Psychology 211: Chapter 7

Discrimination:

In discrimination, individuals learn to notice the unique aspects of seemingly similar situations and to respond differently to each situation. *Discrimination: Responding in different ways to similar stimuli.

Punishment:

Operant psychologists define punishment as reducing the frequency of an undesired behavior through the use of an aversive stimulus.

Positive Reinforcement:

Positive Reinforcement involves strengthening a target behavior - that is, increasing and maintaining the probability that a particular behavior will be repeated - by presenting a stimulus (called a positive reinforcer) immediately after the behavior has occurred. *Strengthen a target behavior by presenting a positive reinforcer after the behavior occurs.

Generalization:

When an individual learns to make a particular response to a particular stimulus and then makes the same or a similar response in a slightly different situation, generalization has occurred. *Generalization: Responding in similar ways to similar stimuli.

B.F. Skinner:

- Behavioral learning theories culminated in the work of B.F. Skinner. - Skinner put together that not only successfully combines many different ideas but also serves as the basis for a variety of applications to human behavior.

Behavioral Learning Theory:

- Behavioral learning theory concerns itself with the way behaviors are learned, and subsequently "unlearned."

Operant Conditioning:

- Operant Conditioning: Voluntary response strengthened or weakened by consequences that follow. - Positive reinforcement: Strengthen a target behavior by presenting a positive reinforcer after the behavior occurs. - Negative reinforcement: Strengthen a target behavior by removing an aversive stimulus after the behavior occurs. - Punishment: Weaken a target behavior by presenting an aversive stimulus after the behavior occurs. - Time-out: Weaken a target behavior by temporarily removing a positive reinforcer after the behavior occurs. - Extinction: Weaken a target behavior by ignoring it. - Spontaneous recovery: Extinguished behaviors may reappear spontaneously. - Generalization: Responding in similar ways to similar stimuli. - Discrimination: Responding in different ways to similar stimuli. - Complex behaviors are shaped by reinforcing closer approximations to terminal behavior. - Fixed interval schedules: Reinforce after regular time intervals. - Variable interval schedules: Reinforce after random time intervals. - Fixed ratio schedules: Reinforce after a set number of responses. - Variable ratio schedules: Reinforce after a different number of responses each time.

Extinction:

A third consequence that weakens undesired behavior but is not considered to be a type of punishment is extinction. Extinction occurs when a previously reinforced behavior decreases in frequency, and eventually ceases altogether, because reinforcement is withheld. *Extinction: Weaken a target behavior by ignoring it.

Type 1 Punishment/Presentation Punishment:

Present some sort of aversive stimulus immediately after an undesired response. *If the punishment tactic fails to weaken or eliminate the undesired behavior (which frequently happens), then you can't claim to have punished the student. *Many people confuse negative reinforcement with punishment. However, negative reinforcement strengthens a target behavior (by removing the aversive stimulus), whereas punishment weakens or eliminates a behavior (by presents an aversive stimulus to an undesired behavior).

Negative Reinforcement:

The goal of negative reinforcement is the same as that of positive reinforcement: to increase the strength of a particular behavior. The method, however, is different. Instead of supplying a desired stimulus, one removes an unwanted and aversive stimulus whenever a target behavior is exhibited. *Strengthen a target behavior by removing an aversive stimulus after the behavior occurs.

Type II Punishment/Time-Out Punishment:

The second form of punishment is usually called time-out but is sometimes called Type II punishment or removal punishment. Instead of presenting an aversive stimulus, time-out temporarily removes the opportunity to receive positive reinforcement. *Time-out: Weaken a target behavior by temporarily removing a positive reinforcer after the behavior occurs.

Operant conditioning:

The term, operant conditioning, refers to the fact that organisms learn to "operate" on their environment (make a particular response) to obtain or avoid a particular consequence.