psychology chapter 11: Gender, Sex, and Sexuality

women challenges to reproduction

- can only give birth once a year - limited time of fertility

cognitive abilities regarding sex

- respect our partners and not take sexual advantage of them - to generate sexual images

men problems with reproduction

- should be less selective - a man cannot be certain whether the child in whom he is investing his resources is genetically his child.

five important issues for critical thinkers regarding sexual activity

1) Unlikelihood of a single cause 2) Within-group variation 3) Research challenges 4) The meaning of cross-sex similarities 5) Explaining sexual orientation does not mean explaining only homosexuality

factors that do not predict sexual orientation

1) being reared by a gay parent - therefore sexual orientation is not learned or modeled 2) parenting style 3) same-sex sexual experience or experimentation in childhood

Homosexual behavior is relatively common in nature, having been observed in ____ different species

1,500

hormones play a role in the development of ____ aspects of the body that are also used in classifying us as male or female: (list them)

3 - 1) internal reproductive structures 2) external genitalia 3) secondary sex characteristics

orgasm lasts for only about

3 to 15 seconds

What causes the development of male sexual features?

A particular gene on the Y chromosome, the SRY gene (the sex-determining region of the Y chromosome), is activated early in the first three months of pregnancy

______ are higher on overt aggression than _______, throughout life

Boys and men girls and women

_________ was related to having fewer sex partners overall and to practicing less risky sex

Engaging Page 390in sex as a form of intimacy with another person

what characterizes the excitement phase

Engorgement of blood vessels and increased blood flow in genital areas, along with muscle tension, lubrication of the vagina and partial erection of the penis.

Who chooses and who competes?

Generally, the sex that invests the most in producing offspring is the one that chooses, and the other sex is the one that competes

No single STI has had a greater impact on sexual behavior in the past decades than

HIV

Among the findings that shocked his readers were

Kinsey's estimates of the frequency of bisexuality in men (nearly 12 percent) and women (7 percent) and his estimate that at least 50 percent of married men had been sexually unfaithful

_____, ________, ______ can lead to genitals that are not clearly male or female

Prenatal hormone exposure, chromosomal abnormalities, and environmental factors (such as exposure to radiation, chemicals, or some medications)

paraphilic disorders as psychological disorders that involve

Sexual interests that cause personal distress (beyond that simply resulting from societal disapproval) Sexual desires or behaviors that involve another person's psychological distress, injury, or death Desire for sexual behavior involving unwilling persons or those who cannot give legal consent

"John/Joan" case

The case involved one member of a pair of twin boys. A few months after birth, the penis of one of the twins was destroyed during circumcision. Money persuaded the parents to allow him to transform surgically the injured male genitals into female genitals and to agree to treat the child as a girl. Reared as a girl, according to Money, the former boy essentially became a girl. The case became famous as an example of nurture's triumph over nature

unusual sexual practices are typically considered harmless variations as long as these principles are not violated

The individuals are consenting adults; they do not experience personal distress; and they are not putting themselves in danger of physical harm or death as a result of their activities

Two particular types of brain differences have garnered the most attention among researchers

The thickness of the corpus callosum (the bundle of fibers that connects the two hemispheres) and the symmetry between the brain's two hemispheres.

What causes paraphilic disorders?

There is no one answer to this question. Each disorder may have its own origin.

gender schema

a mental framework for understanding what is considered appropriate behavior for females and males in their culture

empathy

a person's feeling of oneness with the emotional state of another person

pedophilic disorder

a psychological disorder in which an adult or an older adolescent sexually fantasizes about or engages in sexual behavior with individuals who have not reached puberty.

HIV

a sexually transmitted infection that destroys the body's immune system

social role theory

a theory of gender development that acknowledges the physical differences between the sexes that, historically, led men and women to perform different tasks; but it also points out the ways that these differences color social expectations and create and support social structures that limit opportunities for both sexes

When we talk about sexual orientation, we mean

a whole range of human experiences that interest psychologists, including not only behaviors but also desires, feelings, fantasies, and a person's sense of identity.

theory of mind

ability to understand the inner life of another person

The only 100 percent safe behavior is

abstinence

sex

activities that are involved in reproduction.

Sexuality involves

activity that is associated with sexual pleasure

in women, androgens are produced by the

adrenal glands

HIV causes

aids

recognized as the father of sexology, a pioneer who brought scientific attention to sexual behavior

alfred Kinsley

Neuroimaging studies suggest that the responsiveness of the ______ to emotion-arousing stimuli varies according to gender

amygdalae

Orgasm involves

an explosive discharge of neuromuscular tension and an intensely pleasurable feeling

fetish

an object or activity that arouses sexual interest and desire

Because prenatal ______ levels can vary for female embryos, we can examine whether females who were exposed to prenatal ______ are more likely to be bisexual or lesbian rather than heterosexual.

androgen

what hormone is higher in men

androgens (the most common being testosterone)

These disorders of sexual response may be treated with

androgens or through psychotherapy. Addressing underlying physical causes can also sometimes improve sexual function

Where differences do emerge, they suggest that men report more feelings of _____ and ______ than women

anger and irritability

Empathy requires an appreciation of

another person's mental state

Where differences do emerge, they suggest that women report more feelings of ____ and _____ than men

anxiety and sadness

In describing a person's gender identity, we might talk about

attributes such as masculinity and femininity.

For some women, dysfunction in arousal is explained by problems in the

autonomic nervous system that disrupt the engorgement of the labia and lubrication of the vagina; for other women, the subjective feeling of arousal is absent even when these physical changes occur

STIs can be ____ or _____ in origin

bacterial or viral

aggression

behavior intended to harm another person

gender-nonconforming behavior

behavior that does not fit with expectations for their sex

relational aggression

behavior that is meant to harm the social standing of another person through activities such as gossiping and spreading rumors

instrumental attributes include

being assertive, brave, independent, and dominant

expressive traits include

being nurturing, warm, gentle, and sensitive to others

Individuals who are not strongly gender-typed according to these scales tend to have

better psychological adjustment and resilience than those rated as extremely masculine or feminine

gender goes beyond

biological sex to include a person's understanding of the meaning of being male or female

resolution phase characteristics

blood vessels return to their normal state

the social cognitive theories of gender approach emphasizes

both the way that children internalize information about gender and the way the environment reinforces gender-related behavior

researchers have examined whether sexual orientation is associated with

brIN DIFFERENCES

Brain-imaging studies suggest that individuals who are sexually attracted to children show a pervasive pattern of

brain dysfunction, related to connections between brain regions

Both of these types of disorders can be related to the experience of

childhood sexual abuse, as well as to strict religious beliefs and negative sexual attitudes

5 physical characteristics used to classify sex

chromosomes, gonads, hormones, genitalia, and secondary sex characteristics

As adults, men are more likely than women to be

chronically hostile and to commit violent crimes

which approach is more successful?

cognitive

Adolescents who experienced __________ sex education were less likely to report adolescent pregnancies

comprehensive

human sexual response pattern

consisting of four phases

One factor in the well-being of gays and lesbians is

coping with prejudice and discrimination

One prediction from social role theory is that as social structures change, gender differences should

decline

engaging in sex to avoid bad feelings is linked to

decrease in well being

Abstinence-only programs fail to

delay the initiation of sexual intercourse and do not reduce HIV-risk behavior

Disorders of sexual orgasm in women involve

delayed or absent orgasm during sexual activity

Kaplan's view of the sexual response differed from Masters and Johnson's in that she added a key initial stage

desire

therefore only males fetuses are exposed to the effects of the SRY gene, which causes the

development of embryonic testes

_____ is evidence that sexual selection has occurred in our species

differences between women and men - men are physically larger and stronger than women. Evolutionary psychologists explain human males' physical size as an adaptation that helps men compete with one another for female mates

Finally, social role theory would assert that these gender differences reflect the

differing gender roles, stereotypes, and opportunities that cultures construct for men and women

The first stage may involve

dressing and living as their preferred gender identity

With respect to preventing abuse and protecting children, Seto advocates

educating children to distinguish appropriate and inappropriate touch and empowering them to share their feelings with a trusted adult if someone is making them uncomfortable.

there are gender specific expectations for

emotional behavior

abstinence-only approach

emphasize that sexual behavior outside of marriage is harmful to individuals of any age. Instructors can present contraceptives and condoms only in terms of their failure rates. Abstinence-only sex education promotes the notion that abstinence is the only effective way to avoid pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections.

gonads is part of the ______ system

endocrine

With respect to preventing pedophilic disorder, Seto argues that, given the evidence for a neurodevelopmental basis to the problem, ______ and ______ might be helpful in reducing the occurrence of the disorder

enhanced prenatal care and early parenting interventions

Subsequent research has shown that having sex in order to be close to another person is related to

enhanced well-being

Fetishes include

erotic materials (such as pornographic images and films), clothing, and other physical objects

The excitement phase begins the process of

erotic responsiveness

which hormones are higher in women

estrogen and progesterone

negative responses tp gender-nonconforming boys may play a role in

eventual gender identity and sexual orientation - Parents and peers may label a gender-nonconforming boy as homosexual, and that labeling may influence the boy's sense of self and his emerging identity

For boys, gender-nonconforming behavior may be related to

eventual sexual development,

4 phases of human sexual response pattern

excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.

expressiveness

female traits

A sex difference in this phase is that

females may be stimulated to orgasm again without delay, whereas males enter a refractory period during which they cannot have another orgasm

one way that societies teach youth about sex and sexuality is through

formal education

masochist

gains sexual pleasure from being dominating by another person

sadomasochism fetish

gains sexual pleasure from dominating another person

Importantly, research on the biological bases of gender does not simply focus on how biological factors (genes, hormones, and so on) determine gender development but also on how such factors contribute to

gender development in interaction with experience

For many emotional experiences, researchers do not find _________

gender differences

children develop a

gender schema

gender roles are related to

gender stereotypes

culminating in

gender-affirming surgery, formerly known as sex reassignment surgery

Moreover, some evidence suggests that in videos of their childhood activities, gay and lesbian adults pursued more

gender-atypical activities as children

heterosexual

generally sexually attracted to members of the opposite sex

homosexual

generally sexually attracted to members of the same sex

_____ and _____ play crucial roles in the development of the genitals

genes and prenatal hormones

aptitude for science is similarly predicted by

genes for both males and females

individuals who study biological factors in gender development focus on variables such as

genes, prenatal hormones, and brain structures and functions, as these differ between males and females and potentially account for the experiences of ourselves in those sexes

From the biological perspective, differences in sexuality can be explained by

genetic and hormonal differences between men and women

Differences in the corpus callosum are thought to have a

genetic basis because the corpus callosum's size is strongly heritable

Similar to many other psychological characteristics, an individual's sexual orientation most likely depends on a combination of

genetic, hormonal, cognitive, and environmental factors

viral STIs

genital herpes and HIV

transvestic fetish

gets sexual pleasure from wearing clothing of the opposite sex

Gonads

glands that produce sex hormones

bacterial STIs

gonorrhea and syphilis

Generally, the treatment for transgender individuals involve

gradual stages that move from reversible treatments to permanent ones

gender similarities hypothesis

he idea that men and women (and boys and girls) are much more similar than they are different

Empathy is a strong predictor of an individual's willingness to

help another in need

______ and ________ display a similar pattern of having a larger right hemisphere relative to the left

heterosexual men and lesbian women

In terms of hemispheric symmetry, a brain-imaging study found that _____ and ________ show a similar pattern in which the two hemispheres are alike

heterosexual women and gay men

Research shows that _______ are more likely than ________ to remember themselves as having engaged in gender-nonconforming behaviors

homosexual adults heterosexual adults

sex may also be classified by the

hormones that these gonads produce

Sexual selection is more complicated in ______ than in other species.

human beings - Specifically, because human infants are so helpless, it makes sense from a survival standpoint for men to invest in their offspring—so sometimes men get to be the choosers, and women are the competitors vying for those men who are most likely to invest in their children

HIV stands for

human immunodeficiency virus

From an evolutionary perspective, the cognitive differences are thought to be tied to

important ancestral female roles, such as socializing offspring and negotiating the interpersonal landscape, and to the ancestral male roles of traversing the landscape for food and navigating their way home again

Women can also suffer from disorders of sexual response, including problems

in sexual arousal and in the experience of orgasm

Undifferentiated

individuals who are low on both dimensions

Social role theory recognizes the _____ and _____ that perpetuate gender differences

institutional structures and patterns of opportunity

the plateau phase

is a continuation and heightening of the arousal begun in the excitement phase

sexually transmitted infection (STI)

is an infection that is contracted primarily through sexual activity—vaginal intercourse as well as oral and anal sex

does this mean women are more helpful than men?

it depends - Women are more likely than men to help when doing so does not involve risks to personal safety. In contrast, men are more likely than women to help in situations in which a perceived danger is present and n which they feel competent to help

As adolescents, males are more likely to

join gangs and to commit violent acts

activities that involve no risk of an STI include

kissing, French kissing, cuddling, massage, and mutual masturbation (that does not involve the exchange of bodily fluids)

kinsey's work was limited by the

lack of representative samples

In infancy, boys are ____ and more ____ than girls

larger and more active

Alice Eagly has proposed that to understand gender, we must recognize the

larger social and cultural institutions surrounding the psychological phenomenon of gender identity

Social cognitive theories of gender development focus on how children ______ about gender and how they come to occupy a particular gender identity.

learn

_____ of hormones vary by sex

levels

Lack of sexual desire in both men and women can stem from

low levels of androgen, stress, anxiety and depression, physical illnesses, and various medications

Pedophilic disorder is associated with

low self-esteem, poor social skills, low IQ, and a history of head injuries (causing unconsciousness) in childhood

only ____ have a Y chromosome

males

Transgender identity is consistently more common in natal _____ than natal ____

males females

Gottman's team found that compared to heterosexual couples, gay and lesbian partners were better able to

manage conflicts. They were more likely to use humor and affection in dealing with conflicts, took a more positive attitude toward negative feedback from their partners, and let conflicts go once they were resolved

The testes, then, begin to

manufacture androgens that spread throughout the developing embryo, influencing the growing body and brain

problems with this definition of sex

many gay men and women are virgins, as are adolescents who engage exclusively in, say, oral sex. Further, masturbation would not be a sexual behavior within this definition.

instrumentality

masculine traits

women sex script

may be more an expression of intimacy, with orgasm an optional feature

men sex script

may center more on the genitals, with orgasm being a crucial aspect

sexual selection

means that the male and female members of a species differ from each other because of differences in competition and choice

choice

members of that opposite sex will in turn choose the lucky one with whom they will mate with

pedophilic disorder is more common in

men

A consistent finding in the research literature is that ___ are far more likely than ____ to engage in physical aggression

men women

Although stereotypes might point to very strong gender differences in sexuality, with _____ being more preoccupied with sex than ____

men women

how do men avoid the problem that the child in whom he is investing his resources is genetically his child

men are likely to prefer women who are younger than they are. This preference for younger women may be a way for a man to minimize the chances that his betrothed is already pregnant with someone else's offspring.

schemas are

mental frameworks we use to understand the world

The disorder is related to a pattern of cognitive distortions, including

minimizing the harm of pedophilic activities, believing that sexual impulses are uncontrollable, and thinking that sexual relationships with children are consensual

Despite the widespread use of labels such as "homosexual," "gay," "lesbian," and "bisexual," some researchers argue that they are

misleading - erotic attractions may be fluid, and these categories ignore the potential flexibility of human sexual attraction and behavior

Children gain information about gender from _______

models of each sex

However, researchers have found that men and women are often __________ than the stereotype would lead us to believe

more alike in the way they experience emotion

Individuals who had sex to cope with negative feelings were more likely to engage in

more unsafe sex

Kaplan's work highlighted the very important role of ______ in sexual activity

motivation

The evolutionary psychology approach to gender views the differences between the sexes through the lens of

natural selection and adaptation.

social responses to gender-nonconforming boys is frequently

negative

women being more responsive to _____ stimuli

negative

do men think about sex more than women?

no

treatments for pedophelia include

no treatments

competition

occurs among members of the same sex as they vie for the opportunity to mate with members of the opposite sex

The third phase of the human sexual response cycle is

orgasm

Stability of sexual orientation might also depend on the

orientation

The evolutionary psychologist would view the overt aggression of males as an

outgrowth of ancestral male competition for female mates, From this perspective, the propensity for relational aggression derives from the female need to compete for male partners with resources.

gonads in females

ovaries - generates ova (eggs)

gender stereotypes

overly general beliefs and expectations about what women and men are like

With orgasm comes the release of the neurotransmitter

oxytocin

When a variation in sexual behavior violates one or more of these principles, however, it may qualify as a

paraphilic disorder

sexual scripts

patterns of expectancies for how people should behave sexually

Cognitive interpretation of sexual activity also involves our

perceptions of the individual with whom we are having sex, and his or her perceptions of us

Regardless of the specific behavior, similar ________ are involved in sexual responses

physical processes

men being more responsive to _____ stimuli

positive

social responses to non-gender conforming girls is frequently

positive

Differences in hemispheric symmetry are believed to emerge from

prenatal hormone exposure

Acknowledging the difficulties in treating pedophilic disorder, Michael Seto, an expert on the disorder, concluded that efforts should focus on

preventing the disorder and implementing interventions aimed at child-victims

Some experts have suggested that ________ can explain the emergence of some paraphilic disorders

principles of classical conditioning

how do reduce the risk of STIs if sexually active

protection

Comprehensive sex education involves

providing students with comprehensive knowledge about sexual behavior, birth control, and the use of condoms in protecting against sexually transmitted infections, while encouraging them to delay sexual activity and practice abstinence.

the Kinsey Reports

published in two volumes, presented sexual findings for men and women

children may be _____ for participating in gender conforming behavior

punished

men focus on ____ with reproduction

quantity - reproducing as often as possible

Then the person might

receive hormones that support that identity, followed by surgery to remove secondary sex characteristics (such as breasts),

transgender

refers to experiencing one's psychological gender as different from one's biological or "natal" (meaning "at birth") sex.

overt aggression

refers to physically or verbally harming another person dirrectly

sex

refers to the properties of a person that determine his or her classification as male or female

gender

refers to the social and psychological aspects of being female or male

sexuality

refers to the ways people experience and express themselves as sexual beings

nine U.S. states have laws that ________ for sex offenders who commit crimes against children as a condition of parole

require chemical or surgical castration

Following orgasm, the individual enters the

resolution phase

from this perspective, gender behavior is learned through

reward and punishment, observational learning, and modeling

children may be _____ for participating in gender conforming behavior

rewarded

With regard to the overt aggression of boys and men, biological researchers might focus on the

role of a hormone such as testosterone, which circulates at higher levels in men than women

Treatments for lack of sexual desire include

rug therapies, psychological therapies, and relationship counseling.

Finding someone sexually attractive may involve

seeing the person, getting to know him or her, and feeling emotionally attached.

Sexual behavior is influenced by a variety of factors, ranging from

sensation and perception to the ways we think about sexuality

the excitement phase lasts from

several minutes to several hours, depending on the nature of the sex play involved

Sexuality is influenced by

sexual scripts

Darwin (1871) proposed that many sex differences that occur within species have evolved through

sexual selection

Anyone who is _________ is at risk of contracting HIV and other STIs

sexually active

bisexual

sexually attracted to people of both sexes

Non-heterosexual individuals may be more likely to

shift their erotic interests, especially in adolescence

Women's __________ may be one reason they are less likely to engage in overt aggression

smaller physical size

Gender differences in emotion are much more tied to _____ than ______

social context than to biological sex

John Money, a well-known sex researcher ,believed strongly that ______ was the main determinant of gender

socialization

in men, estrogen is produced by

some of the androgens that are produced by the testes are converted into estrogens

Individuals who had sex to cope with negative feelings were less likely to have

stable long-term relationships

in Western societies, there is a strong belief that sexual orientation is a

stable personal attribute

Gender stereotypes might suggest that men are

strong, dominant, and rational

The evolutionary psychology approach would see these differences as

supporting the role of sexual selection in human evolution

Cisgender

term used when gender identity and/or expression aligns with the sex assigned at birth

gonads in males

testicles - generates spem

androgynous means

that a person is high on both instrumental and expressive qualities, having attributes that we typically associate with both genders

The social environment responds to behaviors in various ways, coloring

the child's perception of their appropriateness

sexual selection is of particular interest in humans because of

the different challenges men and women face in reproducing.

sexual orientation

the direction of his or her erotic interests

premature ejaculation

the experience of orgasm before the person wishes it.

erectile dysfunction

the failure of the penis to become erect

these three organs in women allow

the ovum to travel from the ovaries to the uterus, and they play roles in sexual functioning, the menstrual cycle, and pregnancy

Biological approaches to gender draw links between aspects of

the person's biological sex and his or her eventual psychological feelings of gender

The second phase of the human sexual response

the plateau phase

Women and men often use _____, ______, and _______ when they keep diaries about their experiences

the same facial expressions, adopt the same language, and describe their emotional experiences similarly

these three organs in men include

the structures involved in the production and storage of sperm, as well as those that play a role in sexual arousal and orgasm

Evidence from brain-imaging studies suggests that gay men may have _____ corpus callosa than heterosexual men

thicker

our _______ play an important role in our sexuality

thoughts

motives for having sex include

to connect intimately with someone, to enhance their own self-esteem, to gain a partner's and peers' approval, and to avoid feeling distressed or lonely

most people concerned with sex education share two simple and relatively uncontroversial goals:

to encourage the very young to delay sexual activity and to reduce teen pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections

Men and women share the same evolutionary goal

to reproduce

This conclusion suggests that the very large gender difference in the pursuit of careers in math and science is

unlikely to result from these small cognitive differences between boys and girls and men and women.

in some cultures, engaging in same-sex sexual activity is not

viewed as an indication of the person's identity

Gender stereotypes might suggest that women are

warm, caring, and emotional

Social cognitive theories would focus on the

ways that boys and girls learn about what is considered appropriate sexual behavior for each gender

sexual scripts can be influenced by

what we see on television or in films

cognitive differences between men and women

where differences did emerge, they were quite small, with girls scoring higher on some measures of verbal ability and boys scoring higher on spatial tasks

debate around transgender individuals

whether such individuals should be considered as having a disorder or are just discriminated and misunderstood

Comparing the sexes on measures of theory of mind, where differences are found, ____ tend to show an advantage

women

_____ report themselves as more empathic than _____

women men

since women face more challenges to reproduction

women must be choosy in selecting sexual partners, putting a premium on high quality—seeking sexual partners who have adequate resources to invest in a family