Psychology ch 15, Psychology Final Exam review

Social Anxiety Disorder (continued)

high comorbidity between social anxiety disorder and alcohol use disorder (many people with social anxiety turn to alcohol to self-medicate to avert the anxiety symptoms) Social anxiety disorder can develop through conditioning (bullying as a child could lead to negative social images of self that become activated later) Risk factor is behavioral inhibition (inherited trait)—consistent tendency to show fear and restraint when presented with unfamiliar people or situations (shows up early in toddlers with extreme shyness, fearfulness around others)

- Cross-sectional Research

· Comparing multiple segments of the population at the same time · The researcher would compare a group of 20-year-olds to a group of 30-year-olds now to see their dietary differences

Pavlov

· Conditioned reflex · Unconscious response, conscious response (conditioned reflex) · Salivation to food and the introduction of the bell minus the food - the example of conditioned reflex

Psychology

- the study of the mind and behavior

Psychology majors

- Critical thinking skills - Trained on the scientific method - Critical thinking is the active application of a set of skills to information for the understanding and evaluation of that information - Critical thinking involves maintaining an attitude of skepticism, recognizing internal biases, making use of logical thinking, asking appropriate questions, and making observations - Better communication skills

People who majored in psychology

- Mark Zuckerberg - Jon Stewart - Natalie Portman - Wes Craven

Scientist's measure

- Perceivable - Measurable - Empirical method (based on observation, including experimentation, rather than a method based on forms of logical argument or previous authorities)

Psychology

- became a science in the late 1800's - Before this, psychology was considered a part of philosophy - Psychology is a social science because our behavior is influenced by interaction with others

Scientific method

- researcher asks a question about why something happens, - proposes a tentative explanation (hypothesis) the hypothesis should fit the context of the scientific theory - The researcher makes observations or carries out an experiment to test the validity of the hypothesis, - The results are published or presented at conference

Suicide (continued)

10th leading cause of death 105 suicides in the United States each day Males 4 times as likely than females to commit suicide Males—firearms, Females—poisoning Suicide rates greater for those 65 and older Suicide rates greater among American Indians/Alaskan Natives and Non-Hispanic Whites Suicide rates higher in the mountain states of the west Suicide rates peak during springtime

Personality Disorders (personality)

A personality style that differs markedly from the expectations of their culture Is inflexible and pervasive Begins in adolescence or early adulthood Causes distress or impairment

Depression in the Brain

Amygdala—experiencing emotions Prefrontal cortex—regulating emotions Abnormal levels of cortisol Cortisol activates activity in the amygdala while deactivating activity in the PFC

Anxiety Disorders

Anxiety: Apprehension, avoidance, cautiousness regarding a potential threat, danger or other negative event Fear: instantaneous reaction to an imminent threat Anxiety that is excessive, persistent, and greatly out of proportion to the actual threat and that causes a disruptive influence over one's life—may be an anxiety disorder Anxiety disorders—persistent fear and anxiety 25-30% of the U.S. population meets the criteria for an anxiety disorder during their lifetime

Personality Disorders (borderline)

Borderline—unstable self-image; cannot tolerate being alone; chronic feelings of emptiness; unstable and intense relationships; impulsive, unpredictable; inappropriate and intense anger; makes suicidal gestures Avoidant—socially inhibited; oversensitive to negative evaluation; avoids occupations with interpersonal contact; avoids all criticism; avoids relationships unless accepted unconditionally; feels inadequate, socially inept, unappealing; unwilling to take risks if they might be embarrassing Dependent—allows others to run life; submissive; clingy; fears separation; cannot make decisions without reassurance; lacks self-confidence; feels helpless alone Obsessive-Compulsive—pervasive need for perfectionism; preoccupied with details; excessively devoted to work; rigid, inflexible

Development of PTSD

Classical conditioning: traumatic event is the US that elicits the UR; triggers are the CS that elicit the same CR Cognitive factors important: disturbances in memory --the victim may be haunted by fragmented memories and involuntarily triggered by someone who resembles the attacker Negative appraisals of the event: "I deserve to be raped because I'm stupid."—may have been the attackers words the victim internalized which leads to avoiding behaviors in which the victim may come in contact with someone resembling the attacker

Bipolar Disorder

Commonly known as manic depression Mood states vacillate between depression and mania To be diagnosed, a person must have one manic state once in his life

DSM-5 (comorbidity)

Comorbidity—the co-occurrence of two disorders Very common for individuals to have more than one disorders---many people who suffer from anxiety also have depression, for example 6/10 people with a substance use disorder also suffer from another mental illness

Psychological Disorder

Condition characterized by abnormal thoughts, feelings and behaviors Psychopathology: the study of psychological disorders, including their symptoms (etiology) Psychopathology the manifestation of a psychological disorder

Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

Constant pattern of inattention and/or hyperactive and impulsive behavior that interferes with normal functioning Inattention: Great difficulty with and avoidance of tasks that require sustained attention Failure to follow instructions Disorganization Lack of attention to detail Becoming easily distracted Forgetfulness

Generalized Anxiety Disorder

Continuous state of excessive, uncontrollable, and pointless worry and apprehension Often worry about routine, everyday things, even thought the concerns are unjustified Must occur for more days than not for at least 6 months to receive this diagnosis Restlessness, difficulty concentrating, being easily fatigued, muscle tension, irritability, and sleep difficulties

Suicide

Death caused by self-directed injurious behavior with any intent to die as the result of the behavior (CDC, 2013) Biologically and psychologically vulnerable Means to perform the suicidal act Lack necessary protective factors (social support from friends, religion, coping skills, problem-solving skills) Suffering from a mental disorder---especially a mood disorder—poses the greatest risk for suicide

Depersonalization/Derealization Disorder

Depersonalization is feelings of unreality or detachment from one's whole self or aspects of self Might believe their thoughts are not their own May feel robotic as though they lack control over their movements and speech May have a distorted sense of time "Out of body" experience in which they see themselves from the vantage point of another person

Major Depressive Disorder

Depressed mood most of the day, nearly every day Feeling sad, empty, hopeless, tearful Loss of interest and pleasure in usual activities 5 symptoms for at least 2 weeks: Significant weight loss or weight gain; significant change in appetite Difficulty falling asleep or sleeping too much Psychomotor agitation (inability to sit, hands wringing, fidgety) Fatigue or loss of energy Feelings of worthlessness or guilt Difficulty concentrating and indecisiveness Suicidal ideation, thinking about or planning suicide, or making an attempt

Cognitive Theories for Depression

Depression is triggered by negative thoughts, interpretations, self-evaluations, and expectations Cognitive vulnerability Precipitating stressful events Beck (1960s) proposed that depressed individuals have depressive schemas (mental predispositions to think about most things in a negative way) This dysfunctional style of thinking is maintained by cognitive biases (errors in how we process information about ourselves) This leads the individual to focus on negative aspects of experiences, interpret things negatively, and block positive memories

Depersonalization/Derealization Disorder (derealization)

Derealization is unreality or detachment from the world Might feel as if they are in a fog or dream The surrounding world may feel artificial Individuals have difficulty describing their symptoms

Phobias

Develop through learning in 3 ways: Classical conditioning: (child who was bitten by a dog may come to irrationally fear dogs because of past association with pain—the dog bite is the UCS and the fear it elicits is the UCR, any dog becomes the CS, the fear the child experiences around all dogs become the CR) Vicarious learning: modeling; the child who observes his cousin react fearfully to spiders may later express the same fears and reactions Verbal transmission or information; the child whose parents, siblings, friends constantly tell her how disgusting and dangerous snakes are may come to have an irrational fear of snakes

DSM-5

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) Published by the American Psychiatric Association, 2013 How we arrive at a proper diagnosis (appropriately identifying and labeling a set of defining symptoms) is to use the DSM-5 The DSM was first published in 1952 and has undergone many revisions (we are now one the 5th version) The DSM-5 has many categories—anxiety disorders, depressive disorders, dissociative disorders, personality disorders.....) Diagnostic features, diagnostic criteria, risk factors are listed

Phobia

Excessive, distressing, persistent fear or anxiety about a specific object or situation (i.e., animals, enclosed spaces, elevators, or flying) People generally realize their fear is irrational People with specific phobias go to great lengths to avoid the phobic stimulus The phobic stimulus is disruptive to the person's life A man with a phobia of flying might refuse to accept a job that requires frequent air travel Agoraphobia- "fear of marketplace"; intense irrational fear of public transportation, open spaces, enclosed spaces, crowds, or being outside of the home

Social Anxiety Disorder

Extreme or persistent fear or anxiety and avoidance of social situations in which a person could potentially be evaluated negatively by others Person is concerned he may act in a humiliating or embarrassing way, such as appearing foolish Usually the issue presents itself with public speaking, having a conversation, meeting with strangers, eating in restaurants, and using public restrooms Avoidance behaviors (safety behaviors) include avoiding eye contact, rehearsing sentences before speaking, talking only briefly, not talking about oneself, assuming roles that minimize interaction, asking others questions to keep focus off self, sitting in the back, wearing neutral clothes to blend in, avoiding caffeine, warm clothing, exercise (might cause anxiety)

Dissociative Identity Disorder

FKA multiple personality disorder Exhibit two or more separate personalities or identities Memory gaps for the time during which another identity is in charge Highly controversial because some believe people fake symptoms to avoid crimes (murder) Legitimate disorder and serious disorder Usually stemming from serious childhood trauma About 95% of people with DID were physically and/or sexually abused as children

Supernatural Perspectives

For centuries, psychological disorders were viewed as a force beyond scientific understanding. Psychological disorders were thought to be caused by black magic or spirits. 16th and 17th centuries: hundreds of nuns falling into a state of frenzy in which the afflicted foamed at the mouth, screamed and convulsed, sexually propositioned priests, and confessed to having carnal relations with devils or Christ Grievous fits by young girls are believed to have precipitated the witch https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yHVTgZw7geYpanic in New England late in the 17th century

Biological Perspectives

Genetic factors Chemical imbalances Brain abnormalities Most psychological disorders have a genetic component

Causes for Schizophrenia

Genetic—6 times more likely if one parent has schizophrenia Dopamine—medications that block dopamine reduce the symptoms; dopamine hypothesis states that there is an overabundance of dopamine in the limbic system (causing hallucinations and delusions); low levels of dopamine can contribute to the negative symptoms Brain Anatomy—enlarged ventricles; this shows loss in brain tissue; loss of gray matter in the frontal lobes Events during pregnancy—obstetric complications, mother exposed to flu during first trimester, mother's emotional stress during pregnancy; death of a relative during pregnancy (stress of mother) Marijuana use—2 times more likely to develop schizophrenia during lifetime than those who had never used marijuana; those who used marijuana 50 or more times were 6 times more likely to develop schizophrenia

Risk Factors for PTSD

Greater trauma severity Lack of immediate social support More subsequent life stress Traumatic events that involve harm by others (combat, rape, sexual molestation) carry greater risk than do other traumas (natural disasters) Women are more likely to be traumatized by sexual trauma, childhood neglect, and childhood physical abuse Men are more likely to be traumatized by natural disaster, life-threatening accident, and physical violence (witnessed or directed at them) Possible diathesis-stress model for development of PTSD through predispositional states and stress of trauma

What is abnormal?

Hearing voices through the radio? Hearing someone tell you in a voice in your head to kill someone? Washing your hands 50 times a day? Having the same thought go through your head 50 times a day? Hearing demons or seeing demons? Seeing the ghost of someone who has just died? Feeling loneliness during the first year you move away from home? Having suicidal thoughts once in a while but not acting on them?

Cultural Expectation

Hearing voices— United States: in our country, it is a cultural norm that hearing voices is not culturally expected and is labeled a psychological disorder Other cultures: visions pertain to future events may be regarded as normal experiences that are positively valued

ADHD

Hyperactivity Excessive movement Fidgeting, squirming, leaving seat Having trouble sitting still Running about and climbing on things Blurting out responses without waiting for entire question Difficulty waiting turn Interrupting or intruding on others

Atypical vs Typical helps to identify Psychological Disorders

If you are rejected from a date, you may feel dejected—this would be normal. (typical reaction) If you feel extremely depressed, so much so that you lose interest in activities, are not eating or sleeping, feel worthless, contemplating suicide—this would be abnormal. (atypical reaction) However, just because something is atypical doesn't necessarily mean it's abnormal such as red hair, such as your teacher's brown spot in her iris. Being atypical, is just a marker for psychologists to see.

Autism Spectrum Disorder

Inability to form close ties with others Speech and language abnormalities Intolerance of minor changes in the environment and in normal routines Shows three areas of disturbances: Deficits in social interaction (isolation) Deficits in communication (parroting or one-word answers) Repetitive patterns of behavior or interests (rocking, memorizing all details about something) Causes: genetics, environmental pollutants (plant emissions and mercury), urban versus rural residence, and vitamin D deficiency NO relation between vaccines and autism

Dissociative Disorders

Individual becomes split or disassociated from his core sense of self Memory and identity become disturbed These disturbances have a psychological rather than a physical cause

Diathesis-Stress Model (Zuckerman, 1999)

Integrates both biological and psychosocial factors to predict the likelihood of the disorder People with underlying predisposition for a disorder (diathesis) are more likely than others to develop a disorder when faced with adverse environmental or psychological events (i.e., stress) Key assumption to this model is both factors, diathesis and stress, are necessary in development of a disorder

ICD-10

International Classification of Diseases Published by the World Health Organization (WHO) ICD first developed in Europe shorty after World War II and has been revised several times The categories and criteria are similar to the DSM-5, but some differences do exist This tool is used to monitor health problems internationally (WHO, 2013). The ICD in in its 10th edition (ICD-10)

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder

Intrusive, unpleasant thoughts (obsessions) followed by repetitive behaviors (compulsions) These unpleasant intrusive thoughts disrupt daily life A person with this disorder might spend hours each day washing his hands or constantly checking and rechecking to make sure the stove, faucet, or light has been turned off Obsessions are persistent, unintentional, and unwanted thoughts and urges that are highly intrusive, unpleasant, and distressing Compulsions are repetitive and ritualistic acts that are typically carried out to reduce the distress that obsessions trigger

Panic Disorder (continued)

Locus Coeruleus—located in the brainstem; brain's major source of norepinephrine (a neurotransmitter that trigger's the body's fight or flight response); activation of this area of the brain is associated with anxiety and fear; such finding indicate panic disorder may be associated with abnormal norepinephrine activity Conditioning—child who has asthma and has an acute asthma attack (shortness of breath, tightness)—later when having subtle symptoms that resemble the frightening symptoms (small shortness of breath after climbing a flight of stairs) may experience a panic attack Catastrophic thinkers more prone

Schizophrenia

Major disturbances in thought, perception, emotion, and behavior A psychotic disorder—disconnection from the world Symptoms: Hallucinations—auditory or visual Delusions—beliefs contrary to reality (paranoid, grandiose, somatic) Disorganized thinking—loose associations, incomprehensible Disorganized or abnormal motor behavior—unusually active, giggling to self, odd facial expressions; catatonic behaviors Negative symptoms—no emotion, avolition (not bathing and grooming), alogia (reduced speech output); a sociality (social withdrawal), anhedonia (inability to experience pleasure)

Manic Episode

Manic—distinct period of abnormality and persistently elevated, expansive, or irritable mood and abnormally and persistently increased activity or energy lasting at least one week May be euphoric mood Spontaneously talking to strangers Flight of ideas Talking loudly and rapidly Grandiosity Take on several projects at once Little need for sleep—may go days without sleeping at all Recklessly engage in activities such as spending sprees, reckless driving, foolish investing, excessive gambling, having sex with strangers Individuals do not feel ill during manic episode and feel they do not need treatment May require hospitalization

Personality Disorders

Paranoid—general mistrust and suspiciousness Schizoid—emotionally cold and detached; indifferent Schizotypal eccentricities in thought, perception, emotion, speech; paranoia; lacks friends Antisocial—violates rights of others; lies, fights, has problems with the law; can be manipulative or deceitful to gain pleasure; lacks feelings or remorse Histrionic—excessively overdramatic; has to be the center of attention; often inappropriately seductive or provocative; highly emotional speech; emotions shallow and shift rapidly; alienates friends with need for constant attention

Hopelessness Theory

Particular style of negative thinking leads to a sense of hopelessness, which leads to depression Hopelessness is an expectation that unpleasant outcomes will occur or that desired outcomes will not occur Perceived negative life events are stable according to this theory: "It's never going to change" or "It's going to affect my whole life."

Rumination Theory

People's thoughts about their distressed moods can increase the risk and duration of depression Rumination is the repetitive and passive focus on the fact that one is depressed and dwelling on depressive symptoms "Why am I so unmotivated?" "I'm never going to get work done." "I'm never going to feel better."

Body Dysmorphic Disorder

Preoccupied with a perceived flaw in physical appearance that is either nonexistent or barely noticeable to other people Perceived physical defects cause the person to think they are unattractive, ugly, hideous, or deformed Typically involve the face, skin, or hair Imagined physical flaws drives the person to engage in ritualistic acts such as constantly looking in the mirror, trying to hide the offending body part, comparisons with others, and cosmetic surgeries

Panic Disorder

Recurrent and unexpected panic attacks, along with at least one month of persistent concern about additional panic attacks, worry over the consequences of the attacks A panic attack is a period of extreme fear or discomfort that develops abruptly and reaches a peak within 10 minutes Panic attack—accelerated heart rate, sweating, trembling, choking, hot flashes or chills, dizziness, lightheadedness, fear of losing control, going crazy, dying Sometimes panic attacks are expected (fear of bridges); other times, they are unexpected (happen when relaxing) The person must experience unexpected panic attacks to qualify for a diagnosis of panic disorder

Subtypes of Depression

Seasonal pattern—winter only Peripartum onset (postpartum depression)—onset during pregnancy or in the 4 weeks after birth Persistent depressive disorder (FKA dysthymia)—depressed moods most of the day nearly every day for at least 2 years

Onset of Depression

Stressful life events—significant losses, divorce, separation, serious health, money problems can precede the onset of symptoms Individuals exposed to trauma in childhood are at heightened risk of developing depression

Mood Disorders (continued)

Strong genetic component Relatives of those with major depressive disorder have double the risk of developing major depressive disorder Relatives of patients with bipolar disorder have 9 times the risk Imbalances in norepinephrine and serotonin Depressive medications boost serotonin Bipolar medications block norepinephrine activity

Risk Factors for Suicide

Substance abusers Prior suicide attempt Lethal means to act—i.e., firearm in home Withdrawal from others Feeling as though one is a burden Engaging in risk-taking behaviors Entrapment feelings Bullying or cyberbullying Another family member committing suicide Copycat suicides Brain chemistry—disturbances in serotonin—low levels predict future suicide attempts and completions; low levels of serotonin also linked to aggression and impulsivity

APA definition of harmful dysfunction model

There are significant disturbances in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Spending hours a day bathing The disturbances reflect some kind of biological, psychological, or developmental dysfunction. Hallucinations in schizophrenia could be a sign of brain abnormality The disturbances lead to significant distress or disability in one's life. Fear of social situations might prevent a person from attending class The disturbances do not reflect expected or culturally approved responses to certain events. Natural to experience great sadness and wish to be left alone after the death of a loved one

Harmful Dysfunction Model to Describe Abnormality

There is a dysfunction in an internal mechanism. (Janet has a fear of spiders.) The dysfunction has resulted in harmful consequences. (She is now so fearful of spiders she avoids all buildings that look similar to the one where she recently saw a spider and quit her job last month because it might have a spider lurking inside.)

Cultural Expectations smile

US: returning a stranger's smile (a person who refuses to return this social norm might be considered socially awkward Japan: reserve restraint, maintenance of privacy; unresponsive to smiles from strangers Latin-American, Asian, and African cultures: interpret eye contact as rude, confrontational, and aggressive

Dissociative Amnesia

Unable to recall important personal information, usually following an extremely stressful or traumatic experience such as combat, natural disasters, or being the victim of violence Can experience a dissociative fugue—suddenly wander away from their home, experience confusion about their identity, and sometimes adopt a new identity

- Theory

Well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena

Pavlov Watson and skinner

all of them are Behaviorists

- Wertheimer, Koffka, and Kohler

o Gestalt principles - Person as a whole o Unconscious o Early childhood experiences o Psychoanalysis-patient talking about themselves and their experiences o Role of unconscious motivations in driving behavior o Motivations can cause conflict o Effects of the mental representations of ourselves and others in guiding in interactions

History of psychology

psychology is a young science (started in the late 1800's) William Wundt and William James are credited as being the founders of psychology to distinguish it from philosophy

Mood Disorders

severe disturbances in mood and emotions Depression Bipolar Disorder Mania Elation

- Longitudinal Research

· Data gathering is repeated over and over to see how individuals change over time · Surveying a group of individuals about their dietary habits at age 20, age 30, then at 40 · Drawback is that is takes many years · Longitudinal studies by the American Cancer Society showed some of the first demonstrations of the now well-established links between increased rates of cancer and smoking

- Deductive Reasoning

· Deductive ideas tested in the real world; begins with a hypothesis; used to reach logical conclusions about the real world; if the hypothesis is correct, the logical conclusions made through the deductive reasoning should also be correct · All living things require energy to survive (hypothesis). o Ducks are living things. o Therefore, ducks require energy to survive (logical conclusion).

- Two Groups in Experiments

· Experimental—receives the experimental manipulation (In the classroom example, our experimental group learns algebra using a computer program and then are tested) · Control (In the classroom example, our control group learns algebra using a traditional classroom teacher and then are tested)

- Facts and Opinions

· Facts—observable realities · Opinions—personal judgments, conclusions, or attitudes that may or may not be accurate · Facts can only be established using evidence created by empirical research

- Illusory Correlations

· False correlations · People believe that relationships exist between two things when no relationship exists at all · Supposed effect moon's phases have on behavior—many people passionately exert others act strangely when the moon is full—this is based on the moon's pulls on the tides and our correlations that we are also made up of water—a meta-analysis of 40 studies consistently demonstrated that there is no relationship between the moon and our behavior (Could it be that we pay more attention to our behavior when the moon is full?)

- Scientific Method

· Find a research article and go through the steps of the scientific method they used (give specific examples from the article of each): · 1. Theory (you might have to guess on this one) · 2. Hypothesis · 3. Collection of Data · 4. Analyzing Data · 5. Confirming Theory · 6. Summarizing Data and Reporting Findings · 7. Modify Theory (if needed)

- Scientific Method

· Ideas in the form of theories and hypotheses are tested · Empirical observations are made · Empirical observations lead to more ideas that are tested against the real world · Scientific process is circular - Scientific Method · Ideas in the form of theories and hypotheses are tested · Empirical observations are made · Empirical observations lead to more ideas that are tested against the real world · Scientific process is circular

- Correlation Between Ice Cream and Crime

· If ice cream sales increase, so does crime? · Does one cause another? · There is a relationship between ice cream and crime, but one does not cause another · When the weather is warm, that is when ice cream sales go up. · When the weather is warm, aggression rises.

- Confounding variable

· In the ice cream/crime situation, heat is actually causing the systematic movement of our variables of interest

- Surveys

· List of questions to be answered by participants · Gathers data from samples to refer to a population · Researchers study the sample and generalize · Calculations of central tendency—mode, median, mean · Mode—most frequently occurring · Median—middle number · Mean—average · Means are usually most useful, but are very influenced by outliers · Surveys can be generalized to a large population · People don't always give accurate responses

- Correlational

· Looking at comparisons such as "Tall people and weight" · Doesn't show cause-and-effect relationships · Can find relationship between variables

- Notable Researchers in Psychology

· Margaret Floy Washburn-first woman to earn a PhD in psychology · Mary Whiton Calkins—opposed the behaviorist movement, conducted significant research into memory, and established an experimental psychology lab in the US · Francis Sumner—first African American to receive a PhD in 1920 · Inez Beverly Prosser—first African American woman to receive a PhD in psychology; her work was influential in the Brown vs Board of Education Supreme Court ruling that desegregated schools

- Correlation Coefficient

· Number between +1 and -1 that shows the strength and direction of relationship between the variables · The correlation coefficient is usually represented by the letter r · The closer the number is to 1, the more strongly related the variables are · The example of crime and ice cream would have a correlational coefficient close to 0 · Positive correlation means the variables move in the same direction; as one rises, the other one rises · Negative correlation means that variables move in opposite directions

- Naturalistic Observation

· Observing someone in their natural environment · It is important that they do not know they are being observed · If asked if everyone washes their hands if they use the restroom, most, if not all, will raise their hands, but if observed (such as someone standing at the sink putting in their contact lenses), the results will be different. · Ask yourself if it is important that the researcher not be observed in this scenario: think of your two driving styles 1. driving down a deserted highway 2. driving with a police officer right behind you · Jane Goodall spent five decades observing the behavior of chimpanzees in naturalistic observation · Naturalistic observation benefits in accuracy and realism · Observer bias inter-rater reliability (consistency of ratings) are used

- Operational Definition

· Precise definition of our variables · We would need to define in this classroom setting, what is · 1. learning--looking at how the students answered the precise questions on the algebra test and which types of algebra questions the test was composed · 2. technology—give a precise definition of what is technology in this experiment (the precise computer program) · What is important to remember is that others can repeat this study.

- Correlation

· Relationship · No cause and effect · As one variable changes, so does the other

- Experiments

· Show cause and effect · Hypothesis formulated based on your observations— · You observe that your classmates using technology make lower grades versus classmates who take handwritten notes. · Your hypothesis might state that the use technology in the classroom should be limited because it decreases learning.

- Case studies

· Studying one person or just a few individuals · Krista and Tatiana conjoined twins sharing a head—connected in the thalamus (major sensory relay center) o This might mean it's possible for one twin to feel the sensations of the other twin. o Tatiana might smile or laugh even though she is not watching the program § **case studies allow scientists to have a very clear understanding and the phenomena for which they are studying

- Hypothesis

· Testable prediction about how the world will behave if our idea is correct, and it is often worded as an if-then statement · "If I study all night, I will get a passing grade on a test." · The hypothesis is very important because it is the bridge between the realm of ideas and the real world

- Falsifiable

· The hypothesis must be capable of being shown to be incorrect o "If we sail 5000 miles, we will fall off the flat earth."

- Scientific Method

· Theory · Generate Hypothesis · Collect Data · Analyze Data · Confirm Theory · Summarize Data and Report Findings · Modify Theory

- Inductive Reasoning

· Uses empirical observations to construct broad generalizations · Conclusions may or may not be correct · My favorite fruits grow on trees. · All fruit must grow on trees (clearly, not true based on the observation of strawberries). o Scientists use inductive reasoning to create theories, which generate hypotheses that are tested with deductive reasoning.

- Archival Research

· Using large amounts of data without interacting with research participants · Use existing records only · Looks at past records or data sets to see patterns

Watson

· Watson wanted to shift the focus of study from the mind to behavior · Behaviorism- observing and controlling behavior · Behaviorism established psychology with its objective methods and experimentation on animals · It is used today in behavior and cognitive-behavioral therapy · Behavior modification is often used in classroom settings today

- Why is research important?

· We can prove to be very wrong in our claims through research (flat earth, earth revolves around the moon, the sun revolves around the earth) · Without research, we would still be believing today that mental illness was caused by demon possession · Research provides objective understanding and relieves our preconceived notions and superstitions

- Why do we accept illusory correlations?

· We hear about them and simply accept them as valid. · We look for evidence to prove our hunch about something, ignoring evidence that would tell us our hunch is false · This is confirmation bias---confirming our own bias (political figures do this all the time) · Illusory correlations can have drawbacks such as leading to prejudicial thoughts and discriminatory behaviors.

- If someone makes a scientific claim...

· What is the expertise of the person making the claim? · What might the person gain if the claim is valid? · Is the claim justified given the evidence? · What do other researchers think of the claim?

- APA

· When first founded, in 1892, it was all white males · By 1905, Mary Whiton Calkins was elected as the first female president of the APA · By 1946, nearly ¼ of American psychologists were female

- Scientific Research

· Where is the evidence to support the claim? · Scientific knowledge is empirical: it is grounded in tangible, objective evidence that can be observed time and time again

Skinner

• Behaviorist • How behavior was affected by consequences • Reinforcement and punishment • Skinner box for reinforcement of behaviors

- Freud

• Many problems arose from the unconscious mind • The unconscious mind was feelings and urges which we have no conscious control • Dream analysis, first words, slips of the tongue (Freudian slip) • Psychoanalytic theory dominated for several decades · Treatments for this is hypnosis - Freud Continued · Unconscious really influences everything · Early childhood experiences · Psychoanalysis-patient talking about themselves and their experiences · Role of unconscious motivations in driving behavior · Motivations can cause conflict · Effects of the mental representations of ourselves and others in guiding in interactions

Treatment plan

•Decide on a patient's diagnosis. Using Maslow's hierarchy of needs, describe to the patient how they will work through their treatment to reach self-actualization. You can make up exercises for each level. For example, for the depressed client, in the esteem needs section, you might have them write positive mantras on stickie notes daily. •Draw the pyramid, label the need, and give an example of what your patient will do in each level to get toward self-actualization. Make sure you decide on a diagnosis first

- Humanism

•Emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humanism Both studied by Maslow and Rogers

- Rogers (1902-1987)

•Potential for good that exists within all people •Client-centered therapy •Patient takes the lead in therapy •Therapist to show unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and empathy

Multicultural psychology

•Risk of psychological theories from white, American settings could not be assumed in other cultures •Weakness is that it needs to go beyond basic descriptive statistics •Multicultural psychologists develop theories with diverse populations, typically within one country •Cross-cultural psychologists compare populations across countries •1920 -Francis Cecil Sumner was the first African American to receive a PhD in psychology from Howard University •Mamie Phipps Clark and Kenneth Clark are two famous African American researchers and psychologists most known for doll preference—research that was paramount to Brown vs Board of Education Supreme Court desegregation case

- Feminist psychology

•Started by an article written by Naomi Weisstein in 1968 •She criticized male psychologists for constructing the psychology of women entirely out of their own cultural biases and without careful experimental tests to verify any of their characterizations of women •Feminist approaches to psychology include studying psychological gender differences, questioning the male bias present across the practice, and contributions of women to the history of psychology