PSYCH 9B Chapter 8

How does the prototype model of concepts differ from the exemplar model?

A prototype is the best example of the category, whereas exemplars are average of the category.

A person is asked to rate his overall life satisfication. According to the affect as information theory, how would he respond to this question if his favorite sports team had recently lost the championships?

A sad mood would lead him to report low overall life satisfaction

Script

A schema that direct behavior over time within a situation.

A teen Draws A Scientist

A special program at the Virgina institute of Marine Science Brings real life scientist grad students into classrooms at area middle schools and high schools. At the beginning of one semester a student at Booker T. Washington Middle School drew the scientist on the left. At the end of the semester after month of interacting with a marine researcher, the same student produced the drawing on the right.

Language

A system of communication using sounds symbols accordion to grammatical rules

Exemplar Model

A way of thinking about concepts. All members or a category are examples. Togetehre they form the concept and determine category membership.

Protype Model

A way of thinking about concepts: Within each category, there is a best example- a prototype - for that category.

The Prototype Model of Concepts

According to the prototypes, some within a group or class are prototypes. That is , there are more representation of that category than are concepts in the category. For this reason, an orange seems to be the prototype of the category fruit. By contrast olives do not seem to be very representative and the category.

Anchoring

An anchor serves as a reference point in decision making. Occurs when, in making judgments, people rely on the first piece of information they encounter or on information that comes most quickly to mind

Wernicke's area

An area left hemisphere where the temporal and parietal lobes meet, involved in speech comprehension.

What is aphasia, and damage hemisphere is mot likely to cause it?

Aphasia is a deficit in language production or comprehension causes most often by injury to the left hemisphere.

Decision making

Attempting to select the best alternative from among several options

Somatic Markers

Boldly reactions that arise from the emotional evaluation of an action' consequences

Stereotypes

Cognitive schemas that allow for easy fast processing of information about people based on their membership in certain groups.

Cognition

the mental activity that includes thinking and the understandings that result from thinking

Thinking

the mental manipulation of representations of knowledge about the world

Heuristics

these shortcuts in thinking are fast and efficient strategies that people typically use to make decisions.

When an architect produces a blueprint for a new house, it this representation analogical or symbolic?

A blueprint is an analoygical representing because aspect of the two dimensional rendering correspond to a physical layout.

Concept

A category or class of related items it consists of mental representations of those items.

Aphasia

A language disorder that results in deficits language comprehension and production

Your uncle uses a dial-up modem to connect to the internet because it always works. How does the idea of a mental set explain why your uncle has not upgraded to more modern technology?

A mental set is a problem solving strategy that has always worked in the past, so it seems reliable even though it might not be the best solution.

Restructuring

A new way of thinking about a problem that aids its solution

Problem Solving

Finding a way around an obstacle to reach a goal.

Framing

In decision making, the tendency to emphasize gains from at least one alternative

Deep Structure

In language the implicit meanings of sentences.

Surface Structure

In language, the sound and order of words

Before 18 months of age, how does an infant typically speak?

In single words. It is not until after this age that children begin to string words together.

Availability

Making a decision basked on the answer that most easily comes to mind.

At fast-food restaurant we pay when we order, but at fine dining restaurants we pay after eating. How does schemas help us behave appropriately in each place?

One type of schema is a script, which provides information about how to act within a specfic situation.

Categorizing Animals as Dangerous Or Not Dangerous

Patterns of Brian activity enable us to distinguish between animals high or low in threat, even across different classes of animals.

People sell stocks when the stock market goes down even though many finance experts advise investors to retain or increase their holdings at such times. How does loss aversion explain this behavior?

People are more concerned with not losing additional money if the stock market goes down than in making money if the stock market goes up

Representation Heuristic

Placing a person or an object in a category if that person or object is similar to one's prototype for that category.

Phonemes

The basic sounds of speech, the building blocks of language.

Linguistic Relativity Theory

The claim that language determines thought

One major online retailer charges high prices but gives free shipping whereas one of its competitors offers lower pries but charges for shipping. How might framing affect people's decisions?

The free shipping may frame the choice so that people use the first site despite the high prices-and thus they may not actually save money.

Morphemes

The smallest language units that have meaning including suffixes and prefixes

Insight

The sudden realization of a solution to a problem

affective forecasting

The tendency for people to overestimate how events will make them fell in the future.

Telegraphic speech

The tendency for toddlers to speak using rudimentary sentences that are missing words and grammatical markings but follow a logical syntax and covey a wealth of meaning.

Categoration

We group objects into categories according to the objects shared properties.

When chef Gordon Ramsay tries to save a failing restaurant , he often reduces the umber of items on the menu. Why might fewer options be better for maximizes customers?

When maximizers have too many options they often find it difficult to choose, so they experience stress, Limiting the menu can may choosing and dining less stressful, especially for maximizers and happier customers may be repeat customers.

Mental Map and Symbolic Limitations

When you were asked whether San Diego or Reno is farther eat, you probably formed a mental map-an analogical representation. However your symbolic knowlefe probably informed you that California is farther west than Nevada, Due to this knowledge your mental maps mad you thing that San Diego was west to Reno.

Anchoring (cont)

Which of these used cars would you choose? The cars themselves look identical. The words in the salesperson's descriptions are also identical. However, (a) the first description begins with "high mileage" and ends with "clean," whereas (b) the second description begins with "clean" and ends with "high mileage." Most people choose (b), where the initial emphasis is on a positive quality.

Analogical and Symbolic Representations

a) Analogical representation such as a picture of a violin, have some characteristics of the objects they represent . b) Symbolic representations, such as the word violin, are abstract and do not have relationship to the physical qualities.

Gender Roles Revised

a) As shown in this photo of the New York Philharmonic in 1960, stereotypes about men's and women's abilities to plat musicals instruments often fueled then formation of all male orchestras. b) changes in attitude and in audition procedures have contributed to the diversification of talent in contemporary orchestras.

Decision Making Verus Problem Solving

a) If you have two options, you need to choose between them by making a decision. Perhaps you find yourself in the rather nice position of having to choose between Paris and Cancun. b) Once your decisions is made, you must deal with circumstances. IF a problem arises you need to solve it. Perhaps you are wondering how to afford your plane ticket.

Symbolic representation

abstract mental representation that do not correspond to the physical features of objects or ideas

Functional Fixedness

in problem solving, having fixed ideas about the typical functions of objects.

Analogical representations

mental representations that have some of the physical characteristics of objects; they are analogous to the objects

Mental sets

problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past