth adjustment: social competence, prosocial behavior, academic achievement, externalizing behavior, internalizing behavior more social competence was predicted by: • greater maternal expectations regarding children's family obligations • less maternal monitoring • less maternal behavioral control • more maternal warmth more prosocial behavior was predicted by: • greater maternal expectations regarding children's family obligations • less mother-reported behavioral control • more maternal warmth better academic achievement was predicted by: • less maternal monitoring • less child-reported psychological control by parents • more paternal warmth "we found little evidence for between-culture differences in links between parenting and youth adjustment" ... "the association between parenting and youth adjustment was strengthened when parenting beliefs and behaviors were culturally normative"
Daycare & attachment
NICHD study • 15 & 36 mos in daycare as likely to be securely attached • High quality daycare can lead to better parental attachment • Daycare quality critical
Positive emotions - Smiles
Newborns: Smile in REM sleep 3-8 weeks: Touch, high-pitched voices 2-3 months: Social smiles 7 months: Mastery universality: smiling is in every culture Early smiles may be reflexive: 7-month-old Infants will smile when they can instrumentally control movement or onset of music.
EXAMPLE of Kohlbergs's stage reasoning: Should Edward Snowden have leaked NSA documents to the public?
Preconventional Reasoning: Avoiding punishment /What's in it for me? Conventional Reasoning: Being nice/Maintaining social order Postconventional Reasoning: What makes a good society? /Universal Principles
Genetic influences
Studies of twins, family members, and adopted children together support the idea that there is a significant genetic contribution to intelligence. • Temperament seen very young • Behavior genetics • Twins: MZ are more similar than DZ (Lemery-Chalfant et al. 2013)
Sex vs. gender
Sex is the biological distinction between females and males, whereas gender is the personal traits and social positions that members of a society attach to being a female or male.
Temperament stability evidence
Stability of Temperament: •Behavioral inhibition: High in fearful distress • Kagan: 4-m.o. (fussing, arousal) • extreme cases still shy at 7.5 years! • But, temperament of children is more stable than temperament of infants • Some aspects of temperament may not emerge until adolescence - not completely stable becuase some things that inform temperament are part of experience
Measuring Attachment: Ainsworth
Strange Situation paradigm (1- to 2-year olds) • interaction, stranger wariness, reunion
Psychoanalytic theories
Theories that describe development as primarily unconscious and heavily colored by emotion. Behavior is merely a surface characteristic, and the symbolic workings of the mind have to be analyzed to understand behavior. Early experiences with parents are emphasized. - earliest developmental theories so lack empirical evidence - observational and theoretical
Social domain theory
Theory that identifies different domains of social knowledge and reasoning, including moral, social conventional, and personal domains. These domains arise from children's and adolescents' attempts to understand and deal with different forms of social experience. • change in moral reasoning is gradual, not discrete stages • children's judgments depend on domain: • moral domain • societal domain • personal domain • 3 yr-olds think that moral transgressions are worse than societal transgressions
authoritarian parenting
UNsupportive + Demanding style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child Parents: Demand complete obedience. No consideration of child's viewpoint Kids: Tend to be unhappy/unfriendly Teens: Low in social/academic competence
uninvolved parenting
Unsupportive + Undemanding Style of parenting that provides neither warmth nor control and that minimizes the amount of time parents spend with children Parents: Little affection or consistent responses to needs; fail to set limits or expectations. Infants & toddlers -> attachment problems Kids-> poor peer relationships Teens -> antisocial behavior, poor self-regulation, substance abuse, low academic/social competence
Early moral reasoning:Instrumental helping
Vaish et al: 3 yr-olds saw an actor who... • Was harmful • Tried (but failed) to be harmful • Was accidentally harmful • Was helpful •DV: Who did kids help? •Intentions > Outcomes! - found the opposite of what Kohlberg and Piaget positied about kids not caring about intention TAKEAWAY: Moral reasoning does change with age but...children show an early ability to think about intentions
Piaget- Heteronomous Stage (4- 8 yrs)
WHo is naughtier? the boy who accidently broke 15 glasses without knowing it or the boy who purposefully broke 1? - Boy who broke 15 cups is naughtier • Consequences > Intentions • Right and wrong • Rules can't be changed
Display rules
When emotions should be expressed, hidden or suppressed in a given context. - when is it "okay" to cry? Pamela Cole (1986)"Disappointing Gift" Study
Gender & genetics
Y chromosome: BIOLOGICAL MALE increased production of androgen hormones formation of male reproductive structures & genitalia intersex conditions: person of one genetic sex develops the sexual structures associated with the other genetic sex
Achievement motivation
a desire for significant accomplishment: for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard •Willingness to strive - Joy in mastery (< 2 y.o.)(internal and not social) - Approval seeking (2-3): depends on others (social) - Use of own standards / matching one's self-concept(3+) • pride & shame (secondary emotions)
Gender fluidity
a flexible range of gender expression, which can change day-to-day and allows for less restrictive and stereotypical gender expectations
secure attachment
a relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver
Mark/Rouge Test
a researcher marks a childs cheek then the kid moves the kid infront of a mirror and they will identify the mark by age 2 more than half of all children recognize themselves but eventually all children do Chimps: when put through the same "mark" test, all great apes eventually pass the test by certain ages. Only 8 species pass this test: all great apes, humans, dolphins, elephants, magpie birds. elephant stages: 1. social behavior 2. test behavior 3. novel exploratory/ inspection behavior 4. passing the Mark test
Altruistic (Prosocial) Behavior
actions that benefit another person without any expected reward for the self 18-72 hours post-natal: Empathic crying 2nd year: helping behaviors 3rd year: show verbal & facial concern
Kohlberg postconventional morality stage
adolescence and beyond; actions reflect belief in basic rights and self-defined ethical principles Stage 5: Social Contract/Utilitarian - ("the greater good") - What makes for a good society? Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles (Adherence to Justice, rights, equality, etc) - Law aside, what is the right thing to do?
Kohlberg: Conventional
early adolescence: Conscience or an internal set of standards becomes important. Rules are important and must be followed to please other people and "be good". 7 years - 11 years Stage 3: "Good girl/nice boy" - What is the nice thing to do? Stage 4: Law and order - How do I maintain social order?
psychoanalytic theory
attempts to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behavior
still face experiment
caregiver is advised to look blankly at their child to see how their child reacts; shows an infants attachment to them - babies EXPECT emotions - babies become extremely distressed in different ways and use all they can to get their parents to react emotionally again
Gender differences
differences in: • Aggressive behavior • Toy & game preferences
Social comparison
evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others • Increases around 8-9 years Lapan 2017: social evaluation • Kids completed Ravens Progressive Matrices: Spatial/ pattern recognition IQ test • Kids told that they got 9 stars; "Casey" got 11 stars • Given either Positive or negative info about Casey: e.g. "Casey is/ isnt very smart. Casey does/ dosen't know lots of things and does very well in school" Asked: "How do you feel about how you did?" "How well did you do?" FINDINGS: 5-6-year-olds showed no effect regarding positive/ negative and actually felt better in the negative condition 9-10-year-olds in the negative felt much worse about themself than kids in the POS condition SAME FOR BOTH QUESTIONS CONCLUSION: Social comparison affects 9 yr olds but not 5 yr olds. use social comparison to drive their concept of self. Why?: - social hierarchy becomes more prevalent - school teaches them the idea of success - want to fulfill expectations - learn how to reference the success of others
How do we interpret emotions?
even as adults we still use a lot of context and sometimes get interpretations wrong.
Stapel (2017): 18-mos. show enhanced EEG response to their own face
evidence that recognizing one's face in a photo may be younger than 2 years. they measured brain signals when they showed babies pictures of others then themselves and found more responsive outcome in EEG at only 18 mo.
Self-esteem
how much you value, respect, and feel confident about yourself both generally and in particular domains • Parental responsiveness & support predicts higher child self-esteem • In later childhood, peer feedback plays a strong role in shaping self-esteem
Self recognition
identification of the self as a physically unique being and recognition in the mirror or a photo.
How do children understand others' emotions?
in the case of the visual cliff study: - 8 to 12 months: Children can use their parents' facial, gestural, or vocal cues to deal with novel, ambiguous, or possibly threatening situations. - before this they have little ability to assess whats happening in the situation - infants move back when their caregiver looks fearful or sad at the cliff and will cross the edge when their mother smiles and looks happy
Bowlby: Attachment Theory
infants and caregivers are biologically predisposed to form attachments • Attachment: safety mechanism for exploring • Evolutionarily adaptive •Caregiver = secure base
Ruba & Pollak (2020)
interest: how the ability to identify emotions on another person's face develops and what the effects are of covering a face with a mask What was the study design & procedure? - conditions: mask condition, sunglasses condition, control - tested emotions: anger, fear, sadness - looked at age - procedure: started by seeing a blurred image and every 3 seconds it became less and less blurred and then they were asked to say what expression it was from different emotional options What were the main results? - children infer emotions best with no coverage and inferred emotions similarly accurately with either mask or shades - sadness was the easiest, then anger than fear with no coverage - children inferred sadness from the mouth alone by age 5 - both types of coverage interfered their interpretations - the emotional expression with most variance was fear - for sadness, children were negatively affected by masks and shades and no coverage had similar identifications. - TAKEAWAY: although there are some subtle differences, there is no real significant difference between shades and masks' effects on children's emotional detection. Thus, the health benefits far outweigh the minute emotional detriment.
Kohlberg Preconventional
obey in order to avoid punishment or get reward - in the case of stealing medicine in order to save the life of your wife, someone with this morality would say ... no, I don't want to get in trouble Stage 1: Obedience/Punishment Avoidance - How do I avoid punishment? Stage 2: Self-Interest - What's in it for me?
What is temperament?
one's unique Style of responding to the environment - tends to be relatively stable throughout life - a fundamental cpmponent of one's personality
Charles Darwin take on emotions
proponent of emotions being innate - saw similar emotional facial expressions between humans and animals - there is a certain basic vocabulary of emotions that are evolutionary and can be read across all cultures
Freud
psychoanalytic theory - focused on issues without physical or clear cause - children are motivated to satisfy basic sexual desires
Are babies' emotions discrete?
seeing how a baby can rapidly change emotional expressions, can we infer that infants expierence emotions in these segregated discrete ways?
Genital Stage (puberty on)
sexual feelings re-emerge and are oriented toward others
Baumrind's Parenting Styles
split between two dimensions each with two types 1. Supportive (parent is accepting and child centered) VS unsupportive (parent is rejecting and parent-centered) 2. Demanding (Expects much of child) VS Undemanding (Expects little of child)
