Psychology Ch. 4

Epigenetics

"Above" or "in addition to" (epi) genetics; the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change.

A person born with sexual anatomy that differs from typical male or female anatomy may be considered __________

intersex

How does culture affect our behavior?

A culture is an enduring set of behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group and transmitted from one generation to the next. Cultural norms are understood rules that inform members of a culture about accepted and expected behaviors. Cultures differ across time and space.

Genes

The biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins.

Primary sex characteristics

The body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

Genome

The complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes.

Culture

The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

Spermarche

The first ejaculation

Menarche

The first menstrual period

Heredity

The genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring.

Interaction

The interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity).

Testosterone

The most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs during the fetal period, and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.

Puberty

The period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

Natural selection

The principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

Primary sex characteristics relate to __________; secondary sex characteristics refer to ___________ a) spermarche; menarche b) breasts and facial hair; ovaries and testes c) emotional maturity; hormone surges d) reproductive organs; nonreproductive traits

d) reproductive organs; nonreproductive traits

Behavior geneticists are most interested in exploring ____________ (commonalities/differences) in our behaviors. Evolutionary psychologists are most interested in exploring __________ (commonalities/differences).

differences; commonalities

On average, girls begin puberty at about the age of __________, boys at about the age of __________

11; 12

DNA

A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.

Intersex

A condition present at birth due to unusual combinations of male and female chromosomes, hormones, and anatomy; possessing biological sexual characteristics of both sexes

Social script

A culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations

Temperament

A person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.

Mutation

A random error in gene replication that leads to a change

Role

A set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

Gender role

A set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for males or for females.

How do individualist and collectivist cultures differ in their values and goals?

Although individuals vary, different cultures tend to empathize either individualism or collectivism. Cultures based on self-reliant individualism tend to value personal independence and individual achievement. They define identity in terms of self-esteem, personal goals and attributes, and personal rights and liberties. Cultures based on socially connected collectivism tend to value group goals, social identity, and commitments. They define identity in terms of interdependence, tradition, and harmony.

Relational aggression

An act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person's relationship or social standing

Transgender

An umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth-designated sex

Norm

An understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe "proper" behavior.

Aggression

Any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally.

How do early experiences modify the brain?

As a child's brain develops, neural connections grow more numerous and complex. Experiences prompt a pruning process, in which unused connections weaken and heavily used ones strengthen. Early childhood is an important period for shaping the brain, but thanks to plasticity the brain modifies itself throughout our lives in response to our learning

How do sex hormones influence prenatal and adolescent sexual development, and what is an intersex condition?

Both sex chromosomes and sex hormones influence development. About seven weeks after conception, a gene on the Y chromosome from the father-who can contribute either this or an X chromosome (the mother always contributes that latter)-triggers the production of testosterone. This promotes male sex organ development. During the fourth and fifth prenatal months, sex hormones bathe the fetal brain, with different patterns developing due to the male's greater testosterone and the female's ovarian hormones. Prenatal exposure of females to unusually high levels of male hormones can later dispose them to more male-typical interests. Another flood of hormones occurs in puberty, triggering a growth spurt, the development of primary and secondary sex characteristics, and the landmark events of menarche and spermarche. Intersex individuals are born with intermediate or unusual combinations of male and female chromosomes, hormones, and anatomy.

The threadlike structures made largely of DNA molecules are called ___________

Chromosomes

What are the key criticisms of evolutionary explanations of human sexuality, and how do evolutionary psychologists respond?

Critics argue that evolutionary psychologists start with an effect and work backward to an explanation, minimize contemporary social and cultural influences (including learned social scripts), and relieve people from taking responsibility for their sexual behavior. Evolutionary psychologists respond that they recognize the importance of social and cultural influences, but note the value in testable predictions based on evolutionary principles: Understanding our predispositions can help us overcome them.

Identical (monozygotic) twins

Develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms.

Fraternal (dizygotic) twins

Develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary brothers and sisters, but they share a prenatal environment.

What factors contribute to gender bias in the workplace?

Differences in male-female preseptions, compensation, and family responsibility both influence and reflect workplace gender bias. In most societies, men have more social power, and their leadership style tends to be directive, whereas women's tends to be more democratic. In their everyday behaviors and interactions, men tend to act more assertive and opinionated; women tend to act more supportive and apologetic.

Androgyny

Displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics

Epigenetics is the study of the molecular mechanisms by which __________ trigger or block genetic expression

Environments

Environment

Every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us.

How do evolutionary psychologists use natural selection to explain behavior tendencies?

Evolutionary psychologists seek to understand how our traits and behavior tendencies are shaped by natural selection, as genetic variations increasing the odds of reproducing and surviving in their particular environment are most likely to be passed onto future generations. Some variations arise from mutations, others from new gene combinations at conception. Humans share a genetic legacy and are predisposed to behaviors that promoted our ancestors' survival and reproduction. Charles Darwin's theory of evolution is one of biology's fundamental organizing principles. He anticipated today's application of evolutionary principles in psychology.

In what ways do parents and peers shape children's development?

Family environment and parental expectations can affect children's motivation and future success. Personality, however, is mostly not attributed to the effects of nurture. As children attempt to fit in with their peers, they tend to adopt their culture-styles, accents, sland, attitudes. By choosing their children's neighborhoods and schools, parents exert some influence over peer group culture.

How do gender roles and gender identity differ?

Gender roles, the behaviors a culture expects from its males and females, vary across place and time. Social learning theory proposes that we learn gender identity—our sense of being male, female, or some combination of the two—as we learn other things: through reinforcement, punishment, and observation. Critics argue that cognition also plays a role, as gender typing varies among children. We seem to conform in ways that feel comfortable to us, whether that means taking on a male role, female role, or blend of the two (androgyny). Transgender people's gender identity or expression differs from the behaviors or traits considered typical for their birth-designated sex. Their sexual orientation may be heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, or asexual.

A small segment of DNA that codes for particular proteins is referred to as a _________

Gene

What are chromosomes, DNA, genes, and the human genome? How do behavior geneticists explain our individual differences?

Genes are the biochemical units of heredity that make up chromosomes, the threadlike coils of DNA. When genes are expressed, they provide the code for creating the proteins that form our body's building blocks. Most human traits are influenced by many genes acting together. The human genome is the shared genetic profile that distinguishes humans from other species, consisting at an individual level of all the genetic material in an organism's chromosomes. Behavior geneticists study the relative power and limits of genetic (our heredity) and environmental influences on behavior. Most of our differing traits are influenced by many genes, and by the interaction of our individual environments with these genetic predisposition.

Individualism

Giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications.

Collectivism

Giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly.

___________ is the proposition of variation among individuals in groups that we can attribute to genes

Heritability

What is heritability, and how does it relate to individuals and groups?

Heritability describes the extent to which variation among members of a group can be attributed to genes. Heritable individual differences (in traits such as height or intelligence) need not imply heritable group differences. Genes mostly explain why some people are taller than others, but not why people are taller today than they were a century ago.

__________ twins share the same DNA

Identical (monozygotic)

How does the meaning of gender differ from the meaning of sex?

In psychology, gender refer to the socially and culturally constructed expectations about what it means to be a boy, girl, man, or women. Sex refers to our biological status as male or female, defined by our chromosomes or anatomy. We might say that our body defines sex, while our mind defines our gender.

Sex

In psychology, the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male and female

Gender

In psychology, the socially influenced characteristics by which people define boy, girl, man, and women

How do nature, nurture, and our own choices influence gender roles?

Individual development results from the interaction of biological, psychological, and social-cultural influences. Biological influences include our shared human genome; individual variations; prenatal environment; and sex-related genes, hormones, and physiology. Psychological influences include gene-environment interactions; the effect of early experiences on neural networks; responses evoked by our own characteristics, such as gender and temperament; and personal beliefs, feelings, and expectations. Social-cultural influences include parental and peer influences; cultural traditions and values; and cultural gender norms.

Secondary sex characteristics

Nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

How is molecular genetics research changing our understanding of the effects of nature and nurture?

Our genetic predispositions and our surrounding environment interact. Environments can trigger gene activity, and genetically influenced traits can evoke responses from others. Molecular geneticists study the molecular structure and function of genes, including those that affect behavior. One goal of molecular behavior genetics is to identify specific genes-or, more often, teams of genes-that together orchestrate complex traits (such as body weight, sexual orientation, and impulsivity) or put people at risk for disorders. The field of epigenetics studies that molecular mechanisms by which environments can trigger or block genetic expression.

Gender identity

Our sense of being male, female, or some combination of the two

How do twin and adoption studies help us understand the effects and interactions of nature and nurture?

Studies of identical (monozygotic) twins versus fraternal (dizygotic) twins, separated twins, and biological versus adoptive relatives allow researchers to consider the effects of shared environment and shared genes, which sheds light on how nature and nurture influence our traits. Shared family environments have surprisingly little effect on personality, though parenting does influence our factors.

From the very first weeks of life, infants differ in their characteristic emotional reactions, with some infants being intense and anxious, while others are easygoing and relaxed. These differences are usually explained as differences in ________

Temperament

Gender typing

The acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

A fertilized egg will develop into a boy if it receives a/n _________ chromosome from its father

Y

Heritability

The proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

X chromosome

The sex chromosome found in both males and females. Females typically have two X chromosomes; males typically have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.

Y chromosome

The sex chromosome typically found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.

What have psychologists learned about temperament?

The stability of temperament, a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity, from the first weeks of life suggests a genetic predisposition. The genetic effect appears in physiological differences such as heart rate and nervous system reactivity.

Molecular behavior genetics

The study of how the structure and function of genes interact with our environment to influence behavior.

Evolutionary psychology

The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.

Behavior genetics

The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

Molecular genetics

The subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes.

Social learning theory

The theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

Chromosomes

Threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes.

What are some ways in which males and females tend to be alike and to differ?

We are more alike than different, thanks to our similar genetic makeup-we see, learn, and remember similarity, with comparable creativity, intelligence, and emotions. Males and females do differ in height, age of onset of puberty, life expectancy, and vulnerability to certain disorders. Men admit to more aggression than women do, and they are more likely to be physically (rather than relationally) aggressive. Women focus more on social connectedness; they are more interdependent, and they "tend and befriend."

How might an evolutionary psychologist explain male-female differences in sexuality and mating preferences?

Women tend to be more selective than men when choosing sexual partners. Evolutionary psychologists reason that men's attraction to multiple healthy, fertile-appearing partners increases their chances of spreading their genes widely. Because women incubate and nurse babies, they increase their own and their children's chances of survival by searching for mates with the potential for long-term investment in their joint offspring.

When the mother's egg and the father's sperm unite, each contributes a) One chromosome pair b) 23 chromosomes c) 23 chromosome pairs d) 25,000 chromosomes

b) 23 chromosomes

Gender role refers to our a) personal sense of being male or female b) culture's expectations about the "right" way for males and females to behave c) assigned birth sex-our chromosomes and anatomy d) unisex characteristics

b) culture's expectations about the "right" way for males and females to behave

Adoption studies seek to understand genetic influences on personality. They do this mainly by a) comparing adopted children with nonadopted children b) evaluating whether adopted children's personalities more closely resemble those of their adoptive parents or their biological parents c) studying the effect of prior neglect on adopted children d) studying the effect of children's age at adoption

b) evaluating whether adopted children's personalities more closely resemble those of their adoptive parents or their biological parents

Individualist cultures tend to value __________; collectivist cultures tend to value __________ a) interdependence; independence b) independence; interdependence c) solidarity; uniqueness d) duty; fulfillment

b) independence; interdependence

Females and males are very similar to each other. But one way they differ is that a) females are more physically aggressive than males b) males are more democratic than females in their leadership roles c) as children, females tend to play in small groups, while males tend to play in large groups d) females are more likely to commit suicide

c) as children, females tend to play in small groups, while males tend to play in large groups

Evolutionary psychologists are most likely to focus on a) how individuals differ from one another b) the social consequences of learned behaviors c) the natural selection of traits that helped our ancestors survive and reproduce d) social scripts

c) the natural selection of traits that helped our ancestors survive and reproduce

Fraternal twins result when a) a single egg is fertilized by a single sperm and then splits b) a single egg is fertilized by two sperm and then splits c) two eggs are fertilized by two sperms d) two eggs are fertilized by a single sperm

c) two eggs are fertilized by two sperms

Our sense of being male, female, or some combination of the two is known as our __________ __________

gender identity

In psychology, __________ is the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male and female. The socially influenced characteristics by which people define boy, girl, man, and women is __________

sex; gender