Psych Final

What changes mark the transition of adolescence?

1. Coming to terms with physical maturity 2. Dealing with sexual issues 3. A new level of cognitive development 4. Development of moral standards 5. Redefining social roles and emotional issues

7 important neurotransmitters

1. Dopamine: produces sensations of pleasure and reward; CNS neurons involved in voluntary movement 2.Serotonin: regulates sleep and dreaming, mood, pain, aggression, appetite and sexual behavior; imbalances seen in depression, anxiety, obsessive-compulsive behavior 3.Norepinephrine: controls heart rate, sleep, stress, sexual responsiveness, vigilance (watchfulness, caution) and appetite; imbalances seen in high blood pressure, depression 4.Acetylcholine: primary neurotransmitter in CNS, involved in learning and memory; imbalances associated with some muscular diseases, Alzheimer's disease 5.GABA: most common inhibitory neurotransmitter in CNS; imbalances seen in anxiety and epilepsy 6.Glutamate: primary excitatory neurotransmitter in CNS, involved in learning and memory 7.Endorphins: pleasurable sensations and control of pain; levels lowered resulting from opiate addiction

5 Types of psychological research

1. Experiments 1.Definition of an experiment: a kind of research in which the researcher controls all the conditions and directly manipulates the conditions, including the independent variable. 2.placebo: usually a drug prescribed more for the mental relief of the patient than for its actual effect on a disorder; used especially in controlled experiments testing the efficacy of another substance. The placebo may be just a sugar pill as opposed to the actual drug being tested. 3.experimental group: participants in an experiment who are exposed to the actual treatment of interest. 4.control group: participants who are used as a comparison for the experimental group; this group is not given the treatment of interest. 5.random assignment: a process used to assign subjects to experimental conditions (say either the experimental group or the control group) by chance alone (hence random). 2. Correlation Studies: a form of research in which the relationship between variables is studied (there is no independent variable being manipulated). These situations have already occurred, and these researches are looking into the relationship between variables. Researchers gather information on existing individuals without altering their experiences in any way. Correlation does not mean cause and effect! . The correlation coefficient, a number ranging from +1.00 to -1.00, indicates how two variables are related. 1.a positive correlation indicates the variables change in the same direction, they grow in a parallel way; for example as the amount of ice cream intake increases the amount of weight increases. 2.a negative correlation indications the variables change in the opposite direction; for example, your author uses the example of the amount of alcohol consumed by college students and their GPA's. 3.a zero correlation indicates no relationship at all, perhaps between hair color and ice cream preference :) 3. Surveys: A technique used in descriptive research, typically involving seeking people's responses to a prepared set of verbal items. This is simply asking people for information. 4. Naturalistic Observation: A form of descriptive research involving behavioral assessment of people or animals in their home surroundings. It is observing how individuals act in their natural environments. 5. Case Studies: research involving only a few people or a single individual.

Anxiety disorders

1. Generalized Anxiety Disorder: a psychological problem characterized by persistent and pervasive feelings of anxiety, without any external causes. a. Does not have a specific external trigger or cause; called "free floating" anxiety. b. Doesn't come and go; anxiety stays present. 2. Panic Disorder: a disturbance marked by panic attacks that have no obvious connections with events (out of the blue) in the individual's present experience (meaning he/she can't point to the obvious reason for the distress.) a. Because of the nature of the "attacks", anticipatory anxiety (fears about what might happen) can develop and lead to avoidance behavior. b. Some (cognitive/behaviorists) believe these are conditioned responses; remember classical conditioning. c. Biology is involved; PET scans indicate some abnormalities. Once some circuits become activated, the cascade of responses (panic responses) can be more easily triggered. (not good) d. Agoraphobia: a fear of public places or open spaces may develop as a result of panic attacks. e. Occurs in about 2% of the population; more common in women than in men. f. Both medications and cognitive-behavioral treatment are helpful in the treatment of this disorder. 3. Phobic Disorders: A group of anxiety disorders involving a pathological fear of a specific object or situation. a. These responses are way out of the average range of responses, causing major disruptions in daily functioning. b. 12.5% of people suffer from a phobic disorder at some time in their lives. (See Table 12.3 on page 532). Some examples include fear of public speaking and social anxiety (irrational fears of normal social situations; fear of people and rejection). c. Some fears people are prewired to have due to the need for survival: poisonous snakes, spiders, thunderstorms, etc. d. Cognitive-behavioral therapy helps one with a phobia to "unlearn" or recondition the reaction through extinction (remember learning theory, and also remember even if a behavior appears extinct, it is very vulnerable for becoming symptomatic again!) 4. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: A condition characterized by persistent, unwanted thoughts and behaviors. Called OCD. a . Affects 2.5% of the US population at some time in their lives b. An obsession: is a thought, image or impulses that is beyond the control of the person c. A compulsion: is a behavior (can be very irrational) that is thought to reduce the anxiety associated with the thought. [ I once worked with a woman whose obsession included placing her arm in severe danger (putting in places where it could be cut off).] d. OCD does have a heavy biological component i. OCD runs in families ii. Many people with OCD have facial tics (involuntary movements or eyeblinks) iii. Brain images show abnormalities iv. Medications help in the treatment of OCD; behavioral therapy is helpful as well.

Treating mental disorders

1. Insight therapy: psychotherapies in which the therapist helps the client understand (gain insight into) their problems. a. Often called "talk therapies"; works on changing how a person thinks and feels b. All use a clinical perspective: "using various techniques for revealing and changing a patient's disturbed mental processes through discussion and interpretation 2. Behavior therapy: any form of psychotherapy based on the principles of behavioral learning, especially operant conditioning and classical conditioning. See Figure 13.1. a. Also called behavior modification b. Based on the assumption that if something is learned, it can be unlearned. c. Used with those with phobias, fears, depression, addictions, anger, antisocial behavior, etc. d. Focus is on the specific behavior not insight, understanding, feelings, etc. Insight Therapies Freudian psychoanalysis: the form of psychodynamic therapy developed by Sigmund Freud. The goal of psychoanalysis is to release conflicts and memories from the unconscious. 1. Psychological problems come from tension in the unconscious mind. 2. Psychoanalysis (Freud's therapy) is conducted in order to let this tension out, then interpret the material (statements made by the client) from the unconscious mind. 3. Techniques include dream interpretation; to help the patient have some insight and understanding of their problems. 4. Psychoanalysis is rarely used today. Neo Freudian Psychodynamic Therapies: Therapies for mental disorders that were developed by psychodynamic theorists who embraced some of Freud's ideas but disagreed with others. 1. Theorists include: Carl Jung, Karen Horney, Alfred Adler 2. Shift made from unconscious motivations to conscious motivations 3. Included life experiences beyond childhood. 4. Included relationships and social needs. Humanistic Therapies: treatment techniques based on the assumption that people have a tendency for positive growth and self actualization, which may be blocked by an unhealthy environment that can include negative self evaluation and criticism from others. 1. An Existential Crisis is a problem that has to do with life purpose and life's meaning. 2. Because there is a belief in the intrinsic nature of positive growth, Humanistic therapy seeks to assist the client grow as an individual. 3. Mental problems develop when problems with development occur, causing low self esteem. 4. Humanistic therapy would help the client to increase self esteem, and come to realize their whole potential. 5. Again, it is an understanding (insight) of what the problem is (existential crisis, low self esteem, etc.), where it came from (problems that occurred during development) and what to do about it (work to increase self esteem and maximize potential). Big Name: Carl Rogers 1. Developed "Client Centered Therapy": a humanistic approach to treatment developed by Carl Rogers, emphasizing an individual's growth through self-actualization. 2. Reflection of feeling: Carl Rogers's technique of paraphrasing client's words, attempting to capture the emotional tone expressed. [Practiced extensively by grad students in psychology!] 3. Three requirements for the Rogerian therapist a. Genuineness - not fake or "playing a role"; life's work is in helping others b. Empathy - complete understanding and compassion for the person; caring c. Unconditional Positive Regard - acceptance and respect for the person; non judgmental 4. My thoughts: when treating any client genuineness, empathy, unconditional positive regard is a must! How else are you going to develop the trust that is necessary for improvement? Most people can spot a fake a mile away! Cognitive Therapies: Emphasizes rational thinking (as opposed to subjective emotion, motivation, or repressed conflicts) as the key to treating mental disorders. 1. Switch is big... to the THINKING! Problems generate from thinking errors. 2. Big Name: Aaron Beck 3. Cognitive therapy challenges negative, self-defeating thoughts called self-talk. 4. When the thoughts change, so do the feelings and the behaviors. 5. Studies indicate Beck's approach can be at least as effective treating depression as medication. 6. This therapist loves cognitive therapy! Group Therapies: any form of psychotherapy done with more than one client/patient at a time. 1. Works well with those with social problems, social phobias, interpersonal problems, relationships problems, etc. (One has to deal with oneself and others in this "social" kind of therapy!) 2. Works well with those who have similar problems (instills hope), such as depression, anxiety or addictions. 3. Most groups have a humanistic environment (genuine, empathy, positive regard). 4. This therapist loves group work too! Self Help Support Groups: groups, such as Alcoholics Anonymous, that provides social support and an opportunity for sharing ideas about dealing with common problems. 1. Typically organized and run by laypersons (non professionals), rather than professional therapists. 2. These groups can be very effective and useful; most often free of charge. 3. As we have seen, support is crucial to good mental health and less stress! Couples and Family Therapy: 1. May include just one couple/family or more 2. Works on communication and interpersonal skills 3. In family counseling, focus is on changing the dynamics (interactions, patterns that are not working well) among the family members. Behavior Therapies Classical Conditioning Therapies 1. Systematic desensitization: a behavioral therapy technique in which anxiety is extinguished by exposing the patient to an anxiety-provoking stimulus. a. Irrational fears and behaviors can often times be the unwanted result of classical conditioning. (The the material on classical conditioning.) b. Premise: the nervous system cannot be both aroused and relaxed at the same time. c. Relaxation skills are taught to the patient/client. d. While in the relaxed state, the patient is exposed to the source of the fear, by imagining it. e. An anxiety hierarchy is created (see Table 13.2), and introduced over a period of time. f. Remember the premise: both anxiety and relaxation cannot occur at the same time. g. Exposure therapy: a form of desensitization therapy in which the patient directly confronts the anxiety provoking stimulus, as opposed to just imagining the stimulus. If a patient is afraid of dogs, an actual dog would be introduced. h. Some "virtual reality" programs have been developed to help in situation with cost effectiveness, and practicality. 2. Aversion therapy: a classical conditioning procedure, aversive counter conditioning involves presenting individuals with unpleasant (aversive) stimulation in order to condition a repulsive reaction. a. Useful for people who are attracted to undesirable behaviors, like drug addictions, sexual deviancies, smoking, etc. b. Aversion therapy pairs the unwanted behavior with an aversive (painful) stimulus in order to create a new association between the two. c. For example, say the behavior is arousal to child pornography; the stimuli would then be paired with (for example) electric shock. Ultimately the person should associate the pornography with hurt/pain/shock so that they do not engage in the behavior as readily. d. Many aversion kinds of therapies are attempted after other treatments fail, or in the case of court mandate. e. See Figure 13.2 Conditioning an Aversion for Cigarette Smoking. Operant Condition Therapies 1. Contingency Management: an operant conditioning approach to changing behavior by altering the consequences, especially rewards and punishments, of behavior. a. Used in schools, with children, families b. See Do It Yourself: Behavior Self Modification 2. Token Economies: an operant techniques applied to groups, such as classrooms or mental hospital wards, involving the distribution of rewards that are contingent on the desired behavior. The tokens can later be exchanged for privileges, food or other reinforcers. a. Schools often use pickles, popcorn, tickets, McDonald's coupons as rewards. b. Helps increase prosocial behavior 3. Participant Modeling: A social learning technique in which a therapist demonstrates and encourages a client to imitate a desired behavior. Look at Figure 13.3: Fear Reaction in Monkeys. Please know the outcome of this study. Cognitive Behavior Therapy Cognitive-behavioral therapy: a newer form of psychotherapy that combines the techniques of cognitive therapy with that of behavioral therapy. 1. Assumes that the irrational self talk (negative thoughts that run through one's mind) influence behavior in a maladaptive way. 2. Self talk (irrational thinking) is exposed and changed; goals are set, strategies developed, and the plan is reworked, if necessary. Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy: Challenging the "Should's" and "Oughts": Albert Ellis's brand of cognitive therapy, based on the idea that irrational thoughts and behaviors are the cause of mental disorders. 1. Irrational beliefs are unrealistic values and unachievable goals. They are irrational because they cause problems, mental problems. 2. REBT seeks to uncover and challenge these beliefs. 3. See Do It Yourself: Examining Your Own Beliefs. See discussions and URL! URL information is not on the test, but it is interesting (especially for those interested in psychology). Positive Psychotherapy: A relatively new form of cognitive-behavioral treatment that seeks to emphasize growth, health and happiness.

Motivational theories

1. Instinct theory: view that certain behaviors are completely determined by innate (inborn) factors. This theory is now said to be outdated. The preferred term is fixed - action patterns: genetically based behavior, seen across a species, that can be set off by a specific stimulus. 2. Drive Theory: point of view that a state of tension exists (i.e. hunger, for example) that is a biological need. This need creates the tension and produces a drive or an action to meet the need. This is done in order to maintain a balanced condition, known as homeostasis. a. Need: in drive theory, a need is a biological imbalance that threatens survival. These needs produce drives. b. Drive: the drive (tension created by the need) motivates the organism to act to reduce the need. This is called drive reduction. The process as a whole is called Drive Reduction Theory. 3. Freud's Psychodynamic Theory: In Freud's theory, motivation comes from the id, which houses two basic desires: eros (the desire for sex) and thantos (aggressive and destructive impulses). These forces are at all times active and need an acceptable outlet. (More later in Personality Theory). 4. Maslow's Humanistic Theory: a. In Maslow's theory, needs are a priority, occurring first in his Hierarchy of Needs, with the most basic needs met first. b. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is a list arranged in hierarchical order with the basic needs at the bottom, influencing our behavior until they are met. e. His theory suggests that biological needs motivate first, then safety, then attachment, then esteem, finally self-actualization.

Howard Gardner's theory, 7 mental abilities

1. Linguistic intelligence: language abilities; think bilingual, vocabulary lovers 2. Logical-mathematical intelligence: math and logic abilities; think scientist, mathematician 3. Spatial intelligence: ability to form mental images of objects and to think about their relationship in space; think artist, sculpting, design 4. Musical intelligence: the ability to perform, compose, and appreciate musical patterns; think musician, composer 5. Bodily- kinesthetic intelligence: the ability for controlled movement and coordination; think athlete, surgeon 6. Interpersonal intelligence: the ability to understand other people's intentions, emotions, motives and actions; ability to work well with other people; think counselor, social worker, teacher 7. Intrapersonal intelligence: ability to know oneself, to develop a satisfactory sense of identity, and to regulate one's life; think peace of mind, tranquility Some people call interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence emotional intelligence. Howard Gardner has added three more intelligence in recent years to include 8. Naturalistic intelligence: allows people to classify living things as members of diverse groups 9. Spiritual intelligence: ability to think in abstract spiritual terms and to put oneself in a spiritual frame of mind. 10. Existential intelligence: ability to think about the largest and smallest components of the universe, the purpose of existence, the meaning of death and to deal with profound emotional experiences such as love.

Mood disorders

1. Major Depression: a form of depression that does not alternate with mania; unipolar. a. Called Major Depressive Disorder b. One of the most common of major mental disturbances; depression that lasts for weeks or months. c. Depression in a milder form is called dysthymia. d. Symptoms: feelings of worthlessness, lack of appetite, withdrawal from friends and family, sleep problems, agitation, fatigue, sometimes psychotic distortions of reality, suicidal thoughts (See Do it Yourself on page 527). e. Always direct any person who makes a suicidal threat to help. (Don't think you know if they are serious or not.) f. Causes: i. Some genetic predispositions; problems with neurotransmitters, etc. ii. SAD - Seasonal Affective Disorder is a form of depression believed to be caused by the deprivation of sunlight. iii. Can be caused by a negative event, and attribution errors. Be very familiar with Fig 12.4 on page 530: The Cognitive-Behavioral Cycle of Depression. See how Fred made a negative attribution about the reason for the turned down date to himself... if Fred changes how he thinks, he can change how he feels and what he does next! What you think matters! iv. Depression rates are higher for women than men. Women tend to ruminate (think over) more than men (who usually distract themselves, or engage in physical activity to change negative moods). See the benefit of exercise! v. Depression is more common (10 to 20 times) today than 50 years ago! Seligman gives reasons: 1. An out of control individualism and self centeredness that focuses on individual success and failures, rather than group accomplishments. 2. The self-esteem movement itself! - which has taught a generation of school children that they should feel good about themselves, irrespective of their efforts and achievements. 3. A culture of victimology, which reflectively points a finger of blame at someone or something else. 2. Bipolar Disorder: a mental abnormality involving swings of mood from mania to depression. a. Previously known as manic-depressive disorder b. Mania is excessive elation (like ecstasy) or manic excitement c. The mania and the depression are the two poles in bipolar. d. Symptoms of mania: euphoria, excitement, increased energy, hyperactivity, engaged in many activities or one activity to the excessive. (I once heard an example of a manic episode where a woman ran around Houston buying up all the hamsters she could find for several days in a row.) e . When manic episode diminishes, the aftermath is usually damaging and can be very expensive, and have long term consequences. f. Causes: the major causal theory is a biological abnormality; bipolar disorder typically (not always) responds to medication treatment.

3 layers of the brain

1. The brain stem (and associates); the brain stem is the most primitive layer of the brain. It includes: -1. Medulla: controls breathing and heart rate, basic bodily functions 2. Pons: regulates brain activity during sleep and dreaming 3. Reticular formation: involved in keeping the brain awake and alert 4. Thalamus: "relay station" where nearly all of the messages going to and from the brain pass through; focuses attention 5.Behind the brain stem, the cerebellum is located. The cerebellum is responsible for the coordination of movements. It is also sometimes called "the little brain" because it looks like one! 2. The limbic system: the middle layer of the brain, involved in emotion and memory. It includes: -1.Hippocampus: involved in establishing long term memories, connecting today with yesterday. See example of HM on page 67. 2.Amygdala: involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression; contains "pleasure centers" that get stimulated when engaging in rewarding activities (ie sex, food, chocolate, etc.) 3.Hypothalamus: monitors blood, detects changes in body temperature, fluid levels and nutrients. Responds and with orders to regulate imbalances, for example in thirst, appetite, temperature. Heavily involved in motivation; regulates the pituitary 3. Cerebral Cortex: consists of two cerebral hemispheres overlaying the limbic system and brain stem. Involved in "higher" mental processing, including thinking and perceiving. Each of two hemispheres includes 4 lobes.

How do psychologists explain IQ differences between group?

1. There is research that suggests IQ may be influenced by hereditary (Plomin & Defries, 1998) 2. There is research that suggests IQ may be influenced by environment (Cece & Williams, 1997) 3. There is a research that has looked into "within group differences" and "between group differences" (Dickens & Flynn 2001, etc.). 4. There is research that supports the genetic limitations imposed by genetics (Jensen, 1980, 1985, 1998, 2000). 5. There is research that shows no differences in genetic limitations (Scarr & Weinburg, 1976, 1978). 6. There are questions about the IQ tests being biased toward "the upper or middle class background favoring the white child" (Garcia 1981, Helms, 1992, etc.). 7. There is research suggesting the self fulfilling prophecy may impact IQ scores (Schwartz, 1997, etc.). 8. There is a discussion about whether or not "the Caucasian American norm" should be the standard by which others are judged (Helms, 1992). My goodness! Whew! What are your thoughts on all that? Mine tend to lean toward the individual themselves. What can make a difference to an individual? Social class and IQ: 1. Affluence is associated with higher IQ's; those in poverty, illiteracy and hopelessness tend to have the lowest average IQ scores. 2. Poverty tends to create circumstances that limit individual potential: a. Poverty can mean less adequate health care during pregnancy. b. Poverty means less access to those factors known to impact IQ: nutrition, lack of access to books and computers, etc., exposure to toxic materials in poor housing (ie lead paint, etc.) c. Head Start has been in existence over 40 years to assist families. The program addresses the child's physical and mental needs with nutrition and medical support and preschool education.

Why does memory sometimes fail us?

1. Transience: memories seem to weaken over time. The Ebbinghouse's (1908/73) work in verbal learning lists of nonsense syllables. Nonsense syllables were consonant-vowel-consonant trigrams (for example, HOC) that were devoid of any apparent meaning. Ebbinghaus would memorize lists of these syllables until he could recall them perfectly, setting different accuracy criteria for different experiments. One of the more famous contributions of Ebbinghaus's work was the concept of savings, a term which involved comparing the number of trials required to learn a list during an initial session to the number of trials required during a second session. Typically, the trials necessary during session number 2 were fewer than session 1. He also described what is now known as a forgetting curve: the amount of forgetting that occurs immediately after learning is substantial, but after that initial drop in performance, memory loss is very gradual. 2. Absent mindedness: forgetting caused by lapses in attention; retrieval failure due to focusing on other things. 3. Blocking: forgetting that occurs when an item in memory cannot be accessed or retrieved. It is caused by interference. Interference is when item acts as an obstacle to retrieving or accessing a memory. It is the "tip of the tongue" experience; you just can't quite get it out! What causes interference? a. The greater the similarity between two sets of material to be learned the greater the interference. There is likely to be a lot of time and energy spent on differentiation and discrimination. b. Information that is meaningless gets easily interfered with. c. Emotions are a powerful cause of interference. Emotions can distort memories. Two kinds of interference: 1. Proactive interference: a cause of forgetting by which previously stored information prevents learning and remembering of new information. When an old memory disrupts learning. 2. Retroactive interference: a cause of forgetting in which newly learned information prevents retrieval of previously stored information. When new learning prevents past learning to be accessed. 4. Misattribution: A memory fault that occurs when memories are retrieved but are associated with the wrong time, place or person. This is when memories are distorted. This is caused by the reconstructive nature of the long term memory. Your text gave a great example of a man who was accused of rape, but his alibi was solid. He was on a live TV broadcast at the time of the assault. The woman who accused him had seen his interview and has misattributed the rape to the wrong man. Yikes! 5. Suggestibility: The process of memory distortion as a result of deliberate or inadvertent suggestion. Memory distortions: a. Misinformation effect: the distortion of memory by suggestion or misinformation. b. Fabricated memories: creating entirely false memories Factors affecting eye witness testimony: a. People that are taught about memory suggestibility or bias before being asked leading questions are less influenced. See the lawyer in your mind's eye saying "Isn't it true...." b. Original memories fade over time. c. Memories are error prone. Each time they are retrieved, reconstructed and restored increases the chance of distortion. d. Younger children and the elderly may be more susceptible to suggestions and misinformation. e. Confidence is not an indicator of accuracy. 6. Bias: Beliefs, Attitudes and Opinions distort Memories (preconceived notions) a. Expectancy bias: a tendency to distort recalled events to make them fit one's expectations; we tend to remember or think what we believe to be true or what we expect to be true (what makes sense to us). b. Self consistency bias: the commonly held idea that we are more consistent in our attitudes, opinions and beliefs than we actually are! Interesting, isn't it? Kind of humbling to know that research shows this! 7. Persistence: When we can't forget. This aspect of memory is central to many psychological disorders.

Stimulus functions

1. Warns of danger. For example, we can tell by the feel of our skin it is time to get out of the sun! Or one whiff of that week-old chicken lets us know to throw it into the trash, instead of making chicken salad of it! 2. Aids survival by directing us toward things we need: food, people, shelter. 3. Allows us to find pleasure: appreciating things of beauty and other aesthetically attractive things, like artwork, music, nature, etc.

Schedules of rienforcement

A classic example of a partial reinforcement schedule is the nature of payouts in casino slot machines; the unpredictability of rewards keeps players coming back repeatedly! Primary and secondary reinforcement: Primary Reinforcement directly reduces a biological need: water, food, relief from pain, sex, heat or cold; it is biologically valued by the organism Secondary Reinforcements are rewards that are neutral stimuli, when paired with a primary reinforcer, that acquire a capacity to reinforce on their own, along the lines of classical conditioning. Examples may be money, praise, smiles, stickers, chocolate. By the way, social reinforcers, such as praise, attention, and physical contact, facial expressions also influence behavior. This is very important in parenting and classrooms. A smile of approval can be a very powerful tool. A study in this area showed classroom social reinforcers improve academic responses, improve attentiveness to social reinforcers for other behavior, decrease disruptiveness that leads to social disapproval (Kazdin,1994). I am a big believer in addressing behaviors that lead to social disapproval. The effect of this in itself can be greatly negatively. Go learning theory! :) The Premack Principle: The concept designed by David Premack that a more preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less preferred activity. Examples may be: You may eat the candy AFTER you eat the carrots! You may play your video games after you mow the grass.

Learning

A definition of Learning: Learning may be defined as a lasting change in behavior or mental processes that results from experiences. To break it down: a) a lasting change: There is a change in behavior - something is different. There is evidence that a change has occurred. An observer can see confirmation of a change. The change can be measured; it is objective and quantifiable. Although it seems we forget, we may remember more than we realize! We will get to that in the next chapter. Excludes changes in behavior that not due to learning (ie motivation, arousal, fatigue, etc.) b) mental processes: Not all learning is immediately seen in observable behaviors; potential behaviors cannot be seen. They are inside the mind; when conditions prompt the need for the information learned, the behavior may be demonstrated c) learning occurs as a result of experience: This excludes behavior that is not due to experience. (An example may be maturation as behavioral changes not due to experience; behavior changes because of physical, neural or cognitive maturation that take place over time.)

4. Whole personal perspective

A group of psychological perspectives that take a global view of the person. Includes psychodynamic psychology, humanistic psychology, and trait and temperament psychology: a. Psychodynamic Psychology i. Psychodynamic Psychology: A clinical viewpoint emphasizing the understanding of mental disorders in terms of unconscious needs, desires, needs and conflicts. Psyche = the mind; dynamic = reservoir of energy; this school of thought states people are motivated primarily by the energy of irrational desires generated in our unconscious mind. -Psychoanalysis: an approach to psychology based on Sigmund Freud's assertion, which emphasizes unconscious processes. This term is used to refer broadly to Freud's theory and his treatment method. Big name: Pioneered by Sigmund Freud, psychoanalysis is a techniques that views the unconscious mind as a "sort of mental boiler that holds the rising pressure of unconscious sexual and destructive desires, along with memories of traumatic events". Today most psychoanalysts are medical doctors (MD's) specializing in psychiatry and advanced Freudian methods. b. Humanistic Psychology i. Definition: A clinical viewpoint emphasizing human ability, growth, potential and free will. Emphasis is on the positive side of human behavior, the idea of a self concept, interest in feelings and decision making. ii. Big names: Carl Rogers: person centered counseling; Abraham Maslow: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs c.. Trait/Temperament Psychology: i. Definition: A psychological perspective that views behavior and personality as the products of enduring psychological characteristics. Traits are long-lasting personality characteristics (not fleeting mood states) that make up one's personality.

Scientific Method

A theory is a testable explanation for a set of facts or observation. Testing any theory or assertion requires four steps: 1. Developing a hypothesis: coming up with a testable idea or prediction, a "little theory". The hypothesis must be stated in such a way that it could be shown to be correct or false. It is one or the other. This requires an operational definition: specific description of concepts involving the conditions of a scientific study. Operational definitions are the exact procedures or operations used in the study. See the example in your book of operational definitions of children (a sample of a population), sugar, and hyperactive. These definitions must be specific (or the results could be flawed!) 2. Collect objective data: this is the collection of data or information. This information is gathered by direct observation, and is not dependent on what the researcher would like to see (The facts, just the facts..!) 3. Analyzing the results: Accepting or Rejecting the Hypothesis Did the hypothesis or little theory hold true or not? Based on the results (statistical analysis) the researcher can tell if the results were significant (not due to chance) or not (chance could have made the difference). If the hypothesis is accepted the results were said to be due to the Independent Variable. If the hypothesis is rejected, the results were said to be by chance alone or something other than the Independent Variable. 4. Publishing, criticizing and replicating: Most of the time, we don't want our work to be scrutinized, but in this case we do! This step opens up the project for analysis by others and an offer to replicate the study in order to further validate the findings.

What sort of learning does classical conditioning explain?

Classical conditioning is sometimes referred to as "Pavlovian" conditioning. Pavlov was a Russian physician and researcher best known for his development of a model for describing a basic non-conscious instinctual type of learning: classical conditioning. A basic characteristic of classical conditioning is learning is automatic and non-conscious. Classical Conditioning can be defined as a form of behavioral learning in which a previously neutral stimulus acquires the power to elicit the same innate reflex produced by another stimulus. It is the presentation of two or more events in an experimentally determined temporal relationship. - a change in responding to one of those events is measured as an indication of whether an association has been learned between them. -the learning that occurs in classical conditioning is described on behavioral, cognitive, and neural levels. Several features are critical to the classical conditioning experiment: 1. One stimulus is significant to the subject at the start of the experiment, and is labeled the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). 2. The UCS elicits an unconditioned response (UCR), reflexively, without training. 3. Another stimulus, the conditioned stimulus (CS), is a neutral stimulus, and needs to be trained. 4. The typical order of pairing during a classical conditioning experiment involves presenting the CS first, followed by the UCS. a. Early in these pairings, the UCR occurs in response to the presence of the UCS. b. As CS-UCS pairings increase, the CS comes to elicit some of the responses initially made to the UCS; these responses are labeled conditioned responses (CRs). A conditioned response is the learned response.

Stress

Definition of stress: A physical and mental response to a challenging or threatening situation. Stress is in each one of our everyday lives. Stress arouses us enough to allow us to function. However, when it is too much or over too long a period of time, stress can threaten our health, both mental and physical health. Your author called this the switch from stress to distress.

What are the components of thought?

Definition of thinking: a cognitive process in which the brain uses information from the senses, emotions and memory to create and manipulate mental representations, such as concepts, images, schemas and scripts. (And we know where this is going on: the working memory!) Definition: intelligence: involves the ability to acquire knowledge, reason and solve problems; a normally distributed trait that can be measured by performance on a variety of tasks. The building blocks of cognition: concepts, images, schemas and scripts Concepts: mental representations of categories of items or ideas, based on experience. Your author's notes: "the ability to assimilate experiences into familiar mental categories - and to take the same action toward them or give them the same label - is regarded as one of the most basic attributes of thinking organisms." Concepts enable us to organize knowledge in systematic ways: They may be mental representations for classes of: a. Objects: pens, cats, cars, lamps, the list is endless! b. Activities: cooking, playing, running, studying... c. Properties (adjectives): small, large, medium, blue, little... d. Procedures: how to drive a car; how to tie a tie; how to write your name e. Intentions: intentions to do any number of behaviors f. And so on and so on and so on.... Categories can be endless! Concept Hierarchies: levels of concepts, from most general to most specific. For example, see Figure 6.1. Concepts can vary from culture to culture, even from sub-culture to sub-culture. Imagery and Cognitive Maps Main point: thoughts based on images differ from verbal thoughts because it involves sensory information that is stored in the sensory pathways of the brain. Think of the word "cat". Immediately a picture of a cat pops into the mind. Cognitive maps are a representation of a physical space; they help us navigate our environment. Try this: blind fold yourself, or someone else, in your living room. Tell them to go to the kitchen. It may be a bit bumpy but my guess is that they will make it there. Why? Because they know where it is in relation to where they are. They are following a map in their mind. Remember the rats in Tolman's latent learning experiment? They had developed a cognitive map in order to navigate the maze. Then, blindfold someone, in an unfamiliar house, and ask them to get to the kitchen... they will not have a map to follow and may find it through trial and error alone! Schemas: a schema is a knowledge cluster or general conceptual framework that provides expectations about topics, events, objects, people and situations in one's life. You may have a schema about Saturday mornings: newspaper, coffee, doughnuts, and garage sales. Script: a cluster of knowledge about sequences of events and actions expected to occur in particular settings.

6. The sociocultural perspective

Definition: A psychological perspective emphasizing the importance of social interaction, social learning, and a cultural perspective. This asks the question: how do people influence other people? And how are we influenced by others, etc.? Social psychologists focus on "mysteries of liking, loving, prejudice, aggression, obedience and conformity, to give some examples. Culture is defined as a complex blend of language, beliefs, customs, values, and traditions developed by a group of people and shared with others in the same environment. The sociocultural perspective focuses on the power of the situation. Big names: Milgram, Zimbardo (our author).

General adaptation system

Definition: GAS: Pattern of general physical responses that take essentially the same form in responding to any serious chronic stressor. Normal use is helpful, but chronic activation can be harmful. Selye's model of GAS has a three stage response to any threat: 1. Alarm Reaction: the first stage of the GAS during which the body mobilizes its resources to cope with a stressor. a. The hypothalamus sets off an emergency response in the hormone system. b. If the stressor persists over too long a period, the alarm reaction becomes distress. Distress cannot be maintained indefinitely. 2. Stage of Resistance: the second stage of the GAS, during which the body adapts to and uses resources to cope with a stressor. a. Supposing the stressor does not overwhelm the person, a rebounding process happens during this stage. b. This resistance is found only with the primary stressor. If more stressors are added at this point, it is likely the person may not be able to adapt. 3. Stage of Exhaustion: Third stage of the GAS, during which the body depletes its resources in responding to ongoing stress. The ultimate outcome of this stage is illness or death.

What is psychology and what is it not?

Definition: Psychology: is a broad field, with many specialties, but fundamentally psychology is the science of behavior and mental processes. Note he didn't say speculations, assumptions, old wives tales, tips handed down from generation to generation, guesses, what has worked before, etc. He said SCIENCE. Did you know psychology was/is a science? From the Greek roots, "psyche" means mind, "ology" means a field of study. This is the study of our internal mental processes that can only be indirectly observed. Our definition includes not only the mental processes, but behavior as well. Behavior is what you can see directly (actions like talking or crying). Psychiatry is a medical specialty, not a psychological one. This means a psychiatrist is a medical doctor and have specialized training in the diagnosing and treatment of mental and behavioral disorders or problems. They see things from a medical perspective. They can prescribe medicines (psychologists generally cannot) and do medical procedures. Psychologists can hold doctoral degrees but their training is not in medicine.

What is memory?

Definition: The human memory is an information processing system that works constructively to encode, store and retrieve information. Definition: Memory: Any system - human, animal, or machine - that encodes, stores and retrieves information. The human memory is often time compared to the memory of a computer (and you can see why!) How are memory and learning related? Learning refers to acquiring knowledge or behavior; the acquisition, encoding of new information; memory refers to retaining and recalling knowledge or behavior; retention, retrieval of already learned material.

5. The developemental perspective

Definition: The psychological perspective emphasizing changes that occur across the lifespan. Emphasizes: the interaction between heredity and our environment. Remember the old (or should I say ancient) nature/nurture controversy? What makes us who we are and drives our behavior, our genes (nature) or our experiences (nurture)? For example, if a person commits a violent crime, is it because of their genetic makeup (they are genetically pre-wired to be violent) or because of their experiences (growing up in a poor area, a deprived education, little or no parental guidance or any number of other experiences)? Developmental psychologists also study how people change as they grow older; much research has been focused on the development of children, although later we will look at all ages of our lifespan, and it's development. Big names: Erikson, Piaget

1. The biological perspective

Definition: The psychological perspective that searches for the causes of behavior in the functioning of genes, the brain and nervous system, and the endocrine (hormone) system. Emphasizes: brain functioning and genetics, heredity and changes in the body's functioning due to environmental problems; has roots in medicine and biological sciences. i. Neuroscience: the field devoted to understanding how the brain creates thoughts, feelings, motives, consciousness, memories and other mental processes. ii. Evolutionary Psychology: a relatively new specialty in psychology that sees behavior and mental processes in terms of their genetics adaptations for survival and reproduction; suggests our behavior is shaped by the conditions of our ancestors. Note connection to Charles Darwin.

How is intelligence measured?

Definition: intelligence: involves the ability to acquire knowledge, reason and solve problems; a normally distributed trait that can be measured by performance on a variety of tasks. Historically: As a means to identify those French children needing help, in 1904 Binet and Simon, developed a test of school abilities. Each child's score was calculated by dividing their performance score (their mental age: MA) by their chronological age CA. MA: the average age at which normal (average) individuals achieve a particular score. CA: the number of years since the individual's birth. Let's say a child was tested and achieved a score of 3 on her mental age (estimate of her intelligence), and she was 5 years old. Binet and Simon suggested if a child's MA was two years behind their CA, they were in need of remedial help. See page 235 if clarification is needed. Americans then adopted the Binet-Simon school ability test and changed it into what we know of as the IQ test. Why did the IQ test become so widely accepted: 1. The US was experiencing an unprecedented wave of immigration. Lots more people! 2. New laws were created requiring ALL children receive an education. 3. The military needed a way to assess recruits for WWI (World War I). Stanford University professor, Lewis Terman, adapted the Binet and Simon test for US schools. He standardized (made consistent for the US and not France) the test for US age levels. He introduced the concept of an "IQ": intelligence quotient. Intelligence Quotient: a numerical score on an intelligence test, originally computed by dividing the persons MA by CA and multiplying by 100. Today: The most prominent IQ test today: 1. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) - pronounced (abbreviated) like "wase"; rhymes with "face". 2. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) - pronounced (abbreviated) like "whisk". 3. Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI) - pronounced (abbreviated) like "whoopsie" 1. Scores below 70 are said to be in the mentally retarded range. 2. Scores above 130 are said to be in the gifted range. Instead of using the old IQ formula, IQ's are determined from these tables on what is called a normal curve. Mental retardation: 1. 2% of the population 2. Involves limitations in at least two of the following areas: communication, self care, home living, social skills, community use, self direction, health and safety, functional academics, leisure and work. 3. Causes are many: some are genetic (as in the case of Down Syndrome) and some are environmental: fetal alcohol syndrome, postnatal accidents, deprivation or neglect. Some cases do not have a specific "cause". 4. There is no "cure" so to speak, but preventative measures: education, PKU screening, good prenatal care, etc. Giftedness: 1. Again 2% of the population 2. There is a strong correlation between IQ and academic achievement (Leslie 2000) 3. An unusually high number of scientists, writers and professionals, and other high status professions come from these individuals (no guarantees though!).

The relationship between sensation and perception

Enter woman #1: attractive woman but this woman happens to be your sister. The meaning of the woman changes based on who she is: your sister. Combine memories, feelings, expectations, etc. Emotions toward her could be warmth, protectiveness, love, expectation of a hug, etc. Enter woman #2: attractive woman but this woman is a previous girlfriend. (Still a woman, still attractive) Now attach meaning to the woman: I cared about this woman and she ran off with my best friend! Perception of her would be different than Woman #1. Expectations may be a nasty look, emotions may be angry or sad or indifferent (or any number of things). The memories would impact the meaning of the woman. Enter woman #3: attractive woman and unknown to you. Now attach meaning to the woman. She may be sensed as very beautiful, but when combined with the sight of a wedding band on her finger... thoughts may go to "her husband is a lucky man!" (or any number of responses, based on the individual). In all cases the stimuli was the same: an attractive woman - but with more information (combined from memories, experiences, emotions, expectations, etc.) the woman is perceived differently! Definition: a percept is what we perceive; the meaningful product of a perception, associated with other concepts, memories of an event, emotions and motives.

What developement changes do adults face?

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages: Early Adulthood: Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation What is intimacy? The capacity to make a full commitment- sexual, emotional and moral- to another person. The conflict emerges as "I want to be close" and "I don't want to be vulnerable and hurt". The idea: the stage needs to be resolved with one of two outcomes: Positive outcomes: capacity for closeness and commitment to another Negative outcomes: feelings of being alone, loneliness, separation, denial of intimacy needs The Challenge of Midlife: Generativity vs. Stagnation Erikson's Psychosocial Stages: Middle Adulthood: Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation For those who have successfully met the challenges of previous crisis, generativity is the next stage. Positive outcomes: focus of concern is beyond oneself, to family, society and future generations Negative outcomes: self indulgent concerns, lack of future orientation Ego Integrity vs. Despair Erikson's Psychosocial Stages: Late Adulthood: Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair For those who have successfully met previous challenges of previous crisis, integrity is the next stage. Positive outcomes: sense of wholeness, basic satisfaction with life, looking back without regrets Negative outcomes: feelings of futility, disappointment with life

Developemental tasks of infancy

Erikson's stage in infancy: Stage 1 (0-1.5 years): Trust vs. Mistrust: The idea: the stage needs to be resolved with one of two outcomes: Positive outcomes: basic sense of safety and security, ability to rely on (trust) people outside of oneself; trust develops with a strong attachment with caregiver, basic needs met (food, warmth, comfort of physical closeness, etc.) Negative outcomes: basic foundation of insecurity and anxiety; influenced by inconsistent parenting, lack of close physical contact or warmth, frequent absences of caring adult

How are genes and behavior linked?

Evolution is defined as the gradual process of biological change that occurs in a species as it adapts to its environment. Definition: Natural Selection is defined as the driving force behind evolution by which the environment "selects" the fittest organism. Your text calls this selection a "weeding out process". Those individuals who are best adapted to the environment will flourish and those less adapted will ultimately die out.

Genetics

Genotype: an organism's genetic makeup; the genetic pattern that makes each one of us different from the person across the room, or across the computer! Definition: Phenotype: the organisms observable characteristics; everything you see when you look in the mirror plus your inside chemistry and wiring. On to chromosomes, genes and DNA

Thresholds

Have you ever noticed though, that once you "get used to something" you stop sensing it? This is called sensory adaptation: loss of responsiveness in receptor cells after stimulation has remained unchanged for a while. Your book gives the example of a swimmer, in getting used to the temperature of the water, has undergone the process of sensory adaptation. Or have you ever spent $50.00 on that new perfume that smells fabulous, and then get so used to the scent that you don't (or your spouse!) even smell it anymore! Our senses, however, stand ready to announce any CHANGE in the status quo, so that a change will draw your attention and focus! Which brings us to: Thresholds: a. Absolute threshold: the amount of stimulation necessary for a stimulus to be detected. In other words, the presence or absence of a stimulus is detected correctly half the time over many trials. b. Difference threshold: the smallest amount by which a stimulus can be changed and the difference be detected half the time. Also referred to as the JND (just noticeable difference). Try putting some quiet music on in the other side of the house. Then go to the opposite side of the house where you can't hear the music. Step by step, walk toward the stereo (or whatever). When you start out you will not be able to hear anything. Eventually, you will be able to detect the music. One step back, you couldn't hear it, but one step forward you can... that is the just noticeable difference. :)

Developement tasks of childhood

How Children Acquire Language Big name: Noam Chomsky; proposed the LAD - Language Acquisition Device: • Noam Chomsky was a psycholinguist; he proposed children have an innate (built in) structure in their brain that facilitates the learning of language, contains some basic rules, grammar, common to all human languages; children are both ready and flexible in learning language, and do so innately (naturally). 3 key idea in Piaget's approach to cognitive development: 1.Schemas 2.The interaction of assimilation and accommodation 3.The stages of cognitive development 1. Schemas are mental structures or programs that guide a developing child's thoughts. Piaget called them the "building blocks of development". Schemas form and change with new information. 2. According to Piaget, two processes underlie all cognitive growth: assimilation and accommodation 3. Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development: a. The Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2): during this stage infants and toddlers "think" with their eyes, ears, hands and any other sensory- motor equipment (ie feet, etc!); it is mainly reflexive or instinctive responses to stimulation. An ability called object permanence develops (the knowledge that an object exists outside of one's immediate awareness). Allows games like Peek-A-Boo possible. At the end of the second year, the child develops the ability to form internal images of objects and events called mental representations. b. The Preoperational Stage (2 to 6 or 7): The second stage in Piaget's theory, marked by well developed mental representations and the use of language. The following are 3 limitations on the preoperational child's thinking i. Egocentrism: a purely self centered focus; "If I see the world this way, then so do you". ii. Animistic thinking: the belief that inanimate objects have life and mental processes: "My doll feels sad because she is alone at home!", is an example. iii. Centration: inability to take into account more than one factor at a time; narrow focus iv. Irreversibility: inability to think through a series of steps in problem solving. [I just asked my 4 year old: Do you have a sister? He said yes. Then I asked him: Does your sister have a brother? He said: NOOOO, like I was nuts! :) c. The Concrete Operational Stage (7- about 11): 3rd stage of Piaget's stages. The child breaks through the barrier of limited thinking but is not able to understand abstract thinking. The reasoning is simple; the child is now capable of mental operations: solving problems by manipulating images in one's own mind. d. The Formal Operational Stage (Adolescence +) see below.

James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories

James-Lange Theory: the proposal that emotion evoking stimulus produces a physical response which produces an emotion. a. Developed by William James (1950) b. Examples from your text: We feel sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble. Cannon-Bard Theory: the counter proposal that an emotional feeling and an internal physiological response occur at the same time: One is not the cause of the other; believed to be the result of cognitive appraisal.

Divisions of the nervous system

Nervous system: Comprised of 2 systems: 1. CNS - Central Nervous System, made up of the brain and spinal cord; serves as the body's "command central" 2. PNS - Peripheral Nervous System, everything else outside of the CNS Peripheral Nervous System: Comprised of 2 systems: 1. ANS - Autonomic Nervous System: communicates between CNS and internal organs and glands 2. Somatic Nervous System: carries sensory information to the CNS, sends voluntary/motor messages to muscles Autonomic Nervous System: Comprised of 2 divisions 1. Sympathetic Division: arousal ("fight or flight" system). 2. Parasympathetic Division: calming; reverses arousal Somatic Nervous System: Comprised of 2 nervous systems: 1. Sensory (sensory input, afferent) 2. Motor (motor output, efferent) The Endocrine System Definition: the body's chemical messenger system. The endocrine glands include: pituitary glands (the master gland), ovaries and testes, adrenal glands, thyroid glands, pancreas. Hormones are released into the blood stream influencing the body: its function, behaviors and emotions.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning: a form of behavioral learning in which the probability of a response is changed by its consequence - by what follows the response. Giving food to a dog contingent on its sitting is an example of positive reinforcement or M&M's to a toilet training toddler! Negative reinforcement: The removal of an unpleasant or aversive stimuli contingent upon a particular behavior. It is the subtraction of an unpleasant stimulus (as opposed to the addition of an unpleasant stimulus). You are likely to buckle your seatbelt quickly to shut off the alarm sound in your car. Look at Figure 4.5 on page 149. Negative reinforcement and punishment ARE NOT the same thing! Continuous Reinforcement: the type of reinforcement schedule by which all correct responses are reinforced; providing a reinforcement for each occurrence of a response. During the initial training period continuous reinforcement (for example, an M&M for every right response) produces more rapid conditioning (higher level of responding) than a intermittent or partial reinforcement schedule. Intermittent or Partial Reinforcement Schedules provide a reinforcement for only some occurrences of a response; there are several types of these: 1.Fixed Ratio schedules provide reinforcement after a fixed number of responses. For example, every 5th response is rewarded. Fixed ratio schedules lead to a high response rate. The subject's effort determines reinforcement. 2.Fixed Interval schedules provide reinforcement after the first response that occurs after a fixed amount of time has passed. For example, during a fixed interval 30-second schedule, once 30 seconds has passed since the last reward, the next response will be reinforced. Responding is infrequent immediately after each reward and gradually increases in frequency as the time for the next reinforcement approaches. 3.Variable Ratio schedules provide reinforcement following different numbers of responses; varying the number of responses required before reinforcement 4.Variable Interval schedules provide reinforcement following different time intervals between reinforcements; varying the time intervals between trials.

How does stimulation come sensation?

Our brain does not actually have an experience with the source of stimulation. Let's say we eat a chocolate, walnut, ooey- gooey brownie. What happens is the sense organs (ie taste buds) sense the brownie, and this information is converted into neural messages that allow the brain to know (and like!) the brownie. First, the butterfly: light waves from the butterfly impact the sense organ (eye). At that point, the light waves are transduced (transformed from one form of energy to another) to neural impulses or signals where they become sensations. Definition of transduction: transformation of one form of energy into another - especially the transformation of stimulus information into nerve signals by the sense organs.

Personality disorders

Personality disorders: Conditions involving a chronic, pervasive, inflexible, and maladaptive pattern of thinking, emotions, social relationships, or impulse control. There are 3 clusters of personality disorders (10 total): 1. Odd or eccentric, includes a. Paranoid personality disorder i. Dominate features: unfounded paranoia; and mistrust of people b. Schizoid personality disorder i. Dominate features: Person has no interest in people or relationships c. Schizotypal personality disorder i. Dominate feature: Person has symptoms of schizophrenia but not psychotic 2. Erratic or Emotional, includes a. Borderline personality disorder: an unstable personality given to impulsive behavior. i. Dominate features: Instability of mood, impulsivity, unpredictable, can be abusive, poor frustration tolerance, "love/hate" kind of relation to others; instability in identity. b. Histrionic personality disorder i. Dominate features: Person has an insatiable need for attention; shallow emotional relating, very dramatic c. Narcissistic personality disorder: characterized by a grandiose sense of self-importance, a preoccupation with fantasies of success or power, and a need for constant attention or admiration. i. Dominate features: a complete preoccupation with "me" to the exclusion of "you" d. Antisocial personality disorder: characterized by irresponsible behavior indicated a lack of conscious and a diminished sense of responsibility to others. i. Dominate features: antisocial (harmful to others) behavior with NO anxiety or guilt. 3. Anxious or Fearful a. Avoidant personality disorder i. Dominate features: extreme discomfort/hypersensitivity to social rejection b. Dependent personality disorders i. Dominate features: inability to rely on self; over dependence on others c. Obsessive-Compulsive personality disorder i. Dominate features: rigid need for perfection, order, and control

Other senses

Position and movement: 2 systems are involved in the coordination of movements and body positioning (Our brain must be aware at all times the location of each body part... otherwise we would have no control over our movements at all!) 1. The vestibular sense: the sense of body orientation with respect to gravity. Am I upside down or right side up, or somewhere in between?! Also tells us when we are moving or how our motion is changing. Problems in the inner ear can cause dizziness or disorientation. [I once asked a woman who was staggering a bit to her chair if something was wrong. She responded with, "My ear hairs are all messed up!"] 2. Kinesthetic sense: the sense of body position and movement of body parts relative to each other. Provides constant sensory feedback about what your muscles are doing during motor activity. There seems to be a constant level of feedback/adjust to each movement we make. My body knows my feet are crossed at the ankle and my hands are typing this sentence. If my door bell were to ring, I wouldn't crash onto the floor in a heap because (without me specifically moving my feet, etc.) I would adjust my body to the task at hand. (Or at least I hope so!) Smell: the sense of smell is called olfaction. Odors (chemical molecules in the air) contact receptor proteins associated with specialized hairs in the nose > sends info to olfactory bulbs where the sensation of smell is realized. The olfactory bulbs sit directly underneath the brain (not relayed through thalamus), suggesting sense of smell evolved earlier than other senses (pg 200) See Figure 3.11 Receptors for Smell. Taste: the sense of taste is called gestation. Has four main qualities: sweet, sour, bitter, salty. (Your text suggests a 5th taste quality of umani). Umani was not a taste quality when I took General Psych! I did a general search online and read up on it a little, and it does sound interesting. Means "yummy" in Japanese! For more information: www.umaniinfo.com The process: taste receptor cells are gathered in taste buds > they cluster in small projections called papillae > a specialized nerve carries nothing but taste to the brain (a specialized region of the parietal lobe's somatosensory cortex). ZOOM straight to the brain! If the food is bad, we need to know it! It could be a life or death issue! The skin senses: sensory system for processing touch, warmth, cold, texture, pain, etc. Again the idea is the same: there are receptors in the skin that when activated change into neural codes and are transmitted to the brain. The brain has a corresponding area to sense and perceive these stimuli.

2. The cognitive perspective

Pre-cognitive: i. Structuralism: Focus on structure; Definition: A historical school of psychology devoted to uncovering the basic structures that make up mind and thought. Structuralists sought the "elements" of conscious experience. 1. Structuralists attempts to understand mental processes by investigating their contents and structure. Big name: William Wundt: established the formal beginning of psychology as a science by establishing the first formal laboratory in 1879. 2. Proposed a technique called Introspection: The process of reporting on one's own conscious mental experiences. ii. Functionalism: Focus on function; Definition: A historical school of psychology that believed mental processes could best be understood in terms of the adaptive purposes and function. 1. Like the name suggests, this school of thought argues it is the function of the consciousness not just the structure of it that is of interest. Big name: William James: 2. Liked Darwin's ideas of adaptation; suggested adaptation or failing to adapt can lead to problems outside the laboratory (like depression for example); first applied psychologists. iii. Gestalt Psychology: Focus on the whole instead of the parts; Definition: A historical school of psychology that sought to understand how the brain works by studying perception and perceptual learning. 1. Gestalt psychologists believed that percepts consist of meaningful wholes. Just a quick look at the definition of gestalt itself is useful: a group of things (in this case thoughts) that are seen as a whole as opposed to individual parts that make up a whole. It is the opposite of structuralism. Big name: Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler 2. For a demonstration go to Psychology in Your Life: An introspective look at the Necker Cube in your text (pg 15). The big idea here is introspection (reporting one's own experience) and the idea we don't really perceive the world as it actually is but we perceive it to be adding our own interpretations (filling in the blanks). Makes you ask the question... What is really real? And what am I adding to the "real" to make it my own? More on Gestalt later in the class.

What innate abilities does an infant possess?

Prenatal Development The prenatal period spans the time from conception to birth. The 38 weeks of pregnancy are usually divided into three phases: (1) the period of the zygote, (2) the period of the embryo, and (3) the period of the fetus. 1. Period of the Zygote: the zygote is the fertilized egg; it begins to grow through cell division, eventually implanting itself in the lining of the uterus (approximately 7-10 days after conception). 2. Period of the Embryo: the embryo is the name for the developing organism during the first 8 weeks after conception. The cells begin to specialize in a process called differentiation. The first heart beat appears during this period. 3. Period of the Fetus: from 8 weeks on the developing embryo is called a fetus. The mother may begin to feel movements about the 16th week, when the fetus is about 7 inches long. The average length at birth is 20 inches. Teratogens: is any substance from the environment, including viruses, drugs, other chemicals that can damage the developing organism during the prenatal period. See section on Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. The Neonatal Period The neonatal period means the newborn period and lasts through the first month after birth. Newborn babies: • are capable of responding to stimulation from all their senses • have vision of about 20/500 (which develops fully at about 6 months) • have a remarkable set of newborn reflexes: postural reflex (will allow sitting later); grasping reflex (will allow the baby to cling to caregiver) Infancy Infancy spans the time between the neonate period and the establishment of language (usually between 18 months and 2) • Central nervous system continues to develop and refine. Neural connections that are not used are lost through a process called synaptic pruning. • A fundamental form of learning called classical conditioning occurs in which one event signals the occurrence of another. (We already say that in a previous chapter.) • Attachment is developed: an enduring social/emotional relationship between the child and a parent or another regular care giver. (Attachment researchers suggest poor attachments may be at the core of some later intimacy and relational issues.) • Failure to thrive: results from the lack of parental love and nurturing; the lack of a close loving relationship in infancy can affect physical growth (known as psychosocial dwarfism). See the importance of contact comfort in your texts coverage of Psychologists Harry and Margaret Harlow and their study on attachment and physical contact. Please know the outcome of this study.

What abilities do good thinkers have?

Problem solving, judging and making decisions 1. Confirmation bias: makes us pay attention to events that confirm our beliefs and ignore evidence that contradicts them. Perhaps we can call this selective thinking. Can you think of some examples? 2. Hindsight bias: the tendency, after learning about an event, to "second guess" or believe that once could have predicted the event in advance. 3. Anchoring bias: a faulty heuristic caused by basing an estimate on a complete unrelated quantity. 4. Representativeness bias: a faulty heuristic strategy based on the presumption that, once people or events are categorized, they share all the feature of the other members in that category.

Health psychology

Psychological specialty devoted to understanding how people stay healthy, why they become ill, and how they respond when ill.

How does cognitive psychology explain behavior (learning)

Remember in the beginning of this lesson we discussed how learning could happen in the mind, without outward behaviors being shown? According to cognitive psychologists some forms of learning occur as changes in mental processes, rather than just changes in physical behavior alone. I know I just said the same thing twice! :) Definition of insight learning: a form of cognitive learning in which problem solving occurs by the means of a sudden reorganization of perceptions. Affectionately known as the "light bulb moments". Cognitive maps: a mental representation of physical space; a mental image an organism uses to navigate their environment. See Figure 4.8 Using cognitive maps in maze learning. Learning without reinforcement: Called Latent Learning As we have seen, some learning occurs beyond mere observation- in the mind or brain. We infer learning has occurred. We conclude or assume learning has taken place. Main points: a) learning can occur even though the behavior change isn't seen or is seen b) learning can appear hidden or latent c) learning may appear dormant or concealed until the conditions are right to express the behavior d) other factors may influence performance Observational learning: a form of cognitive learning in which new responses are acquired after watching others' behavior and the consequences of their behavior. No introduction to psychology course would be complete without a review of the famous BoBo Doll Experiment: See URL in this module.

How do we retrieve memories?

Retrieval: The third basic task of memory, involving the location and recovery of information from memory. After memory has been encoded, then it is available to retrieve or use. Later we will get to when the memory system fails (makes errors, distorts information, etc.) The opposite of the memory system failing is called an eidetic imagery. This is where an especially clear and persistent form of memories exists that is quite rare, commonly called a photographic memory. Would you want a photographic memory? Implicit memory: a memory that was not deliberately learned or of which you have no conscious awareness. A memory is implicit if it can affect behavior or mental processes without being fully conscious. Explicit memory: a memory that has been processed with attention and can be consciously recalled. Explicit memories always involve consciousness during retrieval. Both implicit and explicit memories require good cues for retrieval. A retrieval cue is stimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness or into behavior. Priming: a technique for cuing implicit memories by providing cues that stimulate a memory without awareness of the connection between the cue and retrieved memory. Retrieving explicit memories: 1. Make it meaningful to you while it is in working memory. While you are "thinking" about it, make it meaning to you and your experiences. For example, when studying for this test, make remembering the definition of episodic memories personal so that you will remember the definition. See what I mean? 2. Remember the gist (general idea, essence) rather than the actual words spoken. Retrieval can be cued two main ways: 1. Recall: a retrieval method in which one must reproduce previously presented information. Like an essay question test. 2. Recognition: a retrieval method in which one must identify present stimuli as having been previously presented. Like a multiple choice question.

Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia: A psychotic disorder involving distortions in thought, perceptions, and/or emotions. 1. The mind is "split" or broken off from reality; personality disintegrates. 2. Terms associated with the disorder: a. Clang association: associating words that sound the same. b. Word salads: see a good example of a word salad on page 537. c. 1 out of every 100 Americans will be affected d. Occurs typically in men before age 25; later for women (ages 25-45) e. Primary diagnosis for inpatient admissions to hospitals f. 1/3 will not recover in spite of treatment 3. Types of schizophrenia: a. Disorganized type: what most people think of when they think of this disorder; odd speech, hallucinations, delusions, odd behavior b. Catatonic type: involves a dysfunction in the motor system i. Catatonic stupor: patient holds posture stiff, like a statue ii. Catatonic excitement: involves hyper motor activity, aggitation c. Paranoid type: Patient is not incoherent as in the disorganized type; but has delusions and hallucinations. Two types of delusions are common: i. Delusions of persecution - "Everyone is out to get me!" ii. Delusions of grandeur or grandiosity - extreme self importance d. Undifferentiated type: catchall for those that fall somewhere in between e. Residual type: mildly disturbed; having had a schizophrenic episode in the past but have no major symptoms currently. 4. Possible causes: a. Agreed upon consensus that schizophrenia is a brain disorder b. Problems with the neurotransmitter dopamine, and glutamate c. Evidence from family studies suggest a biological component d. See Figure 12.7: Genetic Risk of Developing Schizophrenia e. Many people may be predisposed to the disorder, but environment may not be stressful to the point of development of the disorder. f. The diathesis stress hypothesis proposes that genetic factor predispose some people to schizophrenia, while environmental stress factors transform this potential into an actual schizophrenic disorder. g. Said another way, if the environmental stress level remains relatively low, the schizophrenic symptoms may not be seen.

How do we form memories

Sensory memory: the first of three memory stages • Preserves brief sensory impressions of stimuli; holds information only briefly (fraction of a second) • Function is to maintain information long enough to be screened to see if it needs to move into working memory. Working Memory: the second of three memory stages, and most limited in capacity. • It preserves recently perceived events or experiences for less than a minute without rehearsal. • It takes information selected from the sensory registers and connects it with items already in long term storage. It is built to hold information for only a few seconds without rehearsal, like the number to Domino's Pizza; it is gone when you are doing ordering. (Unless of course, it is your mainstay for sustenance, in which case, it is probably already made it to LTM!) :) • Everything that enters consciousness goes through working memory (STM); this where we process conscious experience. • Provides a "mental workspace" where information can be sorted and encoded before entering long term memory. • Your author refers to working memory as "the central processing chip" for the entire memory system. • Typically holds information for about 20 seconds. If an effort to rehearse the information is given, it can hold information even longer. • It is the work space where ideas and images pulled from LTM can be "worked on", commonly referred to as "thinking". The Capacity and Duration of Working Memory • Working memory is associated with the number 7 (give or take 2). This means that the working memory can hold up to 7 items, (can vary from person to person). • When working memory is overloaded, earlier items are usually lost. (Have you ever been so busy you can't remember what you are doing? Now you know. Your working memory was overloaded and some items were pushed out into space ;) Long Term Memory The capacity and duration of Long Term Memory: How much information can your long term memory hold? It is unlimited. It stores all the memories processed by the working memory; it is the container of all your knowledge. It is a giant storehouse that never fills up completely, Two main parts of the Long Term Memory: 1. Procedural memory: a division of long term memory that stores memories for how things are done. It is the "how to" memory: how to drive a car, how to ride a bike, how to type, how to everything :) 2. Declarative memory: a division of long term memory that stores explicit information; factual information. It has two subdivisions: a. episodic memory: stores memories of personal events. Includes context (time, places, etc.). For example, your 16th birthday party, your first dog's name, etc. It is your own personal "episode". It is your internal diary or autobiographical memory. b. semantic memory: stores general knowledge, including the meaning of words and concepts, who the president is, how many states in the US, etc. I would like you to be generally familiar with the case of H.M. Please see URL for more information. Parts of the brain associated with Long Term Memory Consolidation: the process by which short term memories are changed to long term memories over a period of time. This takes place in the hippocampus. • Deterioration of the hippocampus accounts for many symptoms of Alzheimer's disease (including the loss of ability to make new memories). • The amygdala is implicated in the persistent and troubling memories of those with post traumatic stress disorder.

Hearing

Sound waves create waves of compressed and expanded air. Two properties determine how it will be sensed by the brain: 1. Frequency: the number of cycles completed by a wave in a given amount of time 2. Amplitude: the physical strength of a sound wave Big picture: waves of air enter the ear > air waves strike ear drum (tympanic membrane) > vibration activates tiny bones in the middle ear (hammer, anvil, stirrup) > vibrations pass to the cochlea, stimulating internal fluid > fluid stimulates tiny hair cells on the basilar membrane > basilar membrane converts (changes) the vibrations into neural messages. Look at Figure 3.8 called Structures of the Human Ear. Please be familiar with the general structures of the ear. Again, there is a corresponding area in the brain to process auditory information. Note some features of the auditory system: Pitch: a sensory characteristic of sound produced by the frequency of the sound wave Timbre: the complex quality of a sound wave; allows for distinguishing among similar sounds Loudness: a sensory characteristic of sound produced by the intensity (amplitude) of the sound wave

Is intelligence one or more abilities?

Spearman's g factor: Charles Spearman was a Britich psychologist in the 1920's. He suggested that intelligence is made of a single factor or general intelligence. He called this the g factor. Definition: g factor: a general ability; the main factor underlying all intelligent mental activities. Cattell's fluid and crystallized intelligence: Raymond Cattell broke intelligence down into 2 relatively independent components: 1. Fluid intelligence: the ability to see complex relationships and solve problems. 2. Crystallized intelligence: the knowledge a person has acquired, plus the ability to access that information. Sternberg's Triarchic Theory: Robert Sternberg suggested this theory which is comprised of three intelligences or abilities 1. Practical intelligence: the ability to cope with the environment; sometimes called "street smarts." 2. Analytical (logical reasoning): the ability measured by most IQ tests; includes the ability to analyze problems and find correct answers. 3. Creative abilities: the form of intelligence that helps people see new relationships among concepts; involves insight and creativity. Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences: This just happens to be my own personal favorite. I did a research project during graduate school on this very theory. At that time, Howard Gardner was not in introductory textbooks, but now he is!

How are mental/psychological disorders classfied?

The 4th edition of the DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, published by the APA (American Psychiatric Association); the most widely accepted psychiatric classification in the US. The DSM-IV: 1. Published in 1994 2. Given a revision in 2000 3. Offers a common and concise language for psychopathological disorders 4. Insurance companies use DSM-IV standards Why is this important? Because when one clinician talks of a disorder, the other clinician knows exactly the same information and same diagnostic criteria. This is very important because without a classification system, all clinicians would have their own criteria as to what is abnormal and what is not!

3. The behavioral perspective

The Behavioral View Definition: A psychological perspective that finds the source of our actions in environmental stimuli, rather than inner mental processes or biological factors. Emphasis on how environment affects learning - particularly though the study of rewards and punishment. Big names: John Watson, B.F. Skinner

What are psychology's 6 main perspectives?

The biological perspective, the cognitive perspective, the behavioral perspective, whole personal perspective, the developemental perspective, and the sociocultural perspective

vision

The changing or transducing takes place in the retina More about the retina: 1. The retina is a light-sensitive layer at the back of the eyeball containing millions of photoreceptors (light sensitive cells) and other nerve cells. 2. There are 2 types of light sensitive cells: a. Rods: 125 million, detect low levels of light; "see in the dark vision"; vision that allows you to find your way to the bathroom at night! b. Cones: 7 million, allows fine distinction for color vision; concentrated in the center of the retina (called the fovea); gives us our sharpest vision 3. Other cells in the retina: a. Bipolar cells: combine information from several receptors. b. Ganglion cells: axons of ganglion cells make up the optic nerve. The point where the optic nerve exits the eye is called the blind spot because there are no photoreceptors in that area (just nerve axons). The fovea is an area in the retina that has a concentration of ones; this area has the sharpest vision in the retina. The optic nerve is the bundle of neurons that carry visual information from the retina to the brain. In the area where the optic nerve leaves the eye, there is what is called a blind spot. There are no photoreceptors in this area (because the nerve fibers are there).

How neurons work

The dendrites receive information and pass this information to the cell body or soma. The dendrites collect the message from the previous cell. The cell body assesses the message and "decides": continue on (fire!) or don't continue on (stop). It is all or nothing. The nucleus is in the center of the cell body. If the soma "decides" continue on, it creates a message of its own: and sends it through the axon (a transmitting fiber) to the terminal buttons. The axon is the long fiber in the picture. It is covered by a coating called the myelin sheath. The myelin sheath is responsible for the speed and smoothness of the transmission. The terminal buttons are at the end of the axon. (See page 52 of your text for another picture.) These knobs are the terminal buttons. It is at this juncture between the knobs and the dendrites of the next neuron that chemical messages (neurotransmitter) get passed from cell to cell. Dendrite: a branched fiber that extends outward from the main cell body and carries information into the neuron. Soma: the cell body; the part of the cell containing the nucleus, which includes the chromosomes, genes, DNA. Axon: in a nerve cell, an extended fiber that conducts information from the soma to the terminal buttons. Information travels along the axon in the form of an electrical charge (we are discussing this next), called the AP (action potential).

McClellands Theory TaT nACH

Why People Work: McClelland's Theory Intrinsic motivation: the desire to engage in an activity for its own sake, rather than a reward. This kind of motivation comes from an inner quality. For example, I am intrinsically motivated to work with those people addicted to drugs and alcohol in my church program. I get no financial gain rather an inner satisfaction. Extrinsic motivation: the desire to engage in an activity to achieve an external consequence, such as a reward. Many people go to work each day in order to make money, for example. Other examples may be a trophy, praise, good test score, etc. How can we assess one's motivation for work: By assessing the need for achievement: nAch: in Murray and McClellend's theory, a mental state that produces a psychological motive to excel or to reach some goal. a. Measured by the TAT (Thematic Apperception Test) b. People with a high nACH Show more persistence on difficult tasks Tend to get better grades in school Tend to have higher IQ scores Tend to have more competitive jobs Assume more leaderships roles; earn more rapid promotions More reasons why people work: to fulfill a need for: 1. A need for affiliation: this means a need to connect or be in relationships. 2. A need for power As a student, ask yourself this question: what are my career needs? Do I have a high need to achieve? Do I have a high need for affiliation in my career (to work with people)? Do I have a need for power (to be a manager or in control of people or projects)? It is a good idea to know how you function and what your needs are when selecting a career! How can culture influence motivation? Let's take a look at two cultural implications: 1. Individualism: the view, common in the Euro-American world, that places a high value on individual achievement and distinction. 2. Collectivism: the view, common in Asia, Africa, Latin America and the Middle East, that values group loyalty and pride over individual distinction. See examples on page 366.

Perception

a process that makes sensory patterns meaningful to the individual; organizes material; it is a mental process that elaborates and assigns meaning to the incoming sensory patterns. Perception creates an interpretation and elaboration of sensation. Information gets filtered through our senses and then combined with our memories, emotions, experiences, expectations, etc.

Perceptual psychology

is the study of the psychological processes that attach meaning and personal significance to the sensory messages entering our brain.

What motivates us?

refers to all the processes involved in starting, energizing, directing and maintaining physical and psychological activities; includes mental processes that select and direct behavior and actions. This involves all the processes involved in 1. First sensing a need or desire 2. Activating and guiding the organism by selecting, directing and sustaining the mental and physical activity aimed at meeting the desire 3. Reducing the sensation of need

Sensation and sensory receptor

the process by which stimulation of a sensory receptor (cells that are dedicated to the reception and transmission of stimulus information) produces neural impulses that the brain interprets as a sound, a visual image, an odor, a taste, a pain or other sensory image. Sensation represents the first series of steps in the processing of incoming information.

Sensory psychology

the study of the processes which connect us with the outside world; includes the study our sense organs and how they filter our environment. They filter our experiences; they filter our world though our senses! One person's experience with their senses with an object may not always match another person's senses with the exact same object. Why... because the object is different? No, because the process by which the brain processes this information is different in individuals. Generally, they are pretty similar but not always!

Classical Conditioning examples

•When I hear the song "Momma Mia" I smile! I have a 20-year-old daughter that loves Abba and that song! She sings her heart out and she looks so beautiful, my heart is touched! The song itself had no particular value to me until she sang it (hundreds of times I might add!) Remember, the UCS has to be meaningful in order to be conditioned. •Baby shoes.... They are just shoes, until your baby wears them... then they need to be bronzed. :) •I got sick after eating cantaloupe when I was younger. In fact, I don't even remember it... today when I smell a cantaloupe it smells like throw up to me. (Sorry for the grossness.!) When I look at cantaloupe this is what I see: cantaloupe=yuck. The fruit itself is not the culprit, just that it was combined with illness.