Psychology Ch. 6

What is a positive punishment? Give an example.

Administer an aversive stimulus. Add a stimulus. For example spraying water on a dog or giving a traffic ticket for speeding.

What is what is an example of an immediate and a delayed reinforcer?

An immediate reinforcer would be a small candy for a child, a delayed would be having a bigger candy tomorrow.

conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response. A previously neutral stimulus that after association, leads to a conditioned response.

external locus of control. Examples?

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate. For example, believing that life is out of your control, that getting a job depends on being in the right place at the right time.

internal locus of control

the perception that you control your own fate. For example what happens to me is my own doing. That success is a matter of hard work.

Learning

the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

Modeling. Examples?

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior. Laughing when they laugh. Smiling when they smile. Using the same facial features or gestures.

What is meant by the word "ratio" in schedules of reinforcement? What happens as reinforcement increases in frequency?

the ratio of responses to reinforcement. It is more likely that the reinforcement will come as the number of responses increases. If the learner responds with greater frequency, it is more likely that there will be more reinforcers.

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response. After hours, it comes back. Always there latent, but gets supressed by lack of response. Like genes. Comes back weaker howver when spontaneous. Not at full point as was before. Environment suppresses it but it is still there. The reappearance of a (weakened) CR after a pause.

How is parent's punishment a negative reinforcement

Because if a child is spanked for swearing(negative) and the swearing stops(reinforcement), then the parent will do it again. Doing the action of spanking reduces the unwanted aversion of swearing which is the negative stimulus.

Give an example of taste aversion.

Becoming violently ill after eating seafood and avoiding the TASTE of seafood, but not becoming sick at the sight or hearing it. Sight and sound can't serve as a stimulus to throw up. But there is an aversion to getting near the thing that is edible.

How is operant conditioning used in sports?

Encouraging mastery of small puts in golf and moving onto bigger puts.

True or false: Negative reinforcement is a kind of punishment.

False. Negative reinforcement encourages a behavior rather than discouraging. Like the dad who took his son to the mall to stop his whining. Whining was negative thing and action stopped it. Like putting an alarm clock on snooze to stop the beeping. Negative unpleasant thing reinforces an action to stop it.

Explain vicarious reinforcement

We learn to anticipate a behaviors consequences in situations where we are observing. We observe the a situation and how others deal with it and repeat that. When we identify with someone, we experience their outcomes vicariously.

When is responding more consistent? Rather than what else?

When reinforcement is unpredictable. variable schedule rather than when it is fixed.

Which schedule produces higher response rates? Rather than what other one?

When the reinforcement is linked to a certain number of responses. A ratio schedule rather than an interval schedule.

What is a negative punishment? Give an example.

Withdraw a rewarding stimulus. Subtract a stimulus. Removing a teen's driving privileges, revoke a library card for not paying fines.

Who was B.F. Skinner?

a behaviorist who rejected introspection and studied how consequences impacted behavior. Learning is best achieved through operant conditioning - rewards & punishments. Held the experiments with mice pushing levers.

respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus. We associate different stimuli we do not control and respond to those stimuli.

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences. Associate behaviors that act on environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli.

neutral stimulus(NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning. An event that the dog could see or hear, but didn't associate with food. The bell. starts out neutral.

unconditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response. Food stimulates the salivating. Food is unconditioned to start the salivation. The food is naturally a trigger to the response of salivating.

Explain the Bobo Doll Experiment. Why did this happen based on the adult?

A child is working on a drawing in one part of a room and an adult is playing with tinkertoys in another part of the room. The adult suddenly starts kicking a bobo doll and saying mean things. The child then is taken to another room with desirable toys and the experimenter takes the toys away, the frustrated child left with only a few toys chooses to kick the Bobo doll and imitates the same movements and curses that the adult does. This happened becuase the adult was seen to the child as admirable and worth emulating. Therefore, the child adopted the mannerisms of the adult.

How is generalization applied to face shape in strangers?

A person who likes a certain face shape, is more likely to like a complete stranger with a similar face shape.

problem-focused coping. Example? When is this commonly used?

Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor. Going the opposite direction. For example getting into a family fight and going directly to a family member to work it out. We use this when we feel we have a sense of control over the situation and can change the outcome.

What are antisocial effects? Examples?

Children learn bad behavior. Bad observational behavior. This includes aggression that is observed and passed on to the family. This can also be learned from TV in which children can learn that bullying is an effective way of controlling people.

reinforcement is ant _______that strengthens_______

Consequence, behavior.

mirror neurons. What does this mean for people. Give an example with monkeys. Provide an example with romantic lovers.

Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy. People feel how others feel and empathize. An example is when one monkey observes another monkey tearing or holding something, an observing monkey's neurons mirror what another monkey does. What one monkey sees, it's mirror neurons mirror what another monkey does. If romantic lovers see a loved one's pain, their brains will reflect that same pain as if it was their own. As if the loved one is also in that pain.

Who was John Watson?

Held the claim that humans are mostly a bundle of conditioned responses and that all can be conditioned the same. Held the little Albert experiment in which an infant was shown through classical conditioning to fear a mouse.

acquisition. What is the biological significance of the tone not affecting much when coming after the food?

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response. The initial learning of the stimulus-response relationship. If the tone comes after the food, the consequence has already occurred so the tone isn't preparing the animal for anything. Didn't prepare or for tell the outcome.

unconditioned response

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth. A response that is already there. Salivating with food in mouth is automatic.

positive reinforcement. How does this apply to Isaac whining and the dad taking him to the mall?

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. Presents a pleasurable stimulus after a response. The dad taking him to the mall is the positive reinforcement of Isaac's whining. Isaac will whine more because he got his father's attention.

negative reinforcement What is negative reinforcement not? How does this apply to Isaac whining and the dad taking him to the mall?

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.) The father reacted to stop Isaac's whining by taking him to the mall. Ended the averse event of Isaac's whining.

How is operant conditioning used at work?

Mangers should reward specific, achievable behaviors. Write people immediately after a good job. Leave a note. Write a check on the spot.

What is meant by "interval" in schedules of reinforcement? What can not be changed?

Means that an interval of time must pass before reinforcement. There is nothing the learner can do to shorten the interval.

What are biological predispositions. When are is learning the most effective? Not? What happens if not?

Natural predispositions that constrain what stimuli and responses can be easily associated. Organisms learn best when behaviors are similar to their natural behaviors. Unnatural behaviors can instinctively drift back to natural ones.

How is operant conditioning used at home?

Parents should notice children doing something right an affirm it. If doing something wrong, explain the misbehavior and give time-out.

Who was John Garcia?

Psychologist who challenged the idea that all associations in classical conditioning can be learned equally as well. Used taste aversion to challenge this.

How is operant conditioning used for self-improvement?

Reinforce your own desired behaviors and extinguish the undesired ones. ENCOURAGE POSITIVE BEHAVIOR.

What is the difference between habituation and sensory adaptation? Start with sensory. give an example habituation and sensory.

Sensory adaptation occurs when one of your sensory systems stops registering the presence of an unchanging stimulus. Like going in a cold pool and your body stops registering the coolness of the pool. Habituation also involves a diminished response however, it's a form of learning by repetition. If exposed to the same stimulus over and over, response decreases. Like someone coming up and yelling "boo"(going into cool water), might not be as startling the second time around a couple minutes later(going out of water for a second and then going back in).

Explain how cognition might get in the way of having someone drink alcohol laced with a certain drug that induces nausea.

The person is cognizant that the drug is causing the nausea not the alcohol so they never learn.

Law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely. Rewarded behavior is more likely to occur.

True or false: There are biological restraints on operant conditioning

True.

True or False: Spontaneous recovery of an extinguished conditioned response returns without any additional pairing with an unconditioned stimulus. What is it not a repeated form of?

True. Not a repeated form of acquisition.

How is operant conditioning used in schools?

Used to give immediate feedback and reinforcement of correct responses. Such as on electronic adaptive quizzes.

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake. Promising people a reward for a task they already enjoy will take away from of the enjoyment and encourage a reliance on a reward. It's not worth doing for it's own sake, I must need a bribe. Like reading psychology for the enjoyment of reading psychology.

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment. Like reading psychology to get a good grade or to release pressure of reading before deadline.

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.) A new NS, can become a cs and there can be two before the cr. Tone signals food, then light before tone, dog will react to light and then the tone less. Slug. Water more in anticipation for the spark.

conditioned reinforcer.(secondary reinforcer) Provide an example.

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer. For example with a rat learns a light signals food delivery, the rat will turn on the light. The light has become the conditioned reinforcer.

insight

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem. When a problem is puzzled over and the pieces suddenly fall together.

Biofeedback

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension. Encouraging certain movements to lessen headaches.

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. Associate a behavior and its response. Like the seal repeating slapping for treats. Or a boy, who associates please with a cookie, will repeat that good behavior. Or like a boy who is punished for a certain word, receives punishment, and then does not do it again. Behavior comes before.

Operant conditioning, ________that ________on the envrionment to _______rewarding or punishing ________is called _________. _________

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. Organisms associate their own actions with consequences. Behavior that operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli is called operant behavior.

Classical conditioning. Give a general summary. This...this...so. Give an example. Who founded it?

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events. Like predicting the future. This happens usually this follows, so I do this. An example is a flash of lightning usually indicates a future boom so as the first stimulus shows, we brace ourselves for the future boom. Just anticipated the event. Like the slug getting shocked. Behavior comes after. One stimulus happens, another stimulus follows. Ivan Pavlov.

Coping

alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods

punishment

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows

primary reinforcer. What is an example?

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need. Naturally. Like getting food when hungry.

Shaping. What might this look like in the rat example? What are these steps called?

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. Gradually guiding the rat's actions toward a desired behavior. Watch how the rat behaves naturally, give the rat food each time it approaches the bar, give the rat food only as it comes closer to the bar, and then have it touch the bar. Called successive approximations

Habituation

an organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it. Example of a sea slug getting squirted with water and gradually getting used to getting squirted with water.

We learn by______. What does this mean? Example.

association. This means that we naturally connect events that occur in a sequence. Such a you hear music(scary music) and you associate that with a frightening consequence(getting mugged), you might feel feel the next time you hear that sound. This means associating one stimulus with another stimulus.

emotion-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction. When we don't think we can or can not change a situation. We can not get along with a family member, we may go to friends for emotional support or comfort.

Learning is influenced by

biological influences, psychological influences, and social-cultural influence.s.

Any kind of punishment______the behavior

discourages

A CS is even speedier, stronger, and more reliable when it is

ecologically relevant. Like the red light signaling reproduction.

Any kind of reinforcement_______the behavior.

encourages

Discrimination Example with the dog?

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. The LEARNED ability to tell when other tones are not the tone of the normal one. To tell when the buzzer isn't normal and when it is the right one.

conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS). Learning a response to the tone, which brings food, the now neutral tone is associated with food and therefore is conditioned to bring food when it rings so the dog salivates to the tone(response)

variable-ratio schedule. What is it also called? Examples?

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. Unpredictable reinforcement. Like in fly-fishing or slot-machine players. Reinforcers increase as the number of responses increase. Very likely to produce high-rates of responding. Ratio of responses increases the rewards and leads to a higher chance. Shoots up close to the same as a fixed ratio because consistency and hope drive towards the the unpredictable reinforcer.

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals. Reinforce the first response after varying time intervals. For example rewarding persistence in checking emails or facebook. Tend to produce slow, steady responding. There is no knowing when the waiting will be over(variable)

fixed-ratio schedule. Give examples.

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. For example a coffee shop that rewards the customer with a free drink after every 10 purchased or one food pellet for every 30 presses of a lever.

Fixed-interval schedules.What are some examples? What does this show? What can and can not be changed? What is the pattern? What happens?

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. An interval is a fixed time period that the person can not affect but fixed-intervals tend to initiate responses in anticipation. Such as going to get the mail close to delivery time, a child jiggling jello-O more often to see if it has set as time gets closer. A pigeon pecking at the keys more as reinforcement draws closer. The interval itself can not be changed time wise, but the anticipation and reaction of the organism tends to follow a choppy stop-start pattern rather than a steady response. The stop start increases as the reinforcer gets closer. Rapid rate of responding nearer to the time of reinforcement.

Reinforcement. What is meant by ________s?

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens(increases the frequency of) the behavior it follows.

dicriminative stimulus. Describe the pigeon example.

in operant conditioning, stmuli that elicits a responde due the learned association in contrast to a similar stimuli that does not. Pigeons can be conditioned to peck after seeing a human face but not to after seeing other images.

Pavlov preformed his experiments________

objectively without any inference into the dog's thoughts or inner feelings.

obervational learning. What is it also called? What is an example of observational learning?

learning by observing others. Also called "social learning". Someone touching a hot stove and burning themselves and the child watching learns not to touch that.

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning). Linking two events that occur close together. An example is a sea slug that associates a squirt with a shock(negative) or a seal that associates barking and slapping with a herring(positive)

latent learning. Give an example with mice.

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it. Like rats in a maze who don't have any food to encourage them, but then when encouraged display their knowledge of the maze.

NS, US, UR, CS, CR

neutral stimulus, unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, conditioned response

cognitive processes

organisms develop the expectation that the CS signals the arrival of the US. Organisms develop an expectation that a response will be reinforced or punished. They also exhibit latent learning without reinforcement.

prosocial. Example?

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior. This could be using behavior models to help employees learn sales or communications. Skills trained by seeing others use them effectively. This also includes the observations of morality and humanitarian who's observations prompt future caring and means of good.

partial(intermittent) reinforcement. Provide an example. What is the main dependence?

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement. Like a salesperson who doesn't make a sale with every pitch but does get occasionally rewarded. Learning is slow, but resistance to extinction is high. Like a pigeon pecking time and time again in the hopes of food. Hope springs eternal in partial(intermittent) reinforcement.

continuous reinforcement. What two things occur faster? What is an example of this?

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. Learning occurs rapidly, but so does extinction. A normally dependable candy machine fails to deliver a candy bar twice in a row, we stop putting money into it(extinction) but we may come back a week later to try it again(sponeous recovery). After a rat stops being delivered food, the lever pressing stops.

Always aim to_____

reward.

Classical conditions form associations between_______. What behavior does it involve?

stimuli(CS and the US it signals). Respondent behavior.

Extinction is________the _______rather than________.

suppressing the CR rather than eliminating it.

self-control. What is it like?

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards. Like a muscle, temporarily weakens with exertion, replenishes with rest, and becomes stronger with exercise.

cognitive learning. Explain who this can be demonstrated. Example?

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language. Through observation of others(seeing) or through language(hearing). Like if one monkey watches another monkey solve a problem and get a treat, that other monkey sees that association and will therefore repeat that same process.

Extinction. Provide an example.

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. For example a tone being repeated with no food meant the dog salivated less and less. So the response became weaker and less strong(going extinct)

learned helplessness. Give an example with a dog. Give one with humans and trauma. What are the effects of this?

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events. Feeling helpless an oppressed that leads to a resignation(give up). For example, putting dogs in a harness and repeatedly shocking them with no escape and then allowing them to escape by jumping a hurdle, the dog will cower in hopelessness. The dogs able to escape the first shocks escaped shocks in the new situation. This is the same with humans and trauma. When repeatedly faced with trauma, people can feel a sense of hopelessness, helplessness, and become depressed. Perceiving a loss of control, that organism becomes more susceptible to stress and ill health.

Generalization. Example? If the conditioned was to one part area, are all other areas to exhibit the same response? why?

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. Like sounding a different tone but getting a similar response. Tendency to respond to similar stimuli. No. The initial conditioned is the most strong but other areas, while not as strong, exhibit a response.

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).