psych chapter 6

conditioned reinforcer

(also known as secondary reinforcer) an event that gains its reinforcing power through its link with a primary reinforcer.

_____ learning is not demonstrated until one is motivated to perform the behavior.

latent

negative punishment example

take away a misbehaving teens driving privileges, revoke library card for not paying fees

According to Bandura, we learn by watching models because we experience _____ reinforcement or _____ punishment.

vicarious; vicarious

Infants by age _____ months will imitate acts modeled on television.

14

This type of behavior produces consequences.

operant

_____ behavior produces events in the environment, whereas _____ behavior occurs as an automatic response to a stimulus.

operant, respondent

variable ratio example

After an unpredictable number: reinforcement after a random number of behaviors, as when playing slot machines or fly fishing

Kennedy had leukemia as a child and had to undergo numerous bouts of chemotherapy. The chemotherapy always made her nauseous. As she underwent a year of treatment, the waiting room started to make her nauseous. The nausea from the waiting room is the:

CR

Salivating when you smell brownies in the oven

Classical conditioning

fixed ratio example

Every so many: reinforcement after every nth behavior, such as buy 10 coffees, get 1 free, or pay workers per product unit produced

fixed interval example

Every so often: reinforcement for behavior after a fixed time, such as Tuesday discount prices

Which research showed that conditioning can occur even when the unconditioned stimulus (US) does not immediately follow the neutral stimulus (NS)?

Garcia and Koelling's taste-aversion studies

positive reinforcement examples

Giving a gold star on homework, resulting in a student studying more. Pet a dog that comes when you call it. Pay the person who paints your house.

Jason's parents and older friends all smoke, but they advise him not to. Juan's parents and friends don't smoke, but they say nothing to deter him from doing so. Will Jason or Juan be more likely to start smoking?

Jason may be more likely to smoke, because observational learning studies suggest that children tend to do as others do and say what they say.

Knowing the way from your bed to the bathroom in the dark

Latent learning

Why does Pavlov's work remain so important?

Many other responses to many other stimuli can be classically conditioned in many other creatures, and showed us how a process such as learning can be studied objectively.

What is the violence-viewing effect?

Media violence can contribute to aggression. This violence-viewing effect may be prompted by imitation and desensitization. Correlation does not equal causation, but study participants have reacted more cruelly when they have viewed violence (instead of entertaining nonviolence).

Speaking the language your parents speak

Observational learning

Your dog racing to greet you on your arrival home

Operant conditioning

variable interval example

Unpredictably often: reinforcement for behavior after a random amount of time, as when checking our phone for a message

Consider a teacher who sticks gold stars on a wall chart beside the names of children scoring 100 percent on spelling tests. As everyone can then see, some children always score 100 percent. The others, who take the same test and may have worked harder than the academic all-stars, get no stars. Using operant conditioning principles, what advice could you offer the teacher to help all students do their best work?

You might advise the teacher to shape students by reinforcing them all for gradual improvements, as their spelling gets closer and closer to the goal.

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to gain a reward or avoid punishment.

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior well for its own sake.

cognitive map

a mental image of the layout of one's environment.

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more probable if followed by a reinforcer or is diminished if followed by a punisher.

What is operant conditioning, and how is operant behavior reinforced and shaped?

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. Expanding on Edward Thorndike's law of effect, B. F. Skinner and others shaped the behavior of rats and pigeons placed in operant chambers by rewarding successive approximations of a desired behavior.

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which we learn to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.

Taste aversion is a real-life example of _____ conditioning.

classical

The predictability of an association between a conditioned stimulus (CS) and an unconditioned stimulus (US) facilitates an organism's ability to expect or anticipate the occurrence of the US. This fact is most likely to be highlighted by a _____ perspective.

cognitive

Susie repeatedly hears a tone just before having a puff of air directed into her eye. Blinking in response to a tone presented without a puff of air is a(n):

conditioned response (CR).

You feel fine at a picnic until a spider very similar to the one that bit you last year and made you sick starts to walk onto your picnic blanket. You begin to become anxious and fearful. This reaction is MOST likely a(n):

conditioned response.

People who do well at delaying gratification tend to ignore each decision's short-term ______ and instead focus on its long-term _________

costs, rewards

Considering future consequences involves

delay of gratification

Dogs have been taught to salivate to a circle but not to a square. This process is an example of _____.

discrimination

With classical conditioning, we learn associations between events we _____ (do/do not) control. With operant conditioning, we learn associations between our behavior and _____(resulting/random) events.

do not; resulting

neutral stimulus (NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that evokes no response before conditioning.

Evidence that cognitive processes play an important role in learning comes in part from studies in which rats running a maze develop a _____ _____ of the maze.

mental map

Some scientists believe that the brain has _____ neurons that enable observation and imitation.

mirror

Positive, constructive, and helpful behavior is called _____ behavior.

prosocial

An old saying notes that "a burnt child dreads the fire." In operant conditioning, the burning would be an example of a

punisher.

Findings from John Garcia's research on taste aversion in rats indicate that:

rats are more likely to develop aversions to taste than they are to sights or sounds.

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing a desired response every time it occurs.

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.

stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response.

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

Learning is defined as "the process of acquiring, through experience, new and relatively enduring _____ or _____."

information; behaviors

Marco loves to play the drums. He enjoys it and does it for fun. He is motivated by:

intrinsic motivation.

Most experts agree that repeated viewing of TV violence

is a risk factor for viewers' increased aggression

our dog is barking so loudly that it's making your ears ring. You clap your hands, the dog stops barking, your ears stop ringing, and you think to yourself, "I'll have to do that when he barks again." The end of the barking was for you a

negative reinforcer.

John B. Watson believed that psychology should be the science of:

observable behavior

Children learn many social behaviors by imitating parents and other models. This type of learning is called __________ __________.

observational learning

partial (intermittent) reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

This type of behavior occurs as an automatic response to a stimulus

respondent

One of Ivan Pavlov's major contributions to the field of psychology was to show how:

the discipline of psychology could be based on objective laboratory methods.

In Watson and Rayner's experiments, "Little Albert" learned to fear a white rat after repeatedly experiencing a loud noise as the rat was presented. In these experiments, what was the UR?

the fear response to the noise

Pop quizzes and random checks of quality help to produce slow, steady responding, and are examples of the _____ schedule of reinforcement.

variable interval

Parents are most effective in getting their children to imitate them if

their words and actions are consistent.

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

positive reinforcement

increases behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is anything that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

negative reinforcement

increases behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is anything that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

How did Garcia and Koelling's taste-aversion studies help disprove the belief that almost any stimulus (tastes, sights, sounds) could serve equally well as a conditioned stimulus?

By demonstrating that rats may learn an aversion to tastes, on which their survival depends, but not to sights or sounds.

How do continuous and partial reinforcement schedules affect behavior?

A reinforcement schedule is a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced. In continuous reinforcement (reinforcing desired responses every time they occur), learning is rapid, but so is extinction if reinforcement stops. In partial (intermittent) reinforcement (reinforcing responses only sometimes), learning is slower, but the behavior is much more resistant to extinction. Fixed-ratio schedules reinforce behaviors after a set number of responses. Variable-ratio schedules reinforce behaviors after an unpredictable number of responses. Fixed-interval schedules reinforce behaviors after set time periods. Variable-interval schedules reinforce behaviors after unpredictable time periods.

"Sex sells!" is a common saying in advertising. Using classical conditioning terms, explain how sexual images in advertisements can condition your response to a product.

A sexual image is a US that triggers a UR of interest or arousal. Before the advertisement pairs a product with a sexual image, the product is an NS. Over time the product can become a CS that triggers the CR of interest or arousal.

Disliking the taste of chili after becoming violently sick a few hours after eating chili

Biological predispositions

How does classical conditioning differ from operant conditioning?

Both types of conditioning are forms of associative learning and involve acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination. In classical conditioning, we associate events we do not control and respond automatically (respondent behaviors). In operant conditioning, we link our behaviors (operant behaviors) with their consequences.

What is the impact of prosocial modeling and of antisocial modeling?

Children tend to imitate what a model does and says, whether the behavior modeled is prosocial (positive, helpful) or antisocial. If a model's actions and words are inconsistent, children may imitate the hypocrisy they observe.

The majority of correlational studies that have examined television violence and aggressive behavior suggest that the more hours children spend watching violent television shows, the more likely they are to exhibit aggressive behaviors. What is the major problem with these findings?

Correlation does not prove causation.

Taste-aversion research has shown that some animals develop aversions to certain tastes but not to sights or sounds. This finding supports

Darwin's principle that natural selection favors traits that aid survival.

________blank can help people delay gratification.

Exercise, Connecting with friends, Meditation

Why are habits, such as having something sweet with that cup of coffee, so hard to break?

Habits form when we repeat behaviors in a given context and, as a result, learn associations—often without our awareness. For example, we may have eaten a sweet pastry with a cup of coffee often enough to associate the flavor of the coffee with the treat, so that the cup of coffee alone just doesn't seem right anymore!

In horror movies, sexually arousing images of women are sometimes paired with violence against women. Based on classical conditioning principles, what might be an effect of this pairing?

If viewing an attractive nude or seminude woman (a US) elicits sexual arousal in some viewers (a UR), then pairing the US with a new NS (violence) could turn the violence into a conditioned stimulus (CS) that also becomes sexually arousing, a conditioned response (CR).

What parts do acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination play in classical conditioning?

In classical conditioning, the first stage is acquisition, or the association of the NS with the US so that the NS begins triggering the CR. Acquisition occurs most readily when the NS is presented just before (ideally, about a half-second before) a US, preparing the organism for the upcoming event. This finding supports the view that classical conditioning is biologically adaptive. Extinction is diminished responding, which occurs if the CS appears repeatedly by itself (without the US). Spontaneous recovery is the appearance of a formerly extinguished conditioned response, following a rest period. Responses may be triggered by stimuli similar to the CS (generalization) but not by dissimilar stimuli (discrimination).

Why is Pavlov's work important, and how is it being applied?

Ivan Pavlov taught us how to study a psychological process objectively, and that classical conditioning is a basic form of learning that applies to all species. Classical conditioning is applied to further human health and well-being in many areas, including behavioral therapy for some types of psychological disorders.

How do cognitive processes affect classical and operant conditioning?

More than the behaviorists supposed, expectations influence conditioning. In classical conditioning, animals may learn when to expect a US and may be aware of the link between stimuli and responses. In operant conditioning, cognitive mapping and latent learning research illustrate learning that occurs without immediate consequences. This demonstrates the importance of cognitive processes in learning. Other research shows that excessive rewards (driving extrinsic motivation) can destroy intrinsic motivation for an activity.

How do positive and negative reinforcement differ, and what are the basic types of reinforcers?

Positive reinforcers add a desirable stimulus to increase the frequency of a behavior. Negative reinforcers remove or reduce a negative stimulus to increase the frequency of a behavior. Primary reinforcers (such as receiving food when hungry) are naturally satisfying—no learning is required. Conditioned (or secondary) reinforcers (such as cash) are satisfying because we have learned to associate them with primary reinforcers. Reinforcers may be immediate or delayed.

four major drawbacks of physical punishment

Punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten. This temporary state may (negatively) reinforce parents' punishing behavior, Punishment teaches discrimination among situations, Punishment can teach fear, Physical punishment may increase aggression by modeling aggression as a way to cope with problems.

How does punishment differ from negative reinforcement, and how does punishment affect behavior?

Punishment administers an undesirable consequence (such as spanking) or withdrawing something desirable (such as taking away a favorite toy). Negative reinforcement aims to increase frequency of a behavior (such as putting on your seat belt) by taking away something undesirable (the annoying beeping). The aim of punishment is to decrease the frequency of a behavior (such as a child's disobedience). Punishment can have unintended drawbacks: it can (1) suppress rather than change unwanted behaviors; (2) encourage discrimination (so that the undesirable behavior appears when the punisher is absent); (3) create fear; and (4) increase aggression.

Although B. F. Skinner and other behaviorists did not think that it was necessary to refer to thoughts or expectations when explaining human learning, findings from experiments with rats suggest otherwise. Which finding suggests that cognitive processes are involved in operant learning?

Rats appear to experience latent learning while exploring mazes.

Thorndike's law of effect was the basis for_____ 's work on operant conditioning and behavior control.

Skinner

People who send spam are reinforced by which schedule? Home bakers checking the oven to see if the cookies are done are on which schedule? Coffee shops that offer a free drink after every 10 drinks purchased are using which reinforcement schedule?

Spammers are reinforced on a variable-ratio schedule (after a varying number of messages). Cookie checkers are reinforced on a fixed-interval schedule. Coffee drink programs use a fixed-ratio schedule.

To reinforce your own desired behaviors and extinguish the undesired ones, psychologists suggest applying operant conditioning in five steps

State a realistic goal in measurable terms and announce it, Decide how, when, and where you will work toward your goal, Monitor how often you engage in your desired behavior, Reinforce the desired behavior, Reduce the rewards gradually

If the aroma of cake baking makes your mouth water, what is the CS?

The associated aroma

If the aroma of cake baking makes your mouth water, what is the US?

The cake

How does the cognitive view of classical conditioning differ from the traditional behaviorist perspective?

The cognitive view maintains that mental processes as well as external events are important components in the learning process.

Latent learning is an example of what important idea?

The success of operant conditioning is affected not just by environmental cues, but also by cognitive factors.

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

Hamika had leukemia as a child and had to undergo numerous bouts of chemotherapy. The chemotherapy always made her nauseous. As she underwent a year of treatment, the waiting room started to make her nauseous. The chemotherapy is the:

US

What limits does biology place on conditioning?

We come prepared to learn tendencies, such as taste aversions, that aid our survival. Learning is adaptive. Despite operant training, animals may revert to biologically predisposed patterns. Learning some associations is easier than learning others due to these biological constraints.

What is classical conditioning, and how does it demonstrate associative learning?

a type of learning in which we learn to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events. The process involves stimuli and responses: A UR (unconditioned response) is an event that occurs naturally (such as salivation), in response to some stimulus. A US (unconditioned stimulus) is something that naturally and automatically (without learning) triggers the unlearned response (as food in the mouth triggers salivation). A CS (conditioned stimulus) is originally an NS (neutral stimulus, such as a tone) that, through learning, becomes associated with some unlearned response (salivating). A CR (conditioned response) is the learned response (salivating) to the originally neutral but now conditioned stimulus.

The first step of classical conditioning, when an NS becomes a CS, is called _____. When a US no longer follows the CS, and the CR becomes weakened, this is called _____.

acquisition; extinction

An experimenter sounds a tone just before delivering an air puff that causes your eye to blink. After several repetitions, you blink to the tone alone. What is the US?

air puff

punishment

an event that decreases the behavior it follows.

primary reinforcer

an event that is innately reinforcing, often by satisfying a biological need.

Learning that certain events occur together is called:

associative learning.

negative reinforcement examples

beeping stops when you put seat belt on, take painkillers to end pain,

respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.

The textbook states that "our learning is the product of the interaction of biological, psychological, and social-cultural influences." This statement suggests that learning is BEST understood though the:

biopsychosocial model.

An experimenter sounds a tone just before delivering an air puff that causes your eye to blink. After several repetitions, you blink to the tone alone. What is the UR?

blink to air puff

An experimenter sounds a tone just before delivering an air puff that causes your eye to blink. After several repetitions, you blink to the tone alone. What is the CR?

blink to tone

In Pavlov's experiments, the tone started as a neutral stimulus, and then became a(n) _____ stimulus.

conditioned

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

biological constraints

evolved biological tendencies that predispose animals' behavior and learning. Thus, certain behaviors are more easily learned than others.

Brenda studies frequently for her class in hopes of earning an A in the class. She is trying to keep her grade point average as high as possible. She is motivated by

extrinsic motivation.

In Watson and Rayner's experiments, "Little Albert" learned to fear a white rat after repeatedly experiencing a loud noise as the rat was presented. In these experiments, what was the CR?

fear of the rat

Continuously checking to see if a batch of cookies is done baking is an example of the _____ schedule of reinforcement.

fixed interval

Periodically checking to see if the cookies are ready is an example of the _____ schedule of reinforcement.

fixed-interval

Shaping is a method used by B. F. Skinner in order to:

guide an organism to exhibit a complex behavior using successive approximations.

conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

unconditioned stimulus (US)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response (UR).

conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).

unconditioned response (UR)

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth).

acquisition

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when we link a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. (In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.)

Rats that explored a maze without any reward were later able to run the maze as well as other rats that had received food rewards for running the maze. The rats that had learned without reinforcement demonstrated __________ __________.

latent learning

John B. Watson and Ivan Pavlov agreed that:

laws of learning are the same for all animals.

observational learning

learning by observing others.

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

latent learning

learning that is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

Johnny is "hammering" the nail in with his toy hammer as his father is hammering the deck boards. His behavior is a clear example of:

modeling

The more people think that "the future will take care of itself," the ________ difficulty they may have meeting their long-term goals.

more

Reinforcing a desired response only some of the times it occurs is called _____ reinforcement.

partial

To reduce the disruptive behavior of some children, a teacher might slap the desk with a ruler to startle them. The sound of the slap is a(n) _____ punishment.

positive

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavio

One way to change behavior is to reward natural behaviors in small steps, as they get closer and closer to a desired behavior. This process is called _____.

shaping

Khalid had leukemia as a child and had to undergo numerous bouts of chemotherapy. He had associated the waiting room with nausea. Now 35 years old, he had to take his mother to the same hospital for breast cancer treatment, and he became nauseous while in the waiting room with his mother. His nausea BEST illustrates:

spontaneous recovery.

Long after her conditioned fear of dogs had been extinguished, Marcy experienced an unexpected surge of nervousness when she first met her cousin's new cocker spaniel. Her unexpected nervousness BEST illustrates:

spontaneous recovery.

positive punishment example

spray water on a barking dog, given a ticket for speeding

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language.

In Watson and Rayner's experiments, "Little Albert" learned to fear a white rat after repeatedly experiencing a loud noise as the rat was presented. In these experiments, what was the US?

the loud noise

How do we define learning, and what are some basic forms of learning?

the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors through experience. Automatically responding to stimuli we do not control is called respondent behavior. In associative learning, we learn that certain events occur together. These associations produce operant behaviors. Through cognitive learning, we acquire mental information, such as by observation or language, that guides our behavior.

learning

the process of acquiring, through experience, new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

The partial reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after unpredictable time periods is a _____ - _____ schedule

variable-interval

A word of praise is to a delicious meal as a conditioned reinforcer is to _____.

a primary reinforcer

How does observational learning differ from associative learning? How may observational learning be enabled by mirror neurons?

Observational learning, as shown in Bandura's Bobo doll experiment, involves learning by watching and imitating, rather than learning associations between different events. We learn to anticipate a behavior's consequences because we experience vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment. Our brain's frontal lobes have a demonstrated ability to mirror the activity of another's brain. (Some psychologists believe mirror neurons enable this process.) The same areas fire when we perform certain actions (such as responding to pain or moving our mouth to form words) as when we observe someone else performing those actions.

How could your psychology instructor use negative reinforcement to encourage you to pay attention during class?

Your instructor could reinforce your attentive behavior by taking away something you dislike. For example, your instructor could offer to shorten the length of an assigned paper or replace lecture time with an in-class activity. In both cases, the instructor would remove something aversive in order to negatively reinforce your focused attention.

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide actions closer and closer toward a desired behavior.

Salivating in response to a tone paired with food is a(n)_____ behavior; pressing a bar to obtain food is a(n)_____ behavior.

respondent; operant

In Watson and Rayner's experiments, "Little Albert" learned to fear a white rat after repeatedly experiencing a loud noise as the rat was presented. In these experiments, what was the CS?

the rat after pairing

In Watson and Rayner's experiments, "Little Albert" learned to fear a white rat after repeatedly experiencing a loud noise as the rat was presented. In these experiments, what was the NS?

the rat before it was paired with the noise

People who are better at considering future consequences also tend to feel greater hope and optimism.

true

Two forms of associative learning are classical conditioning, in which we associate _____, and operant conditioning, in which we associate _____.

two or more stimuli; a response and consequence

Most learning involves the process of associations. In classical conditioning, an organism learns to associate:

two stimuli.

Why were Skinner's ideas controversial, and how might his operant conditioning principles be applied at school, at work, in parenting, and for self-improvement?

Critics say that Skinner's approach dehumanized people by neglecting their personal freedom and seeking to control their actions. Skinner replied that external forces shape us anyway, so we should direct those forces with reinforcement, which is more humane than punishment. Teachers can control students' behaviors with shaping techniques, and use interactive media to provide immediate feedback. (For example, the LearningCurve system available with this text provides such feedback and allows students to direct the pace of their own learning.) Managers can boost productivity and morale by rewarding well-defined and achievable behaviors. Parents can reward desirable behaviors but not undesirable ones. We can shape our own behaviors by stating realistic goals, planning how to work toward these goals, monitoring the frequency of our desired behaviors, reinforcing these behaviors, and gradually reducing rewards as our desired behaviors become habitual.

If the aroma of cake baking makes your mouth water, what is the CR?

Salivation to the aroma

mirror neuron

a neuron that fires when we perform certain actions and when we observe others performing those actions; a neural basis for imitation and observational learning.

A restaurant is running a special deal. After you buy four meals at full price, your fifth meal will be free. This is an example of a _____ schedule of reinforcement.

fixed-ratio

Secondary reinforcers are powerful tools for shaping behavior because they have become associated with primary reinforcers. Which reward is NOT a secondary reinforcer?

food

After Watson and Rayner classically conditioned Little Albert to fear a white rat, the child later showed fear in response to a rabbit, a dog, and a sealskin coat. This illustrates

generalization.

discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli. (In operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from those that are not.)

generalization

in classical conditioning, the tendency, after conditioning, to respond similarly to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, generalization occurs when our responses to similar stimuli are also reinforced.)

extinction

in classical conditioning, the weakening of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the weakening of a response when it is no longer reinforced.)

operant chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

An experimenter sounds a tone just before delivering an air puff that causes your eye to blink. After several repetitions, you blink to the tone alone. What is the CS?

tone after conditioning

An experimenter sounds a tone just before delivering an air puff that causes your eye to blink. After several repetitions, you blink to the tone alone. What is the NS?

tone before conditioning

In conditioned taste aversion, spoiled or poisoned food is a powerful:

unconditioned stimulus