Psychology 110 Exam 3

Conclusion

-% of the members of the whole group that have that property -Population

Conservatism

-A hypothesis that fits best with established beliefs -When beliefs are well-established it's more difficult to introduce a new hypothesis and prove the other hypothesis wrong

Hypothetical Syllogism

-A valid, conditional hypothetical form used to think critically about a series of events. -Two premises, one conclusion -Valid rule of inferences -aka) transitivity of implication -ex) if p then q, if q then r, therefore if p then r -ex) if i do not wake up, then i cannot go to work. if i cannot go to work, then I will not get paid. Therefore, if I do not wake up, then I will not get paid.

Abduction

-Also known as hypothetical induction

Transitivity of Implication

-Also known as hypothetical syllogism

Deductive Arguments

-Also known as top-down logic -Provides conclusive support for their conclusions -If premises are true, conclusion must be true

Affirming the Consequent

-Always invalid -Ex) If p then q. Q. Therefore, p. -ex) if my car is out of gas, it will stop running. My car stopped running. Therefore, it is out of gas. (could be other reasons why it stopped running)

Sound Argument

-An argument that has correct premises and valid reasoning

Anecdotal Evidence

-Another word for experience -Only source of knowledge to the world

Finding Conclusions

-Ask what claim is the writer/speaker trying to get me to accept -What claim is the writer/speaker providing reasons for?

Faulty Evaluations

-Avoid _____________ by knowing how to be careful in making certain distinctions in judgments

Conclusions

-Claims that the premises are intended to support -Must have at lease one ___________ in a valid argument -ex) Indicator words: "Therefore" "So" "Consequently" "As a result"

Conditional Arguments

-Compound statements -ex) "if-then" statements -antecedent and consequent

Judgments

-Conclusions arrived at through examination of evidence and careful reasoning -Does not guarantee worth or wisdom -can be misconceptions about truth, knowledge, and opinion

Reasoning

-Connects the premise to the conclusion -either valid or invalid

Syllogism

-Deductive argument consisting of two premises an a conclusion

Purpose

-Demonstrates & determines if a claim or proposition is true using evidence

Scope

-Greater _____________ = best hypothesis -Explains and predicts the most diverse phenomena -the more it unites and systemizes our knowledge the less likely it is to be false

Expressing Judgments

-How we _____________ can alter their meanings we need to: -Strive for a balanced view -deal with probability -Make your subject specific -make your predicate exact -include all appropriate qualifications -avoid exaggeration

Criteria of Adequacy

-How well a hypothesis systemizes and unifies our knowledge and increases our understanding

Inductive Argument Strength

-Inductive arguments are this when it has -Sample Size -Sample Representativeness

Hypothetical Induction

-Inference to the best explanation -Most widely used form of inference -Also known as "abduction" -Too many explanations makes this difficult -Good Determiners: amount of understanding it produces how well it systemizes and unifies our knowledge

Scientists

-Interested in knowing how something works

Denying the Antecedent

-Invalid argument -ex) if p, then q. Not p. therefore not q. -Ex) If my car is out of gas, it will stop running. My car is not out of gas. Therefore, it will not stop running. (There could be other reasons that the car will break down)

Hypotheses

-Investigation occurs after __________ has been formulated -Tell us what to look for and distinguish relevant/irrelevant info. from each other -Designed to account for data (leads to right direction) -does not have to be correct -right/wrong determined by research

Straw Man

-Misrepresent someone's claim to make it easier to dismiss or reject -ex) Caroline says that she thinks her friends should not be so rude to the new girl. Jenna says that she cannot believe that Caroline is choosing to be better friends with the new girl than the girls who have always known her.

Disjunctive Syllogism

-Non-conditional valid form of argument -One of the disjuncts can be denied. Conclusion- the undenied disjunct must be true -Ex) either p or q. Not p. therefore q -ex) Either the meeting is at home or at school. The meeting is not at home. Therefore the meeting is at school. -ex) Soup or salad

Validity

-Not the same as being true -Refers to argument's logical structure -Ex) false premises & false conclusion false premises & true conclusion true premises & true conclusion CANNOT have true premises and false conclusion

Cogent Argument

-One which provides good reasons for accepting the conclusion -An inductive strong argument with true premises

Inductive Arguments

-Otherwise known as bottom-up logic -Intended to provide probable support for their conclusions -More than 50% -If succeeds in giving support = "strong" -Does not guarantee truth of conclusion (only very likely) -even if premise is true, conclusions can still be false -Not valid or invalid ---Strong or weak -Provide us with new ideas

Disjunction

-Part of disjunctive syllogism -A statement in the p-or-q format

Disjunct

-Part of disjunctive syllogism -Each statement in a disjunction -ex) p or q

Premise

-Part of inductive arguments -% of the observed members of a group that have a particular property -(sample)

Telepathy

-Perception of another's thoughts without the use of senses

Clairvoyance

-Perception of distant objects/situations without the use of senses -ex) America's got talent act

Precognition

-Perception of future events without the use of the senses

Extrasensory Perception (ESP)

-Perception that is not meditated -Undermine the theory of knowledge of science

Marvin Harris

-Person who believed the aim of scientific research is to create theories which are predictive, testable, simple, can cover a lot, can integrate with current knowledge

Enumerative Induction

-Reasoning used to arrive at a generalization about a group of things after observing only some members of the group -ex) Guess about a population after only observing a small sample

Premises

-Reasons intended to support another claim -Can come before or after the conclusion -Must have at least one in a valid argument -either correct or incorrect -ex) Indicator words: "Since" "Because" "Given that" "Due to the fact that"

Inquiry

-Requires asking the right questions and investigating to determine the truth or falsity of one or both premises

Ad Hoc Hypothesis

-Saving your ass -Creating ideas or theories that account for data that already exists and can't be tested independent of the phenomenon they are meant to explain -Hypothesis that are adopted mainly to save theory from difficulty or refutation, but without providing any independent rationale for it

Science

-Seeks to understand the world by identifying general principles that are both explanatory and predictive -Must be able to withstand public scrutiny -Method of discovering truth, not particular the truth -aims to eliminate grounds for doubt -way of solving problems not necessarily a solution

Problems

-Situations involving a question that calls for a correct answer -ex) math problems, identifying a disease -need to be solved

Dilemmas

-Situations that require choices between competing or conflicting values that cannot be simultaneously or fully resolved -ex) telling the truth or during someone's feelings -ex) choosing between family and career -Dilemmas need to be negotiated or navigated, not solved -Have no correct solution

Consequent

-Statement after "then"

Antecedent

-Statement following the "if"

World

-The __________ has a specific structure

Psychokinesis

-The ability to affect physical objects without the use of the body by simply

Simplicity

-The best hypothesis is the _________ one -Should assume no more than is required to explain the phenomenon in question -The simpler it is the fewer ways for it to go wrong

Argument

-The exchange of opinions between two or more people -The line of reasoning that supports a judgment -In this exchange, everyone wants to be right but are willing to be proven wrong -Everyone gains a greater thought (different perspectives)

Fruitfulness

-The most fruitful hypothesis is the one that makes the most successful new predictions

Parapsychology

-The study of extrasensory perception (ESP) and psychokinesis

Modus Ponens

-The way that affirms by affirming -Always valid -ex) If you play with fire, you all get burned. You played with fire. Therefore, you got burned.

Modus Tollens

-The way that denies by denying -Always valid -ex) If it is raining, then there are clouds in the sky. There are no clouds in the sky. Therefore, it is not raining.

Sample Representativeness (Inductive Argument)

-This is strong when it has relevant characteristics in the same proportions exhibited by the target group -Must about biased sample

Referring to Dilemmas as Problems

-This occurs when we refer to dilemmas as problems -We try to seek clear and "correct" answers for dilemmas -dilemmas have no "correct" answer--more complex and have more unsatisfying trade offs and compromises than problems

Appeal to the Person

-Type of Irrelevant premises -AKA Ad Hominem-to-the Man -Rebutting an argument by criticizing or denigrating its presenter rather than by dealing with the argument itself -ex) You can't believe Dr. Jones is claiming that there is no evidence for life after death. After all, he's an atheist

Appeal to Fear

-Type of Irrelevant premises -Ex) if you do not convict this criminal, one of you maybe her next victim

Matters of Preference and Matters of Judgment

-Type of distinction between... -One concerns taste while the other concerns interpretations of fact and theory -better to question judgment rather than preference

What is Said and How it is Said

-Type of distinction between... -Style and substance difference -How someone says something shouldn't impact on how sound/unsound their argument is

Person and Idea

-Type of distinction between... -Tendency to look favorably on ideas of people we admire and unfavorably on the ideas of those we dislike -We disregard the ideas of people who we feel don't have ideas on certain subjects -ex) Males on women's issues or white scholars on African American History, etc.

Individual and the Group/ Glass

-Type of distinction between... -The individual's views might differ from the group or class to which they belong -What or how an individual feels or acts should not be carelessly attributed to the group or vice versa

Familiarity and Correctness

-Type of distinction between... -When making judgments we need to disregard the familiarity or unfamiliarity of the idea so we can be open to insights from both sides of the issue

Poverty of Aspect

-Type of error of perspective -Refers to the limitation that comes from taking a narrow rather than a broad view on problems and issues -Similar to "tunnel vision"

Hasty Generalization

-Type of insufficient premise -Jumping to conclusions -Drawing a general conclusion about all things of a certain type on the basis of evidence concerning only a few things of that type -ex) meeting one rude person at JFK airport, believing everyone in NY is rude

Slippery Slope

-Type of insufficient premise -believing that performing a specific action will lead to an additional bad action, therefore you should not perform that first action -ex) if you break your diet and have one cookie tonight, you will just want to eat 10 cookies tomorrow and gain back the 15 pounds you lost

False Cause

-Type of insufficient premise -believing two events are casually connected when they are not -Also called post hoc -ex) ever since i started wearing crystals around my neck, I have not caught a cold -reasons for superstitions

Faulty Analogy

-Type of insufficient premises -Things that resemble one another in certain respects resemble one another in further aspects -ex) People who cannot go without their coffee every morning are no better than alcoholics

Appeal to Authority

-Type of irrelevant premise -Citing experts provided that the person cited really is an expert in the field in question is what would make it a legitimate appeal -Ex) celebrity testimonies -Ex) my sister-in-law who is a teacher said that this school is not somewhere that I would want to send my children.

Appeal to Tradition

-Type of irrelevant premise -Claim that something must be true because it is a part of an established tradition -ex) mothers have always used chicken soup to fight colds, so it must be good for you

Genetic Fallacy

-Type of irrelevant premise -To argue that a claim is true or false on the basis of it's origins -ex) Lisa was brainwashed as a child into thinking that people are generally good. Therefore, people are not generally good.

Equivocation

-Type of irrelevant premise -Using the same word in two different senses in an argument -Switching the meaning invalidates the argument -Ex) Noisy children are real headaches. An aspirin makes real headaches go away. An aspirin will make noisy children go away.

Appeal to Ignorance

-Type of irrelevant premise -using an opponent's inability to disprove a conclusion as proof of the conclusion's correctness (since there is no proof that something is false, it must be true) -Using an opponent's inability to prove a conclusion as proof its incorrectness (taking a lack of evidence for one thing to be good evidence for another) -Ex) There is no proof that the parapsychology experiments were fraudulent, so I am sure they weren't -ex) bigfoot must exist bc no one has been able to prove that he doesn't

Composition

-Type of irrelevant premises -Claim that what is true of the parts is also true of the whole -Ex) A is part of B. A has a property of X. Therefore, B has property X. -Ex) Each brick in that building weighs less than a pound. Therefore, the building weighs less than a pound.

Division

-Type of irrelevant premises -Opposite of the fallacy of composition -Claim that what is true of a whole is also true of its parts ex) The boys in my neighborhood like to play basketball after school. So my neighbor, Kevin will like to play basketball with them.

False Dilemma

-Type of unacceptable premise -Presumes only two alternatives exist -Fallacy bc dismisses other options out there that could be better or possible -ex) either you buy me this new book, or you think that reading is not important at all -ex) you either support Hillary Clinton for President or you don't believe in women's rights

Identifying Arguments

-We do this by finding the conclusion first so we can locate the premises

Analogical Induction

-When we claim two things are similar in some respects are similar in some further respect -Conclusion: no guarantee, just a certain degree/probability -More similar, the more probable--less similar, less probable -Earth has air, water, and life. Mars is like the Earth in that it has air water. Therefore, it's probable that Mars has life.

Evaluating Arguments

-When we decide whether the premises are true or false -Whether reasoning to conclusion is valid or invalid

Unreasonable Hypotheses

-When we maintain a hypothesis in the face of contradicting evidence

Formula for Inductive Reasoning

-X percent of the observed members of group A have property P. Therefore X percent of all the members of group A have property P. -Ex) All U.S. presidents I have studied about are male. Therefore, all presidents in U.S. presidents in U.S history have probably been male.

Testability

-determines if hypothesis is true or false

Decision

-things that have an outcome (plusses and minuses) -When you do this whatever choice you make leaves all the other choices behind ex) If you listen to music, you give up silence at the moment ex) If you go to sleep, you give up being awake

Most

-this word does not define inductive arguments -Have to have definite explanation

Begging the Question

-type of unacceptable premise -Also known as circular reasoning -arguing in a circle -Using conclusion as premise -ex) Paranormal activity is real because I have experienced what can only be described as a paranormal activity

4 Valid Deductive Arguments

1. Affirming the Antecedent (Compound Statements) 2. Denying the Consequent (Compound Statements) 3. Hypothetical Syllogism (Series of Events) 4. Disjunctive Sylloligism (Either-or)

2 Hypothetical Induction

1. Amount of understanding it produces 2. How well it systemizes and unifies our knowledge

2 Types of Unacceptable Premises

1. Begging the Question 2. False Dilemma

2 Invalid Deductive Arguments

1. Denying the Antecedent 2. Affirming the Consequent

10 Types of Irrelevant Premises

1. Equivocation 2. Composition 3. Division 4. Appeal to the Person 5. Genetic Fallacy 6. Appeal to Authority 7. Appeal to Tradition 8. Appeal to Ignorance 9. Appeal to Fear 10. Straw Man

4 Types of Insufficient Premises

1. Hasty Generalization 2. Faulty Analogy 3. False Cause 4. Slippery Slope

2 Types of Arguments

1. Inductive 2. Deductive

4 Ways to Prevent Errors in Judgment

1. Know yourself and your biases 2. Be observant 3. Clarify issues and conduct inquiry 4. Carefully evaluate evidence we have obtained (what does it mean? significant?)

4 Steps in the Scientific Method

1. Observe 2. Create Hypotheses (possible explanations) 3. Seek & investigate info. 4. Test hypotheses, make a conclusion

7 Errors of Perspective

1. Poverty of Aspect 2. Unwarranted Assumptions 3. The Either/Or Outlook 4. Mindless Conformity 5. Absolutism 6. Relativism 7. Bias For or Against Change

4 Benefits of Asking Questions

1. Prevents hasty conclusions 2. Allows for the evaluation of each part of the argument individually 3. Helps to identify both strengths and weaknesses of the argument 4. Provides a structure around which to arrange your thoughts

3 Types of Extrasensory Perception

1. Telepathy 2. Precognition 3. Clairvoyance

2 Causes of Poverty of Aspect

1. The different academic disciplines that have been introduced over the course of history 2. The plethora of knowledge that has taken place in every discipline

5 Ways to Make Important Distinctions to Avoid Faulty Evaluations

Make distinction between: 1. the person and the idea 2.what is said and how it is said 3. Individual and the group /class 4. Matters of preference and matters of judgment 5. Familiarity and correctness