Psychology Chapter 1
Sample Bias
A bias that may occur when research participants are unrepresentative of the large population
Participant Bias
A bias that occurs when a research participant contaminates research results
Experimenter Bias
A bias that occurs when the researcher influences research in the expected direction
Placebo Effect
A change that occurs when a participant's expectations or belief, rather than the actual drug or treatment, cause a particular experimental outcome
Case Study
A descriptive research technique involving an in-depth study of a single research participant or a small group of individuals
Naturalistic Observation
A descriptive research technique that observes and records behavior and mental processes in a natural, real-world setting
Survey/Interview
A descriptive research technique that questions a large sample of people to assess their behaviors and mental processes
Archival Research
A descriptive research technique that studies existing data to find answers to research questions
Functionalism
A perspective that followed structuralism, studied the way the mind functions to enable humans and other animals to adapt to their environment
Introspection
A perspective that relied on participants' self-monitoring and reporting on conscious experiences
Structuralism
A perspective that sought to identify basic building blocks of mental life through introspection then determine how these elements combine to form the whole of experience
Operational definition
A precise description of how the variables in a study will be observed, manipulated, and measured
Co-related
A relationship between two variables where a change in one variable is accompanied by a change in the other
Random assignment
A research technique for assigning participants to experimental or control groups so that each participant has an equal chance of being in either group; minimizes the possibility of biases or preexisting differences within or between the groups
Mary Calkins
One of the first women to be recognized in the field of psychology, in 1895 Harvard refused to grant her the Ph.D. she completed all the requirements for, later became the first female APA president
Biopsychosocial Model
An integrative, unifying theme of modern psychology that sees biological, psychological, and social processes as interrelated and interacting influences
Nature-nurture controversy
An ongoing dispute about the relative contributions of nature (heredity) and nurture (environment) in determining the development and behavior and mental processes
C
If researchers gave participants varying amounts of a new memory drug and then gave them a story to read and measured their scores on a quiz, the ______ would be the IV, and the ______ would be the DV. a. response to the drug; amount of the drug b. experimental group; control group c. amount of the drug; quiz scores d. researcher variables; extraneous variables
Francis Cecil Sumner
First black person to earn a Ph.D. in psychology (Clark University, 1920)
Kenneth Clark (1914-2005)
First person of color to be elected APA president in 1971. Conducted experiments with Black and White dolls to study children's attitudes about race. The research and his expert testimony contributed to Supreme Court's ruling that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional
John B. Watson
Founded behaviorism, adopted Ivan Pavlov's concept of conditioning to explain behavior
B
If you conducted a study on areas of the brain most affected by drinking alcohol, it would be ______ research a. unethical b. basic c. pseudopsychology d. applied
B
In a case study, a researcher is most likely to ______ a. interview many research participants who have a single problem or disorder b. conduct an in-depth study of a single research participant c. choose and investigate a single topic d. use any of these options, which describe different types of case studies
Margaret Floy Washburn
One of the first women to receive Ph.D. in psychology (Cornell University, 1894), second female APA president
B. F. Skinner
One of the most influential psychologists of the 20th century, convinced that behaviorist approaches could be used to "shape" human behavior
D
Psychology is defined as the ______. a. science of conscious and unconscious forces b. empirical study of the mind and behavior c. Scientific study of the mind d. Scientific study of behavior and mental processes
Correlational
Purpose of ______ research: To identify strength and direction of relationships and assess how well one variable predicts another
Descriptive
Purpose of ______ research: To observe, collect, and record data
Experimental
Purpose of _______ research: To allow researchers to have precise control over variables, and to provide explanation of the causes of behavior and mental processes
Independent variable
The variable that is manipulated and controlled by the experimenter to determine its causal effect on the dependent variable; also called the treatment variable
Dependent variable
The variable that is observed and measured for change; the factor that is affected by the independent variable
False
True or False: Advertisers and politicians often use subliminal persuasion to influence our behavior
True
True or False: Behaviors that are unusual or violate social norms may indicate a psychological disorder
True
True or False: Eyewitness testimony is often unreliable
True
True or False: In an emergency, as the number of bystanders increases, your chance of getting help decreases
False
True or False: Most brain activity stops when we're asleep
False
True or False: People with schizophrenia have multiple personalities
False
True or False: Polygraph ("lie detector") tests can accurately and reliably reveal whether a person is lying
False
True or False: Punishment is the most effective way to permanently change behavior
True
True or False: Similarity is one of the best predictors of satisfaction in long-term relationships
False
True or False: The best way to learn and remember information is to "cram" or study it intensively during one concentrated period
Describe, Explain, Predict, and Change behavior and mental processes
What are the 4 major goals of psychology?
Question and Literature review
What is Step 1 of the Scientific Method?
Testable hypothesis
What is Step 2 of the Scientific Method?
Research design
What is Step 3 of the Scientific Method?
Data collection and analysis
What is Step 4 of the Scientific Method?
Publication
What is Step 5 of the Scientific Method?
Theory development
What is Step 6 of the Scientific Method?
C
_____ is generally acknowledged as the father of psychology a. Sigmund Freud b. B. F. Skinner c. Wilhelm Wundt d. William Tell
A
_____ is particularly important if you suffer from test anxiety. a. overlearning b. hyper-soma control c. active studying d. passive listening
A
_____ relies on common beliefs, folk wisdom, or even superstitions and do not follow the basics of the scientific method. (a) a. Pseudopsychology b. Astrophysics c. Astronomy d. None of these options
Placebo
An inactive substance or fake treatment used as a control technique in experiments; often used in drug research
Edward Titchener
Student of Wundt's, known for "structuralism"
Positive Psychology
The study of optimal human functioning; emphasizes positive emotions, traits, and institutions
Debriefing
A discussion procedure conducted at the end of an experiment or study; participants are informed of the study's design and purpose, possible misconceptions are clarified, questions are answered, and explanations are provided for any possible deception
Illusory Correlation
A mistaken perception that a relationship exists between variables when no such relationship actually exists
Behavioral Perspective
A modern approach to psychology that emphasizes objective, observable, environmental influences on overt behavior
Sociocultural Perspective
A modern approach to psychology that emphasizes social interaction and the cultural determinants of behavior and mental processes
Biological Perspective
A modern approach to psychology that focuses on genetics and biological processes
Cognitive Perspective
A modern approach to psychology that focuses on the mental processes used in thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Humanistic Perspective
A modern approach to psychology that perceives human nature as naturally positive and growth seeking; it emphasizes free will and self-actualization
Evolutionary Perspective
A modern approach to psychology that stresses natural selection, adaptation, and reproduction
Correlational Coefficient
A number from -1.00 to +1.00 that indicates the direction and strength of the relationship between two variables
Informed Consent
A participant's agreement to take part in a study after being told what to expect
D
A participant's agreement to take part in a study after being told what to expect is known as ______ a. psychological standards b. an experimental contract c. debriefing d. informed consent
Third-variable problem
A situation in which a variable that has not been measured accounts for a relationship between two or more of the variables; also known as a problem of confounding
Statistical significance
A statistical statement of how likely is is that a study's result occurred merely by chance
Meta-analysis
A statistical technique for combining and analyzing date from many studies in order to determine overall trends
SQ4R Method
A study technique based on six steps: Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review, and wRite
Hypothesis
A tentative and testable explanation about the relationship between two or more variables; a testable prediction or question
Basic Research
A type of research primarily conducted to advance core scientific knowledge; most often conducted in universities and research laboratories
Applied Research
A type of research primarily conducted to solve practical, real world problems; generally conducted outside the laboratory
Correlational Research
A type of research that examines possible relations between variables; designed to meet the goal of prediction
Experimental Research
A type of research that involves the manipulation and control of variables to determine cause and effect; designed to meet the goal of explanation
Descriptive Research
A type of research that systematically observes and records behavior and mental processes without manipulating variables; designed to meet the goal of description
Theory
A well-substantiated explanation for a phenomenon or a group of facts that have been repeatedly confirmed by previous research
D
A(n) ______ provides a precise definition of how the variables in a study will be observed and measured a. meta-analysis b. theory c. independent observation d. operational definition
Sigmund Freud
An Australian physician who founded the psychoanalytic perspective
Psychoanalytic Perspective
An earlier approach to psychology developed by Sigmund Freud, which focuses on unconscious processes, unresolved conflicts, and past experiences
Double-blind study
An experimental technique in which both the researcher and the participants are unaware of (blind to) who is in the experimental or control groups
Single-blind study
An experimental technique in which only the participants are unaware (blind to) who is in the experimental or control groups
Pseudopsychologies
Based on common beliefs, folk wisdom, or superstitions; not to be confused with real psychology
Mamie Phipps Clark (1917-1985)
Conducted experiments with Black and White dolls to study children's attitudes about race. The research and her expert testimony contributed to Supreme Court's ruling that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional
Wilhelm Wundt
Considered the father of psychology, and his followers were interested in studying conscious experience. Their approach, structuralism, sought to identify the basic structures of mental life through introspection
Illusory
Correlations are sometimes ________ --meaning they don't exist!
Natural Selection
Darwin's principle of an evolutionary process in which heritable traits that increase an organism's chances of survival or reproduction are more likely to be passed on to succeeding generations
Negative
Do extraversion and loneliness have a positive, negative, or zero correlation?
Positive
Do happiness and helpfulness have a positive, negative, or zero correlation?
Positive
Do health and exercise have a positive, negative, or zero correlation?
Negative
Do hours of TV viewing and student grades have a positive, negative, or zero correlation?
Zero
Do hours of sleep and number of friends have a positive, negative, or zero correlation?
No
Does correlation prove causation?
William James
Known as the father of American psychology, founded functionalism and 1st psychological lab in the U.S. (at Harvard)
A
One of the clearest findings in psychology is that _____ practice is a much more efficient way to study and learn than ______ practice. a. spaced (distributed); massed b. active; passive c. applied; basic d. none of these options
D
Research suggests that _____ might be two of the most important keys to improving your grades a. highlighting and rereading b. personal control and better time management c. active studying and the SQ4R method d. distributed practice and practice testing
Evolutionary
Sample Research Question for which of the 7 major perspectives?: Do we have specific genes for aggression and altruism?
Cognitive
Sample Research Question for which of the 7 major perspectives?: How can we improve how we process, store, and retrieve information?
Behavioral
Sample Research Question for which of the 7 major perspectives?: How can we increase desirable behaviors and decrease undesirable ones?
Humanistic
Sample Research Question for which of the 7 major perspectives?: How can we promote a client's capacity for self-actualization and understanding of his or her own development?
Humanistic
Sample Research Question for which of the 7 major perspectives?: How can we promote international peace and reduce violence?
Psychodynamic
Sample Research Question for which of the 7 major perspectives?: How do adult personality traits or psychological problems reflect unconscious processes and early childhood experiences?
Cognitive
Sample Research Question for which of the 7 major perspectives?: How do our thoughts and interpretations affect how we respond in certain situations?
Sociocultural
Sample Research Question for which of the 7 major perspectives?: How do the values and beliefs transmitted from out social and cultural environments affect our everyday psychological processes?
Evolutionary
Sample Research Question for which of the 7 major perspectives?: How does natural selection help explain why we love to help certain people, but hurt others?
Biological
Sample Research Question for which of the 7 major perspectives?: How might changes in neurotransmitters or damage to parts of the brain lead to changes in behavior and mental processes?
D
The ______ views biological processes, psychological factors, and social forces as interrelated influences, and it is one of the most widely accepted themes of modern psychology a. Eclectic perspective b. Nature-nurture model c. Interactionist position d. Biopsychosocial model
Ethnocentrism
The belief that one's culture is typical of all cultures; also, viewing one's own ethnic group (or culture) as central and "correct" and judging others according to this standard
Scientific Method
The cyclical and cumulative research process used for gathering and interpreting objective information in a way that minimizes error and yields dependable results
B
The goal of ______ is to tell what occurred, whereas the goal of _____ is to tell when a. health psychologists; biological psychologists b. description; prediction c. psychologists; psychiatrists d. pseudopsychologists; clinical psychologists
Experimental group
The group that is manipulated in an experiment; participants who are exposed to the independent variable
Control group
The group that is not manipulated during an experiment; participants who are NOT exposed to the independent variable
Individualist culture
The needs and goals of the individual are emphasized over the needs and goals of the group
Collectivistic culture
The person is defined and understood primarily by looking at his or her place in the social unit. Relatedness, connectedness, and interdependence are valued, as opposed to separateness, independence, and individualism
Critical Thinking
The process of objectively evaluating, comparing, analyzing, and synthesizing information
Psychology
The scientific study of behavior and mental processes
B
When a researcher observes or measures two or more variables to find relationships between them, without directly manipulating them or implying a casual relationship, he or she is conducting _______ a. experimental research b. a correlational study c. non-casual metrics d. a meta-analysis
B
When both the researcher and the participants are unaware of who is in the experimental or control groups, the research design can be called ______. a. reliable b. double-blind c. valid d. deceptive
A
When participants are not exposed to any amount or level of the independent variable, they are members of the ______ group a. control b. experimental c. observation d. out-of-control
Leipzig, Germany 1879
Where/When was the first psychological laboratory founded?
C
Which of the following is NOT one of the recommended study habits? a. active reading b. familiarization c. highlighting d. note taking
A
Which of the following terms do not belong together? a. Structuralism, unconscious behavior b. Behaviorism, observable behavior c. Psychoanalytic, unconscious conflict d. Humanism, free will
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow
Who believes that all individuals naturally strive to develop and move toward self-actualization?
