Psych of Gender Exam 3

Statistics of reported rape victims

1 in 5 women & 1 in 71 men report being raped in their lifetime.

Based on the 2011 Pew study numbers (pg. 371), women spend about ___x (2x? 3x?) as many hours as men on housework.

2x women do 18 hours of housework and men do 10 hours

Lifetime globally ___% of women experience physical violence by a partner.

30%

In the U.S. ___% of women who are murdered are killed by an intimate partner; ___% of men who are murdered are killed by an intimate partner.

38% of women 7% of men

____% of 1st marriages in the U.S. end in divorce.

40-45%

Currently the U.S. provides 0 days paid maternity leave; Sweden provides ___ days.

480 days

Organizations function most effectively when women occupy around what % of positions?

50%

According to Gottman, it is important that for every negative marital interaction, you have at least ___ positive interactions. (see slide 62)

5:1

___% of women and ___% of men who experience rape do not label their experiences as such (see pg. 491).

73% of women and 76% of men

Do most developing countries offer paid maternity leave? (How many total countries in the world have no paid maternity leave?)

8 countries have no guaranteed maternity leave: US, Papau New Guinea, Suriname, and 5 tiny Pacific island countries.

The current U.S. gender wage gap is approximately ____%.

80%

Relative to the 1940s, women now are more likely to say that after having children they plan to __.

???

Who reports relationship problems more often? Initiatives divorce more often?

Across cultures, women report relationships problems more often and initiate divorce more often

essentialist beliefs

Assumptions that observed sex differences reflect inherent, natural, biological differences between women and men.

Flexible work schedules. Who values it more? Who anticipates lower likelihood of using it?

College men report valuing workplace flexibility and work-life balance as strongly as women, but the men anticipated a relatively low likelihood of actually using flexible work arrangements

barriers to closeness in male friendship. (3)

Competition Homophobia Emotional Inexpressiveness

consent (FRIES)

Consent is: Freely given Reversible Informed Enthusiastic Specific

When the husband in a heterosexual couple is unemployed, who does most of the housework? Which theory best explains this finding?

Employed women do more than half of the housework even when their male partners are unemployed Gender role ideology hypothesis: hypothesis that the couple's beliefs about gender roles influence the manner in which they divide housework and childcare

Who is impacted more by divorce ...financially? ...psychologically? ...physically?

Financially, women are impacted more Psychologically, men show a larger dip in happiness Physically, mortality is higher for men following divorce

What 3 things do people who sign the "It's On Us" pledge agree to do?

Intervene to prevent sexual assault when it is happening Recognize that if no consent is given, then the act is sexual assault Create a new culture that supports survivors and rejects sexual assault

What is IPV? What are the two types?

Intimate Partner Violence Intimate Terrorism Situational couple violence

who developed attachment theory

John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth

What is the relationship between social network size and physical health/mental health/mortality?

Larger social networks indicate better social integration and predict positive psychological and physical health outcomes

Who is more likely to be a target of violence—men or women? What are the exceptions to this? Does the pattern hold across race and sexual orientation?

Males exceptions: sexual violence and intimate partner violence Black, latino, and white men each experience more violent crime than women of their same race Sexual-minority men experience more violent crimes than sexual-minority women

who developed the Strange Situation

Mary Ainsworth

Who is more likely to commit violent crimes?

Men

Who is more likely to negotiate their salary?

Men

Who is more likely to use physical aggression? Size of this difference? At what age does it emerge? Is it found consistently?

Men (Medium) Gender differences emerge around 3-6 Consistent

Who is more likely to use verbal aggression? Size of this difference?

Men (Small)

Who is likely to harass? Who is likely to experience harassment?

Men likely to sexually harass are more likely to view sex and power as linked, hold hostile attitudes toward women, and have impulse control problems Women who are unmarried, younger than the average employed woman, and attractive are most likely to experience sexual harassment

Who is more likely to endorse romantic beliefs? Who falls in love more quickly?

Men more strongly endorse romantic beliefs than women do Some studies find that men fall in love more quickly than women (contrary to stereotypes), others find no differences between men and women

Are most jobs gender segregated or fairly balanced between men and women?

Most jobs are gender segregated (help primarily by men or by women, not by an equal - or near equal - number of men and women)

Throughout history ____ marriages have been arranged; currently ____% of marriages worldwide are arranged.

Most marriages have been arranged. 53% of marriages worldwide are arranged

Are multiple roles good for the health of ...women? ...men? The most distressed people are...?

Multiple roles are good for the health of both men and women The most distressed people are unemployed, single, and without children

Who is more likely to use relational aggression? Size of this difference?

Neither Difference close to zero

Do men and women use different amounts of relational aggression?

No, both use similar amounts of relational aggression

Are each of the following increasing, decreasing, or staying the same since the 1950s? Number of single parents same-sex parents child-free by choice couples male sole breadwinners, female sole or primary breadwinners dual-earner couples

Number of single parents: increased from 9% to 26% same-sex parents: increasing child-free by choice couples: increasing male sole breadwinners: decreasing or staying the same female sole breadwinners: increasing from 11% to 40% dual-earner couples: increasing 60%

Do most couples cohabitate before marrying? What's the relationship between cohabitation and marital satisfaction/stability (not divorcing)? Caveat?

Over 75% of couples live together prior to getting married Most studies of couples who live together before getting married find lower rates of marital satisfaction and higher rates of divorce cohabiting does not have a negative effect if the couple did not have any previous live-in lovers and did not have children prior to the marriage

Parents report (higher or lower?) relationship satisfaction than non-parents. The effect is largest for (mothers or fathers?) of ____ (what age child?)

Parents report lower levels of relationship satisfaction than non-parents; the effect is largest for mothers of infants

Do couples spend more, less, or the same amount of time on housework as in the past?

People do much less housework now than in the past (Except childcare)

WHOTO: Know the four attachment functions and the order in which they transfer from parents to peers. Know which of the four is seen as most important in identifying the primary attachment figure and what question is asked to assess it.

Proximity Seeking Safe Haven Separation Distress Secure Base

sexual assault vs. rape

Rape is a form of sexual assault, but not all sexual assault is rape sexual assault: unwanted sexual contact without explicit consent of the victim rape: non-consensual penetration of mouth, vagina, or anus by a penis, finger, or object.

Why is rape underreported? (5)

Reasons for not reporting to police: fears that they lack adequate proof; police will not take them seriously; their families will find out; and the perpetrators will retaliate A culture of victim blaming also contributes to the underreporting of sexual assault crimes, and victim blaming permeates the media. Often rapists get away with their crimes without facing an investigation, trial, or jail time

In what 3 ways does this form of discrimination happen?

Recruitment Who receives offers Assignment of women and men to different jobs with different salaries

What are examples of essentialist parenting beliefs? What's the evidence show? (re: parents of newborns, female primary caregivers, male primary caregivers?)

Research studying caretaking behaviors of new parents find NO gender differences in parenting quality. Women and men show similar levels of competence meeting newborns' needs But mothers are more often the primary caretaker By spending more time with infants, mothers may develop greater sensitivity to infants' needs and better ability to interpret nonverbal cues Men who are primary caregivers parent just as well as women do

when it comes to housework and childcare in comparison to heterosexual couples, same-sex couples __________.

Same-sex couples more frequently share household responsibilities equally.

How do same-sex (unmarried) couples compare to heterosexual married couples in terms of satisfaction and stability and the factors that predict them? Overall, more similarities or differences between same-sex and heterosexual couples?

Same-sex couples tend to be (at least) as satisfied as heterosexual couples but less stable Overall, gay and lesbian couples tend to be more similar than different from heterosexual couples

Whose friendships tend to be closer/more intimate & satisfying? When does this difference begin?

Starting in middle school, girls report closer and more satisfying friendships than boys. women's friendships tend to be closer and more intimate than men's friendships.

What differences do studies of same-sex vs. heterosexual parents find in terms of attachment, quality of parent-child relationship, child's relationships with peers, child's behavioral and mental health outcomes?

Studies comparing same-sex versus heterosexual parents, find no differences across couple type in Quality of the parent-child relationship Children's attachment to parents Children's behavioral problems at school Children's relationships with peers

The first country to include fathers/offer paternity leave was ____ in which decade?

Sweden 1974 or 1995?

The average age at which women have their first child has (increased, decreased, stayed the same?). Currently, it is ___.

The age at which women have their first child increased from 21 (1970) to 28 (2017)

feme covert

The legal status of married women in British common law and American colonial law, whereby women transferred their identities and rights to their husband upon marriage.

How do the number of friends and frequency of interaction with friends shift in early adulthood?

The number of friends and frequency of interaction with friends decreases for both women and men during adulthood due to career development/time with family

motherhood penalty

The wage penalty that women - but not men - experience following the birth of a child.

In recent years the average age of first marriage has (increased, decreased, stayed the same?). Currently average is about ___ years for women and ___ years for men.

US average age of 1st marriage is higher than ever (and it's consistently higher for men than women) 27.4 for women and 29.5 for men (in 2017)

stalled gender revolution

US historical trend in which women made large gains in the workforce from the 1960s to 1980s, but this began to plateau in the early 1990s - limited by realities of housework and childcare falling largely on their shoulders

aggression vs. violence

Violence is a subset of aggression because all violence is aggression, but not all aggression is violence. aggression: behavior that is intended to cause psychological or physical harm to another person or animal violence: severe forms of physical aggression that have extreme harm as their goal

What are rape myths? Be able to identify examples. How do they contribute to rape culture, victim blaming, unacknowledged rape, and rape being underreported?

Wearing revealing clothing, behaving provocatively, or drinking a lot means the victim was "asking for it" Men can't be raped A man can't rape his wife Rape only happens to young attractive women She has casual sex at a party with another guy, surely she'd be willing to have sex again Once a man gets sexually aroused, he can't just stop If a women doesn't physically fight back, you can't really say it was rape

In heterosexual relationships, _____ do the majority of childcare.

Women

Who reports higher levels of work-family conflict, women or men? How does it relate to mental and physical health?

Women and men report similar levels of work-family conflict Work-life enrichment correlates with positive outcomes such as marital satisfaction, sleep quality, and job satisfaction

_____ do the majority of housework

Women do more domestic labor than men

Who has moved into jobs dominated by the other gender at a faster rate?

Women have moved into male-dominated occupations at much faster rate than men have moved into female-dominated occupations

Do people evaluate women who negotiate—in comparison with men who negotiate—more negatively? (see pg. 395)

Yes

rape culture

a complex set of beliefs that create an environment in which sexual violence is prevalent and normalized perpetuated through the use of misogynistic language, objectification of bodies, and glamorization of violence. Behaviors commonly associated with rape culture include victim-blaming, sexual objectification, trivializing rape, denial of widespread rape, or refusing to acknowledge the harm of sexual assault

token

a person who is the minority in their field and who feels pressure to succeed and reflect well on the ability of everyone in his or her group

arranged vs. autonomous marriage

arranged marriage: third parties, such as parents or relatives of the couple, select pairings based on an assessment of similarity, compatibility, and mutual benefit autonomous marriage: individuals select their own partners based on attraction, love, or other personal factors, without formal permission or approval from parents

sticky floor

barriers that keep low-wage workers (who are disproportionately likely to be women and people of color) from being promoted

sex-based harassment

behavior that derogates or humiliates based on the individual's sex, sexual orientation, or gender identity.

The wage gap differs by race; the gap is largest for ______ women.

black and latina

Do parents spend more, less, or the same amount of time on childcare as in the past?

both men and women increasingly devote substantial time to their children

Whose social networks are larger in ....childhood? ...adolescence? ...adulthood?

boys form larger social networks in childhood differences disappear in adolescence women's social network richer and larger in adulthood

Roughly what % of U.S. women and men are parents by age 40?

by age 40, 85% of women and 76% of men in the US have at least 1 child

Describe the change in the wage gap (has it increased, decreased, been eliminated)? Has there been much change in the past decade?

change in gender wage gap has narrowed but progress has slowed and wage gap still remains. (only decreased 2% in the past decade)

Over 2/3 of women are in what jobs? Women are most under-represented in which jobs?

clerical or professional fields dominated by women - nursing and teaching underrepresented in skilled blue collar jobs, such as electricians, mechanics, and plumbers

What's the relationship between parenthood and personal happiness? Meaning in life?

compared with non-parents, parents report higher levels of personal happiness and meaning in life.

What is consent (based on lecture & pg. 489)? Is it a one-time thing or ongoing process?

consent means that all parties have a clear and unambiguous agreement, expressed outwardly through mutually understandable words or actions, to engage in sexual activity. ongoing process

Studies of bias based on sexual orientation & gender identity find consistently ____ (high? moderate? low? close to zero?) levels of discrimination.

consistently high levels of discrimination

When in the lifespan are cross-sex friendships most common?

cross-sex friendships become common by college age in western cultures

List the things that Gottman & Levenson (2000) found were predictive of divorce (4)

decrease in nonverbal expressions of positive emotions increase in expressions of negative emotions during discussions of tense topics ratio of positive to negative comments that occured (Ratio at least 5:1 positive to negative interactions) husbands show a more rapid escalation of negative emotion and a more rapid decline of positive emotion

challenges pertaining to cross-sex friendship (4)

emotional bond challenge sexual challenge Equality challenge opportunity challenge

How do evolutionary (parental investment) vs. social role/constructionism explain these differences? What is the support for each theory?

evolutionary theory: Argues that women's emphasis on resource provision and men's emphasis on attractiveness enhances our ancestor's reproductive success social role theory/social constructionism: When women perform unpaid domestic labor and have fewer economic resources than men, they benefit from selecting partners who provide financial support. Having greater economic resources allows men to prioritize attractiveness - a desirable but unnecessary trait support for theory: The tendency to prioritize earning potential over attractiveness reverses among financially independent women Gender differences in mate preferences have declined over time, as domestic and employment roles of women and men have grown more similar Gender differences are weaker in countries with greater gender equality

paternalistic chivalry

expectation that men should be more protective and polite, treating dates like "ladies" and offering to pay for them

Are false rape allegations common? more common than for other crimes?

false rape allegations are not more common than for other crimes.

work-family conflict

feelings of stress between work life and home life, in which time spent in each domain detracts from contributions to the other domain

chosen families

friend circle that stands in for biological families and consists largely of individuals who understand unique challenges of being LGBT

passionate friendships

friendships characterized by intense longing for proximity, high levels of affection, and large amounts of physical touch. for some sexual minority women, these friendships provide context for their first same-sex experiences.

Men and women tend to divide housework in _____ ways. Women tend to do tasks that _____; men tend to do tasks that _____.

gender typical ways women tend to do more ongoing, essential, time-consuming tasks men tend to do tasks that can be performed occasionally

Know the things that are "still the same" in the gender wage gap (3)

gender wage gap remains around the world Women still do the majority of the housework and childcare occupations and positions of men and women still differ

Who is more likely to interact in ...dyads? ...large groups?

girls interact in dyads and boys interact in large groups.

Gender differences in handling conflict in friendships?

girls spend more time resolving conflicts than boys men deal with conflict more directly than women males may be more likely to maintain the same friendships over time and be more tolerant of friends who betray them, violate trust, or fail to confide in them women may have higher expectations of friendship

How do boys vs. girls define friendship?

girls view friendship as emotional (a friend is someone with whom you connect with) boys view friendship as instrumental (a friend is someone with whom you do things)

Be familiar with the Brock Turner case. Was he found guilty? What was the sentence?

he was found guilty, but the judge gave him a 6 month sentence.

When Alyssa Milano encouraged others to use Tarana Burke's #metoo in October 2017, what was the goal? (see her tweet in the slides)

her goal was to give people a sense of the magnitude of the problem.

In terms of showing love, heterosexual men are more likely to mention acts that ____ while heterosexual women are more likely to mention acts that ____.

heterosexual men are more likely to mention acts that involve displaying resources heterosexual women are more likely to mention acts that assure commitment and sexual exclusivity

Discrimination in ________ may be the primary factor in the gender wage gap.

hiring

Women's salaries are lower than men's salaries and _____ was the point at which the difference began and was most prominent.

hiring

unacknowledged rape

individuals who have experiences that meet legal definitions of rape without labelling their experience as such

old boys' networks

informal, inner circles of men who exclude women from decision making and use their influence to help other men

intimate terrorism vs. situational couple violence

intimate terrorism: Intimate Partner Violence in which one partner repeatedly uses violence and fear to dominate and control the other situational couple violence: intimate partner violence that results when heated conflicts escalate

glass ceiling

invisible barriers in that prevent women from rising to top corporate positions, regardless of their qualifications or achievements

% of rapes done by males

men perpetrate over 90% of rapes of both males & females.

Men rate ___ as more important than women do; women rate ___ as more important than men do. In what context do these differences emerge?

men rate good looks as more important women rate good financial prospects and ambition as more important gender differences are consistent and may be universal differences only emerge when asking about long-term partners

Men tend to be more upset about ___ infidelity; women tend to be more upset about ___ infidelity.

men tend to be more upset about sexual infidelity women tend to me more upset about emotional infidelity

What is the "mommy track"? What about women who do not have children? Does it eliminate this discrimination?

mommy track: The widespread perception that women who have children will be less committed to careers and will not achieve as much as men with comparable credentials Still more likely to experience discrimination in the workplace because the reality of commitment does not overcome the perception that women will have and take care of their children

When are most rapes committed?

most rapes are perpetrated by someone the victim knows.

Negotiators offer ____ (more, less, equal?) money to women in comparison to men because they expect women to ____.

negotiators offer less money to women because they expect women to be satisfied with smaller salary offers

Has women's increased commitment to paid work been matched by a parallel commitment among men to divide housework and childcare equally?

no

demand-withdraw pattern

one couple member criticizes or demands and the other responds by withdrawing emotionally or physically

What 3 factors predict good parent-child relationships?

parental warmth sensitivity consistency

What term is key to the definition of rape?

penetration

Are men more likely to use physical or relational aggression?

physical

What are the two types of sex-based harassment?

quid pro quo and hostile environment

quid pro quo vs. hostile environment

quid pro quo: employers or supervisors offer work benefits (e.g., promotion) or threaten work repercussions (e.g., loss of job) in exchange for sexual favors. Clear abuse of power hostile environment: making unwelcome sexual advances or engaging in other conduct of a sexual nature that unreasonably interferes with an individual's work performance or creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive atmosphere.

Are women more likely to use physical or relational aggression?

relational

consensual nonmonogamy

relationship arrangements where all partners agree to pursue sexual and/or romantic relationships with others

polyamory

relationships in which adults have multiple sexual and/or romantic partners, with the knowledge and consent of all parties

attachment styles (3)

secure, avoidant, anxious

What do males vs. females identity as benefits of cross-sex friendships? (6)

seek more advice about romantic preferences of the other sex feel less competition Women find more companionship and sense of relief men find more emotional support Women have less conflict with male than female friends Among children, decreased sex-typed behavior and opportunities to engage in a wider variety of play activities

Which type of sex-based harassment do people report experiencing most frequently (e.g., demanding sex in exchange for favors/promotions, unwelcome sexual comments/jokes?)

sexual jokes

glass cliff

tendency to place women into leadership positions in which likelihood of failure is high

The only developed nation that does not guarantee paid maternity leave is ____.

the US is the only developed, industrialized nation in the world without any national laws guaranteeing paid maternity leave

gist of in the news articles

the University of Utah just instituted paid parental leave for staff for the first time on January 1, 2019. As of this year, full-time employees who have worked for the U for at least a year are eligible for 6 weeks paid at 50% of their salary. Of all 50 states, Utah had the largest gaps between men and women in executive positions and work hours.

glass escalator

the advantage that men have in female-dominated careers in terms of rapid promotion

According to Berdahl, the primary motivation for sex-based harassment is ___. (see textbook)

the desire to protect one's own sex-based status and to punish people who deviate from traditional gender roles

gender wage gap

the difference in earnings between men and women

occupational feminization

the entrance of women in large numbers into a previously male-dominated occupation

social network

the extended circles of people with whom we interact regularly, whether or not we know them well or feel close to them

need to belong

the fundamental need for a small number of close relationships that offer frequent, positive interactions.

occupational segregation

the segregation of occupations by sex, such that men primarily work in occupations dominated by men, and women primarily work in occupations dominated by women

Overall, are there more similarities or differences in mate preferences?

there are more similarities than differences

Based on a 3 minute videotape of newlyweds discussing conflict, they were able to predict _____ with ___% accuracy. What was the BEST predictor of early divorce?

they were able to predict whether you will divorced earlier or later in your marriage with a 93% accuracy rate. husbands changes in emotional expressions over time hold an important key to predicting heterosexual couples' longevity.

true or false: Men and women tend to choose different occupations and male-dominated occupations tend to pay more?

true

true or false: The wage gap persists even when comparing wages within the same occupations and statistically controlling for factors such as education and experience?

true

true or false: For virtually every occupation, there is a significant wage gap, with women earning less?

true

maternal wall

unexamined assumptions held by coworkers and superiors about how women will behave once they become mothers

Statistics of child sex abuse victims

up to 1 in 6 boys & 1 in 4 girls may be victims of child sex abuse.

Men who _____ are more likely to be victims of sex-based harassment

violate gender role norms

stonewalling

when the listener withdraws from the interaction, shutting down and closing themselves off from the speaker because they are feeling overwhelmed or physiologically flooded.

rape myths

widely held false belief about rape, rape victims and rapists

Demand-withdraw predicts divorce primarily when ___ demands & ___ withdraws.

wife demands and husband withdraws

What is "mental" housework and who does more?

women do the most of the "mental" housework remembering and reminding partners and kids about doctors visits, birthdays, performances, etc.

Which role combinations are associated with most and least psychological distress for women?

women employed part time with children or full time without children have the lowest levels of psychological distress Women employed full time with children and unemployed with or without children experience higher levels of distress

In countries with less gender equality, women experience ____—and men experience ____—IPV.

women experience more - and men experience less

In the U.S. since the 1960s, women have ___ and men have ___ hours/week spent on childcare.

women have doubled and men have tripled the hours/week they spend on childcare

Aside from size, what gender differences are seen in social networks?

women spend more time with their social networks, view their networks as more emotionally available to them, and get more emotional support from their networks. women offer more responsive and attentive support to network members than men do.

Women's friendships involve higher levels of ___ and men's involve higher levels of ___.

women's friendships involve higher levels of shared emotions, personal disclosure, and social support. men's friendships involve higher levels of shared activities and conversations about relatively non-personal topics.

Can men be the targets of sex-based harassment?

yes

How do men respond to and expect women to respond to sexual propositions at work? How do women actually typically respond?

⅔ of men who have experienced sexual propositions at work felt flattered by the proposition; only 17% of women felt the same way Men are also more likely to believe that women will feel flattered by a sexual proposition, even though women are more likely to feel insulted or angered.