psych 461 exam 2

public law 93-112

"bill of rights" for individuals w disabilities- outlawed discrimination on basis of disability

Aptitude versus achievement tests (the Jangle Fallacy)

"tests are purely apt or achiev" BUT THEY ARE NOT, THERE IS NO SUCH THING, jangle fallacy refers to what many consider to be a false distinction between aptitude and achievement tests, they sound like they are measuring different things but they really are not, the more important distinction is what they are used for

Choice reaction time

-.30 to -.50 (r2 = .09 - .25)

Inspection time

-.30 to -.55 (r2 = .09 to .30) 90 % accuracy

5 Domains of VABS

1. Communication (receptive, expressive, written), 2. Daily Living Skills (personal, domestic, community), 3. Socialization (interpersonal relationships, play and leisure time, coping skills), 4. Motor Skills (fine, gross), Each domain has sub-domains, 5. Maladaptive Behavior Domain - 5 years+, Add scales 1-4 The Adaptive Behavior Composite (ABC), Scales use standard scores: means = 100; SD = 15

Three areas of adaptive functioning

1. Conceptual (academic) skills—language and literacy; money, time, and number concepts; competence in memory, language, reading, writing, 2. Social skills—interpersonal skills, social responsibility, self-esteem, gullibility, naïveté (i.e., wariness), social problem solving, and the ability to follow rules, obey laws, and avoid being victimized, 3. Practical skills—activities of daily living (personal care), occupational skills, healthcare, travel/transportation, schedules/routines, safety, use of money, use of the telephone

Intellectual Disability is defined by three criteria

1. Deficits in intellectual functioning (in areas such as reasoning, problem solving, academic learning,...) - usually determined by IQ score 2 SDs below the mean (accounting for margin of error, e.g., 70 +/- 5) and clinical assessment, 2. Deficits in adaptive functioning (as determined by clinical assessment and individualized testing, e.g., Vineland), 3. Onset during the developmental period (e.g., prior to 18th birthday)

3 Versions of VABS

1. Interview Edition, Survey form, 297 items assessing general adaptive behavior, Administered to parents or caregivers, 2. Interview Edition, Expanded form, 577 items - more comprehensive than Interview Edition, 3. Classroom Edition, 244 items assessing adaptive behavior in the classroom, Administered to teachers

20. Weschler scores account for how much variability in college grades

15-20%

14. WISC Standardization sample

2200 cases (200 in each of 11 age groups from 6:0 to 16:11 years), 100 girls and 100 boys in each group, race/ethnicity matched to census, stratified by parent education

19. Weschler scores account for how much variability in elementary and high school grades

25-50%

Q. Bottom line on bias and fairness

tests have mostly found to not be biased, but many are believed to be unfair

Contextual (Practical) intelligence types (3)

Adaption- developing skills required to succeed in ones particular environment often culture specific, shaping- chsnging the environment in some way so that it better fits our needs (teacher makes crazy class raise hands to speak), selection- niche finding, leaving an environment and selecting a diff environment that is a good fit for our particular talents and needs, quiz kids of 1950s- those who found occupations highly suited to their extraordinary abilities and interests were highly accomplished as adults

Binet & Simon

Binet- the father of IQ testing, Binet-simon test intended as classification (no interest in measuring innate ability), Binet-simon very VERBAL,

Deviation IQ

used to achieve IQ constancy over time- IQ = actual/obtained score over expected (mean) score for a person this age

H. content validity bias

Can result from differential opportunities to learn, Responses may be different in varying cultures and scoring is based on one culture, Wording is unfamiliar to specific cultures & test takers don't understand the questions, Bias in Content validity is the most common criticism of IQ tests according to your text, there's little to no evidence that today's tests are biased in terms of content validity

6. Culture Fair Intelligence Test (CFIT)

Cattell, Type: Nonverbal group intelligence test, Purpose: Novel situations used to assess: Fluid intelligence (gf), Analytical reasoning, Abstract reasoning, Theory- Cattell expanded Spearman's g factor into crystallized (gc) vs. fluid intelligence (gf), Theory- CFIT designed to measure gf with the intent to create a "culture free" instrument (but it was clear that this goal could not be met, so goal was modified to create a "culture fair" test), Utility: screening test of intelligence- estimates intelligence in minority populations, Scores: Yields IQ standard scores, Mean = 100, SD = 16, Reliability: Test-retest, .70 - .80; Internal consistency, .60s - .90s, Validity: Considered a valid measure of intelligence, but there are better options, Concurrent validity with other intelligence tests (average .70 -.80, with some as low as .45) NOTE: Limited norms available, norms are out of date (i.e., the CFIT is in need of revision), end note- ethnic differences are still present on the CFIT

5. Cattell's list of universal domains

Common Objects- Human body and its parts, Trees (except for Eskimos), Four-legged animals, Earth and sky, Clouds, sun, moon, stars, lightning, Fire and smoke, Water and its transformations, Parent and children (growth) Common Processes- Breathing, choking, coughing, sneezing, Eating, drinking, and other bodily functions, Sleeping, Birth and death, Running, walking, jumping

Stability

Correlations between IQ at age 17, 18 yrs old with IQ scores 10-13 years earlier (at 5-7 yrs old) = .86, IQ scores 4-7 years earlier (at 11-13 yrs old) = .96, Note: these are data for groups; not uncommon to see individuals changing by as much as 18 points

Group administered Tests include

Culture Fair Intelligence Test, Shipley Institute of Living Scale-2, Differential Aptitude Test, Wonderlic Personnel Test

C. Assessment of adaptive behavior (VABS)

Current edition is VABS-II (2005), This assessment instrument has a semi-structured interview format for parents or caregivers and questionnaire format for teachers, Purpose: is to measure adaptive functioning, Designed for: special needs populations, e.g., intellectual disability, developmental delays, functional skills impairment, and speech/language impairment, Provides information in assessing level of severity (e.g., levels of severity in intellectual disability, levels of severity in autism spectrum disorder)

expert conceptions

verbal intelligence, problem solving ability, practical intelligence

A. Concerns about intelligence tests

Developed primarily by white males from European and North American countries, Years of research has consistently shown IQ scores to be lower for some non-white groups, incl. African Americans, Native Americans, and Hispanic Americans, Use of Intelligence tests for special education placement has been questioned, In particular, diagnosis of mental retardation came under fierce attack

5. Psychometric properties of the WAIS-IV

Excellent standardization based on census data., Reliability: Test-retest is excellent - increases with age., Concurrent validity: Very good, Correlates with Stanford-Binet (average .80-.90). Also correlates well with academic achievement.

17. Vocabulary has the single highest correlation with

FSIQ overall IQ

SB5 5 Domains

Fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual spatial processing, working memory

Group tests versus individual tests for prediction

IQ does better at predictions for groups but not so great with individual prediction, better at group prediction

Stability

IQ is fairly stable trait (groups), the older the subject, the greater the stability, individual variation can be great due to dramatic change in health of living conditions

B. Concerns about IQ scores

IQ tests measure performance on a limited range of types of abilities that are selected based on the test authors' definition of intelligence (which includes subjective ideas of what intelligence is and what it is not), IQ tests do not measure "innate ability" or innate capacity to learn, Individual IQ scores are not necessarily stable over time, The very notion of taking cognitive tests like WISC, RPM etc may seem pointless to people in some cultures

Neurological measures

NCV (nerve conduction velocity) .26-.37 (r2 = .07-.14)

Intelligence: New findings and theoretical developments

PPT copy/paste

Adaptive behavior measures

Prompted by public laws passed in the 1970's calling for inclusion of adaptive behavior measures in the assessment of mental retardation because of over identification of minorities falling two SDs below the mean., E.g. PL 94-142 "Education for all handicapped children act" (1975), Commonly used in research studies, particularly developmental and clinical investigations

Does intelligence decline with age?

Results conflict due to research designs, Seattle Longitudinal Study (Schaie), Suggests IQ scores stable until 60-70 years old, Exception: highly speeded tests. Greatest decline is in fluid analytic ability (Cattell & Horn)

Cattell

Spearman's "g" could be further divided, gf = fluid intelligence (aptitude) less dependent on culture and prior learning, and gc = crystalized intelligence (achievement) dependent on culture and prior learning, developed Cattell Culture Fair Intelligence Test

Psychometrics of VABS

Standardization - excellent. This test was normed on over 3,000 individuals, Multiple supplemental norm groups, High test-retest reliability (.80-.90), Good concurrent validity, correlates with WISC-R .47-.70

Denver psychometrics

Standardized - poor representation of national population; sample from Little Rock, Arkansas (too low in SES); needs national norms. Reliability: Internal consistency estimates .67 to .89 (one scale was only .44); test-retest ranges .50 to .70; inter-rater reliability .90. Validity: Correlates moderately with SES (.30 to .45); good criterion-related validity with cognitive scores once children reach preschool age.

Layperson

Sternberg et al 1981- practical problem solving ability, verbal ability, social competence

Guilford

Structure of the Intellect Model expanded Thurstone's theory- used factor analysis to identify 150 factors of intelligence falling into categories of contents, operations, and products

Research Deary et al

Subjects generally scored better at age 77, compared to age 11.Greater increases in IQ scores among those with: more education, professional jobs. Smaller increases in IQ scores among smokers Also, those with lower IQ scores were less likely to be alive at re-test (at age 77), more likely to develop some kinds of cancers (lung, stomach), more likely to develop late onset dementia and less likely to be functionally independent, Difficult to draw clear causal conclusions. The pathway from early IQ to certain mental and physical health outcomes late in life is unclear.

IV. Chapter 6B

Test Bias and Other Controversies

V. Chapters 7A, 7B

Testing Special Populations

7. WISC-IV Composite scores (5)

Verbal Comprehension Index VCI, Perceptual Reasoning Index PRI, Working Memory Index WMI, Processing Speed Index PSI, and Full Scale IQ (sum of 10 core subtests) FSIQ

C. Court cases (Hobson v. Hanson

Washington DC, they focused on group administered tests to classify children, tracking system- disproportionate number of Black children were classified in lowest educational tracks based on standardized test scores, challenged tests as true measures of ability, claimed lower tracks were an educational dead end so the tracking system was overturned and other states followed suit

3. WAIS

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale- ages 16+

2. WISC

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children- ages 6-16

1. WPPSI

Wechsler Preschool & Primary Scale of Intelligence- ages 2-7

Individually administered Tests include

Wechsler series: WPPSI-III; WISC-IV, WAIS-IV, Stanford-Binet: Fifth Edition, Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement (K-TEA)-II, Woodcock-Johnson Achievement Test (WJ-III)

1. Testing visually impaired, hard of hearing subjects

Weschler performance subtests are best for deaf people, sometimes RPM

I. technical determination

When an item or subscale of the test is relatively more difficult for members of one group than for members of another group, even though general ability of the two groups is held constant and no reasonable theoretical rationale exists to explain group differences on the item or subscale in question

Thurstone 7 broad factors

verbal, number facility, memory, spatial visualization, perceptual speed, and inductive reasoning

1. Culturally loaded tests

a given sub population will do better on a test that has content w which they are familiar, they make a good point even if they should not be taken seriously

G. Test bias

a technical concept amenable to analysis, objective¬, not necessarily bias just cause not standardized on particular subpopulation, just cause group feels like its too or more difficult for them or cause they score worse than some other groups

Experimental (Creative) intelligence types (2)

ability to deal with novelty- involves situations that you have never experienced before- solving probs that are entirely unfamiliar to you, ability to automize information processing- involves taking situations you've repeatedly encountered and automizing them, frees you up to do other things at the same time- parallel processing

4. General features of Wechsler tests (e.g., testing until ceiling is reached)

administration time 60-75 minutes, questions arranged in ascending order of difficulty, for each subject a baseline is established (a certain number in a row answered correctly)- assumption- examinee will be able to answer all easier questions, testing continues until "ceiling" is reached (a certain number of questions in a row are answered incorrectly)- assumption- examinee will be unable to answer all questions that are more difficult

Group Tests vs Individual Tests

advantages of group tests- can be used efficiently w large numbers of test takers, inexpensive to administer or cost effective, usually objectively scored often by computer

Componential

analyitical- Analyze problems and monitor progress toward goal, Acquire needed information and use strategies to enhance performance

N. (unqualified individualism

based on free and open competition, this position says the best qualified candidate should be selected using any and all valid predictor variables- consider info about race, sex, ethnic membership etc, use separate regression lines for each variable even if it leads to lower percentages in some groups

B. Testing persons with disabilities (Public Laws 93-112

bill of rights for people with disabilities, outlawed discrimination on basis of disability

11. Subtests in PRI

block design, picture concepts, matrix resoning, picture completion

8. 10 core subtests

block design, similarities, digit span, picture concepts, coding, vocab, letter-number sequencing, matrix reasoning, comprehension, symbol search

Genetics vs. Environment

heretibility (h2)- .40-.80 intelligence is genetic usually less for children

O. qualified individualism

candidates selected entirely on tested abilities- cannot consider age sex etc, that's when you use the broken line or average, going to have bias against/favoring certain groups

Why is heretibility low in low SES people

children in poverty may not be able to develop full genetic potential

E. Larry P. v. Riles

class action suit in SF, black minority kids were overrepresented in EMR classes, asked that IQ tests for testing EMR be banned in SF schools for use with blacks, this was granted in 1972, many psychologists fought both sides, mercer developed the system of multicultural pluralistic assessment (SOMPA), in 79 it was ruled that IQ tests are racist and place kids into dead end- can be bad bc some retarded kids cannot get extra help bc they are put in regular classes,

D. Diana v. CA State Board of Education

class action suit, 9 mexican American kids placed in EMR (educable mentally retardd) classes based on individually administered IQ test, examined linguistic bias, later retesting with Spanish speaking examiner-8/9 non EMR, resulted in consent decree- more than 1 test must be used: IQ test 2 SDs below the mean + adaptive behavior, and test in native language, and periodic re-evaluation, had big impact on Public Law, the education for all handicapped children act- need public money and retesting

13. Subtests in PSI

coding, symbol search, cancellation

Sternberg triarchic theory of intelligence

componential intelligence (analytical)- most important in school settings, experiential intelligence (creative), contextual intelligence (practical), Sternberg multidimensional abilities test

Sternberg Why Intelligent People fail

conventional intelligence tests tell us little about performance in everyday life and suggest a number of reasons so called intelligent people fail- lack of motivation, impulse control, peserverance, failure, procrastination, inability to delay gratification, little or too much self confidence, bottom line: Sternberg- if intelligence is properly defined and measured it MUST translate into real life success

Experimental

creative- ability to deal with novel tasks, Ability to automatize ("make routine") tasks encountered repeatedly

Wechsler

critical of major verbal componet in Stanford Binet, developed alternative called Weschler Belluve Test that included verbal and nonverbal measures- most widely used tests in education, later created separate IQ tests for adults, school age kids and pre k kids

Mental age (MA)

determined by number of items passed, used in ratio IQ formula

12. Subtests in WMI

digit span, letter-number sequencing, arithmetic

Gardner

disagreed with Spearman's "g", proposed idea of multiple intelligences including linguistic spatial existential, intrapersonal, set the stage for the study of emotional intelligence

public law 94-142

education for all handicapped children act, mandated disabled schoolchildren receive appropriate assessment and educational opportunities

Sternberg

emphasizes practical intelligence, good memory, processing speed, and adaptation ability, he was critical of IQ tests (like gardner)

Their definitions of intelligence/ conclusion

experts and lay people agree on many aspects of intelligence but experts place a greater emphasis on verbal skills and lay people on practical problem solving/social skills

Correlates of intelligence

family size- ppl from small fams score higher, birth orde- 1st borns and only children score higher, SES- kids from low/working class fams score 10-20 points below middle/upper class kids, Ethnicity- based on group data, jews better than Asians, Asians better than Europe, 15-25% blacks score higher than 50% of European americans

Thurstone

first multi factor approach to intelligence assessment, theory of primary mental abilities, disputed "g" and said theres 7 broad factors of intelligence, his g factors (gr1, gr2, gr3) are correlated so he admitted "g" exists

D. Educational achievement tests (Iowa Test of Basic Skills)

for k-8, pg 214-215

Denver-II

given by pediatricians, it's a screening instrument to assess healthy and at risk children between 0-6 years, William Frankenburg and Josiah Dodds, Offshoot of the gessell dev scales, popular worldwide translated into 44 languages, inexpensive, quick and easy to administer, 20-25 mins, abbreviated version 10-15 minutes typical administration 20-25 pass/fail items are administered observed or reported by the parent, assessment made in 4 areas- personal-social, fine motor, language, and gross motor, +5 behavior ratings- typical, compliance, interest in surroundings, fearfulness, attention span

16. Why such large increase in similarities from 1947 to 2002?

greater emphasis in problem solving in 02, in 40s kids were doing rote learning like memorization of info, in 02 more critical thinking and reasoning was required

Yerkes

group administered tests- Army Alpha and Army Beta for non English speaking and illiterate people WWI

P. quotas

groups are adequately represented, candidates should be selected as politically appropriate for representative location, census data may be used, impact = candidates may not be the most qualified ie the diversity hire

Gesell Developmental Schedules

historically relevant, one of oldest dev tests, tests kids from 1 month to 5 years, used to identify mental retardation, end result is developmental quotient, not IQ, lack of reliability and validity info in manual

Utility of developmental tests

identify retardation, classify kids who need help, goal = early intervention, the earlier the better, not intended for prediction

1. Homogeneous regression

if test does not meet criteria of homogeneous regression (test predicts equally well for both groups) then bias has been demonstrated

Issues in intelligence testing (e.g., validity

intelligence tests do well at predicting school performance and better predictions when combined with a number of other factors

M. Is SAT biased

intercept bias favoring blacks and Hispanics, and intercept bias against females

2. Attempts to reduce cultural bias (3 main factors)

language- use nonverbal test items, speed- no time limit, test content- use content that is equally familiar/unfamiliar to examinees

Gardner 7 natural intelligences

linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, existential intelligence

15. Children's performance on WISC in 1947 vs 2002

mean improvement on performance subtests was greater than mrsn improvement on verbal subtests, gain in raw scores on performance subtests was ¬ ____ points, on similarities there was a 24 point raw score increase (biggest increase) and comprehension there was 11 point increase.

Ratio IQ vs

mental age over chronological age times 100 to remove decimal, Lewis Terman out of Stanford coined the term "IQ" & incorporated the ratio IQ into the Stanford-binet test, problems with ratio IQ- IQ drops as you get older-not used any more

Componential (analyitical) intelligence types (3)

metacomponents- used to monitor thought by continuously planning and evaluating what we are thinking, knowledge acquisition components- processes used in learning like ability to learn vocab words, performance components- strategies and skills used to perform tasks and solve problems

Drawbacks of group tests

more dependent on reading ability, floor and ceiling effects, usually cannot differentiate test takers as finely as individual tests, may underestimate cognitive skills

1. How does testing young children differ from testing older children?

more difficult bc shorter attention spans, lack of reading/writing ability, many can't follow directions, must be tested individually, lack of motivation- they don't care

1. Effects of court decisions

new tests are much more rigorous about checking for item bias before publication, CA EMR placements were much lower for minority group children after Larry P Riles, 58000 EMR kids in 60s then 13,000 in 1984, effectiveness of special education programs has been questioned, new assessment measures and approaches appeared: SOMPA, Learning Potential Assessment Device (LPAD), and nonverbal tests

7. Raven's Progressive Matrices

one of the most culturally reduced tests available, RPM does not contain a single word. Very useful in measuring intelligence in kids and adults with hearing language or physical disabilities, designed to be a measure of g, but current evidence suggests that it measures gf (fluid intelligence), reliability- .80s-low.90s for adults, validity- correlated moderately well to very well with intelligence tests (.50-.90), correlates less well with achievement tests, predictive validity is equivalent to that of the WISC, most studies found ethnic differences on WISC were not reduced on RPM

Terman

out of Stanford University coined the term "IQ" & incorporated the ratio IQ into the Stanford-binet test

F. PASE v. Joseph P. Hannon

parents in action on special education, came to opposite conclusion of Larry P case- indv IQ tests are not biased, judge commented on the cultural fairness of every item on WISC, WISC R, and Stanford Binet, finding all except 9 items were culturally fair

3. (e.g., culturally loaded items

pencil and paper tests, printed instructions, no preliminary practice, written responses, separate answer sheet, speeded tests, verbal content, specific factual knowledge, scholastic (academic) skills

4. vs. culturally reduced items

performance based, oral/pantomime instructions, oral response, purely pictorial, power test, nonverbal content, factual knowledge that is not culture bound, non-scholastic skills

8. Perspective on culture-fair tests

pg 200, no test is completely culture fair

C. Predicting college and graduate school performance (SAT, ACT, GRE, MCAT, LSAT)

pg 207-214

9. 5 Supplemental subtests

picture completion, cancellation, info, arithmetic, word reasoning

Contextual

practical- Adaptation, Shaping, Selection - appropriate response given the context

2. Challenges in assessing multilingual children

practices- 1. Use a translation of a popular IQ test 2. Use a nonverbal test 3. Take an English Language test administered by translator, these all have problems but its best to have client tested by psychologist who speaks the clients language

3. Screening for school readiness (Qualities of a good preschool screening instrument)

primary purpose is screening rather than assessment diagnosis or prediction of academic success, screening is provided in most/all areas: lang, cognitive, social, & emotionall functioning, overall test retest reliability min of .70 preferably higher, concurrent validity against comprehensive assessment min .70 preferably higher, sensitivity & specificity of "at risk" & "not at risk" classifications both at least .70, practicality and ease of administration are built in w testing time of 30 mins or less, cultural ethnic and linguistic sensitivity is evident-the test accurately screens children from diverse cultures, minimum expertise is required for administration- test is suitable for paraprofessionals to administer

Piaget

proposed stages of cognitive development: sensori-motor, concrete, formal operations

A. Nature, promise and pitfalls of groups tests

purpose- ability, aptitude, achievement, differ from individual tests in 5 ways- MC vs ope ended, objective machine scoring vs examiner scoring, group vs individualized administration, applications in screening vs remedial planning, huge vs merely large standardization samples, pitfalls- some examinees will score far below their true ability, owing to motivational problems or difficulty following directions, or invalid scores will not be recognized as such with undesirable consequences for these atypical examinees,

Statistical controls for parent SES

reduces predictive power by 25% (drops r2 to .09-.25)

L. Test fairness

reflects social/political values and the appropriate application of psychological tests- subjective, not scientific or data driven

6. WISC-IV (pp. 170-174)

reliability is strong most in high .80s, validity- correlated with full scale IQ .89

18. Problems with predicting college grades from IQ scores

restricted range of IQs found in highly selected samples, questionable reliability of college GPA criterion (differences between professors), importance of non-intellective factors in determining GPA such as motivation and study habits

5. Sensitivity vs. specificity

sensitivity- % of actual problem's correctly identified ie number of kids correctly identified as developmentally delayed, specificity- % of no problem kids correctly identified as not developmentally delayed, bayley III- sensitivity and specificity 90-95% range we want both of these to be high

10. Subtests in VCI

similarities, vocab, comprehension, information, word reasoning

Galton

the father of individual differences, believed sensory keenness was intelligence, studied thru RT & sensory discrimination- neither linked to intelligence

2. How are these tests different psychometrically from school-age tests?

they have lower reliability and validity coefficients, low correlations between infant tests and later intelligent tests bc the types of tasks on these tests are different- sensorimotor vs verbal, don't validate by correlating academic performance at age 7

Spearman

unitary conceptualization of intelligence, believed g (general ability) accounted for variance in cognitive tasks, developed two factor theory of intelligence (g + s), g is required for all mental tests of ability, s (special abilities) required for performance on just one kind of mental test, g is most important for aptitude tests

3. slope bias

use of a single regression line would both over predict and under predict for selected subjects in each group- different slopes- lines will eventually cross

Most important type of validity

want agreement across modalities so test, parent report, dr report, teachers assessment, moms good reporters of kids capabilities but these tests lack predictive validity, predictions improve as child gets older, for developmental tests we are mostly concerned with concurrent validity

K. construct validity biases

when a test is shown to measure different hypothetical traits (constructs) for one group versus another or measures the same trait with different degrees of accuracy, factor analysis investigates this

2. intercept bias

when use of a single regression line would overpredict for one group and underpredict for another group, there are 2 different lines so if you averaged the two into single regression line you have bias bc over/under predicting

J. criterion-related validity bias

whether we can use a single regression line to predict equally well for members of different groups, single line = NOT biased

Social outcomes (e.g., juvenile crime)

~ -.17 to -.19 (r2 ~ .03-.04) criminal behavior

Job performance

~ .30 to .50 (r2 ~ .09-.25)

Income (young adults)

~ .41 (r2 ~ .17)

Social status (young adults)

~ .50 (r2 ~ .25) white/blue collar

Intelligence correlated with School performance

~ .50-.70 (r2 ~ .25 - .50) (in elementary through h.s.)

Years of education

~ .55 (r2 ~ .30)