Psychology- Chapter 9

Which is TRUE regarding personality testing?

Each type of measurement has strengths and weaknesses.

Research shows that only humans have personalities

False

Overview

James-Lange Theory - says that physiological arousal occurs BEFORE an emotion Cannon-Bard Theory - says that physiological arousal and emotion occur at the same time INDEPENDENTLY Schacter/Singer - proposes that COGNITION interacts with physiological arousal to produce an emotion

Androgens

the class of sex hormones that predominate in males, produced by the testes in males and by the adrenal glands in both males and females

Estrogens

the class of sex hormones that predominated in females, produced mainly by the ovaries

Sexual Orientation

the direction of an individual's erotic interests, today viewed as a continuum form exclusive male-female relations to exclusive same-sex relations - Genetic explanations for homosexuality present a puzzle for evolutionary psychologists. One possibility is that some of the same genes that contribute to homosexuality may also lead to reproductive success of heterosexual individual who possess them - most experts believe that no one factor alone causes sexual orientation and that the relative weight of each factor can vary from one individual to the next - Homosexuality is present in all cultures, regardless of whether a culture is accepting or intolerant. Homosexuality is not a choice

Adler suggested that the principal motive in human personality is

striving for superiority

Which motto would best fit the id?

"If it feels good, then do it."

The Biology of Obesity

- Obesity clearly has a genetic component. - some individuals do inherit a tendency to be overweight - only 10% of children who do not have obese parents become obese themselves - 40% of children who have one obese parent become obese - 70% of children who have two obese parents become obese - Identical twins have similar weights even when they are reared apart

What is Emotion?

- a feeling or "affect" - involves three dimensions * physiological arousal * conscious arousal * behavior arousal

Sex Education in Theory

- a major controversy in sex education is whether schools should have an abstinence-only program or a program that emphasizes contraceptive knowledge - research on sex education programs indicate that programs that emphasize contraceptive knowledge do not increase the incidence of sexual intercourse and are more likely to reduce the risk of adolescent pregnancy and sexually transmitted infection than abstinence-only programs - some sex education programs are starting to adopt an abstinence-plus sexuality approach that promotes abstinence while providing information on contrapceptive use - one study found that sex education about abstinence and birth control was associated with healthier sexual behaviors, such as using some form of contraceptive at first sexual intercourse than no instruction at all

Beyond Hunger and Sex: Motivation in Everyday Life

- according to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, our main needs are satisfied in this sequence: physiological needs, safety, love and belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization. - Maslow gave the most attention to self-actualization: the motivation to develop one's full potential

Schacter-Singer

- added a role of cognition - after physiological arousal occurs for a reason to explain the arousal - evidence in support of theory: * attraction and arousal studies

Sex Education in Practice

- educational practices have not caught up with research findings - inadequate knowledge about contraception, coupled with inconsistent use of effective contraceptives, has given American a dubious distinction: the US has one of the highest rates of adolescent pregnancy and childbearing in the developed world, with as many as one-third of young women under the age of 20 becoming pregnant

Conclusion

- emotional expression is a complex set of behaviors - each theory can explain different aspects of our emotional life

Psychological Factors in Hunger and Obesity

- even if we are trying to lose weight, we must eat to survive. - for our species to survive, we also have to have sex - Like hunger, sex has a strong physiological basis, as well as cognitive and socio-cultural components - Parents often teach their children to "finish what is on your plate". Many people eat on auto pilot and rely not on feeling of fullness but rather the sight of an empty plate or bowl as the cure to stop eating - Larger plates lead to larger portions and more eating. When wine glasses are bigger, people usually pour themselves a larger amount of wine - the following contexts produced the strongest cravings to binge eat: dining room, kitchen, bedroom, bakery, and supermarket

James- Lange Theory

- imagine hearing a loud BOOM. You are startled and jump and your heart races - your nervous system then labels the experience as FEAR - we feel happy because we smile - evidence in support of this theory: facial feedback studies

Cognitive Interpretation of Sexual Activity

- involves our perceptions of the individual with whom we are having sex and his or her perceptions of us - amid the wash of hormones in sexual activity is the cognitive ability to control, reason about, and try to make sense of the activity

Theories of Motivation

- motivated behavior is energized, directed, and sustained. Early evolutionary theorists considered motivation to be based on instince- the innate biological pattern of behavior

theories of motivation

- optimum arousal theory focuses on the Yerkes-Dodson Law, which states that performance is best under conditions of moderate rather than low or high arousal. - moderate arousal often serves us best, but there are times when low or high arousal is linked with better performance

Cannon-Bard theory

- proposed as an alternative to James-Lange - says that we feel happy and smile independently in response to a stimulus (the face of a loved one) - can explain why we can have emotions in the absence of responses - support for the Cannon-Bard Theory: * dogs with severed spinal cord show emotional responses

Limbic System in Sex

- runs through the hypothalamus, also seems to be involved in sexual behavior. - its electrical stimulation can produce penile erection in males and orgasm in females

Brain Tissues in Sex

- the brain tissues that produce sexual feelings and behaviors are activated by various neurotransmitters in conjunction with sex hormones. - Like scratching an itch, sexual motivation also is characterized by a basic urge-reward-relief cycle. That means that we become sexually aroused, feel a strong urge to engage in sexual behavior, engage in that behavior, and then experience a rewarding sensation, followed by feelings of calm relief - The intense reward orgasm is caused by a massive rush of dopamine and the deep feeling of relaxation that follows is linked with the hormone oxytocin

Brain Processes

- the hypothalamus plays a central role in regulating important body functions, including hunger. More specifically, activity in 2 areas of the hypothalamus regulates hunger. 1) Lateral Hypothalamus is involved in stimulating eating. When electrical current is passed through this area in a well-fed animal, the animal begins to eat. If this part of the hypothalamus is destroyed, even a starving animal will show no interest in food 2) Ventromedial Hypothalamus: is involved in reducing hunger and restricting eating. When this area of an animal's brain is stimulated, the animal stops eating. When the area is destroyed, the animal eats profusely and quickly becomes obses. - Although the later and ventromedial hypothalamus both influence hunger, there is much more to the brain's role of determining hunger than these on/off centers in the hypothalamus - Neurotransmitters and neural circuits also function in hunger.

Cognitive and Sensory/Perceptual Factors in Sexuality

- we might be sexaully attracted to someone but understand that we must inhibit our sexual urges until the relationship has time to develop - we have the cognitive capacity to generate sexual images to become sexually just by thinking about erotic images or our romantic partners - sexual motivation is influenced by sexual scripts, stereotyped patterns of expectancies for how people should behave sexually - we carry these scripts with us in our memories. Women tend to link sexual intercourse with love more than men do, and men are more likely to emphasize sexual conquest -some sexual scripts involve a double standard, such as judging that it is okay for male but not female adolescents to have sex or for women to bear the blame if they become pregnant

Obesity

- why so many people overeat to the point of obesity is a motivational puzzle because it involves eating when one is not in need of nutrition. As is the case with much behavior, in eating, biological, cognitive, and sociocultural factors interact in diverse ways in different individuals, making difficult to point to a specific cause

Glucose

: (blood sugar) is an important factor in hunger, probably because the brain critically depends on sugar for energy. One set of sugar depends on sugar receptors, located in the brain itself, triggers hunger when sugar levels fall too low. Another set of sugar receptors is in the liver, which stores excess sugar and releases it into the blood when needed. The sugar receptors in the liver signal the brain when its sugar supply falls, and this signal also can make you hungry

Defining Sexual Behavior

Confusion over what counts as sex can lead to potentially risky behavior. - Ex: oral sex has become relatively common during the teen years, with 33% of girls and 38% of boys between the ages of 15 and 17 reporting having engaged in oral sex - for many adolescents, oral sex appears to be a recreational activity, and because many individuals under age 20 do not view the practice as sex, they believe that it is a safer alternative to intercourse

Emotion

Contemporary biological vies of emotion increasingly highlight neural circuity of fear, which focuses on the amygdala and consists of two pathways, one direct and the other indirect - It is likely that positive and negative emotions use different neural circuirity and neurotransmitters

Self- Determination Theory

Deci and Ryan's Theory asserting that humans have 3 basic needs: competence, relatedness, and autonomy

The Hypothalamus, Cerebral Cortex, and Limbic System

Motivation for sexual behavior is centered in the hypothalamus. However, brain functioning related to sex radiates outward to connect with a wide range of other brain areas in both the limbic system and the cerebral cortex -

Cultural Factors of Sexuality

One way that societies teach youth about sex and sexuality is through formal education. Although many topics associated with sex and sexuality spur controversy, most people concerned with sex education share two relatively uncontroversial goals: to encourage the very young to delay sexual activity and to reduce teen pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections

Hunger and Sex

Stomach signals are one factor in hunger.

Research on Sexual Behavior

The Kinsey Reports - data showed the estimates of bisexuality in men was 12% and in women it was 7% - at least 50% of married men had been sexually unfaithful - men reported thinking about sex more than women - compared to men, women tend to show more changes in their sexual patterns and sexual desires over their lifetime - women are more likely than men to have had sexual experience with same and opposite sex partners even if they identify themselves strongly as heterosexual or lesbian - male sexual interest may be more limited to particular targets of attraction - Both heterosexual women and lesbian women were aroused by all the films showing sexual activity - Gay men were aroused only by the films that included women

According to Rogers, people are unhappy because they focus on meeting other people's conditions of worth.

True

Gastric Signals

Washburn conducted an experiment that revealed a close association between stomach contractions and hunger. As part of the procedure, a partially inflated balloon was passed through a tube inserted in Washburn's mouth and pushed down into his stomach. A machine that measures air pressure was connected to the balloon to monitor Washburn's stomach contractions. Every time Washburn reported hunger pangs, his stomach was also contracting. A growling stomach needs food. The stomach tells the brain only how full it is but also how much nutrient is present, which is why rich food stops hunger faster than the same amount of water. The hormone cholecystokinin helps start the digestion of food, travels to the brain through the bloodstream, and signals us to stop eating. Hunger invovles a lot more than an empty stomach.

Theories of Motivation

a drive is an aroused state that occurs because of a physiological need or deprivation. - drive reduction theory was proposed as an explanation of motivation, with the goal of drive reduction being homeostasis: the body's tendency to maintain equilibrium

Insulin

a hormone that plays a role in glucose control. When we eat complex carbs such as bread or pasta, insulin levels go up and fall off gradually. When we comsume simple sugars such as candy, insulin levels rise and then fall sharply- the all-too-familiar "sugar low". Blood glucose levels are affected by complex carbs and simple sugars in similar ways, so we are more likely to eat within the next several hours after eating simple sugars than after eating complex carbs

Leptin

a protein, secreted by fat cells, decreases food intake and increases energy expenditure

Obesity

a serious problem in the US. Heredity, basal metabolism, set point, and fat cells are biological factors involved in obesity - time and place affect eating - our early ancestors are fruits to satisfy nurtitional needs but today we fill up on empty calories in sweets

Human Sexual Response Pattern

according to masters and johnson, the characteristic sequence of physiological changes that humans experience during sexual activity, consisting of four phases: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution

According to Freud, defense mechanisms are unconscious attempts to minimize feelings of

anxiety

The excitement Phase

begins the process of erotic responsiveness. It lasts from several minutes to several hours, depending on the nature of the nature of the sex play involved - engorgement of blood vessels and increased blood flow to the genital areas and muscle tension characterize the excitement phase. - the obvious signs of response in this phase are the beginnings of lubrication of the vagina and partial erection of the penis

Emotions

can be classified based on valence and arousal - using the dimensions of valence and arousal, emotions can be arranged in a circle -positive emotions likely play an important role in well-being by broadening our focus and allowing us to build resources. - resilience is an individuals capacity to thrive even during difficult times. Research has shown that one way resilient individuals thrive is by experiencing positive emotions

Leptin

released by fat cells, decreases food intake and increases energy expenditure or metabolism. The functions were discovered in a strain of genetically obese mice. Because of a genetic mutation, the fat cells of ob mice cannot produce leptin. The ob mouse has a low metabolism, overeats, and gets extremely fat. Leptin appears to act as an anti-obesity hormone. If ob mice are given daily injections of leptin, their metabolic rate increase, and they become more active, eat less, and loss weight. In humans, leptin concentrations have been linked with weight, body fat, and weight loss in respoonse to dieting.

Drive Reduction Theory

explains that as a drive becomes stronger, we are motivated to reduce it. The goal of drive reduction is homeostasis, the body's tendency to maintain equilibrium, or steady state. - need: a deprivation that energizes the drive to eliminate or reduce the deprivation - drive: an aroused state that occurs because of a physiological need. - you can think of a drive as a psychological itch that requires scratching. Generally, psychologists think of needs as underlying our drives. we may have a need for water; the drive that accompanies that need is your feeling of being thirsty. - usually but not always, needs and drives are closely associated - drive pertains to a psychological state whereas need involves a physiological state, and that drives do not always follow from needs

Research on the Behavioral Component of Emotion

focuses on facial expressions - the facial feedback hypothesis states that facial expressions can influence emotion as well as reflect them - most psychologists believe that facial expressions of basic emotions are the same across cultures. However, display rules, which involve nonverbal signals of body movement, posture, and gesture, vary across cultures

Glucose & Insulin

glucose (blood sugar) and insulin both play an import role in hunger. Glucose is needed for the brain to function, and low levels of glucose increase hunger. Insulin can cause a rise in hunger

Describing Sexual Practices in the US

has been challenging due to the difficulty of surveying a respresentative sample of the population - research shows that people are less sexually active and less likely to cheat than popular belief suggest - Sex Education has sometimes been a controversial issue, but research shows that nations with comprehensive sex education have far lower rates of teen pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections

Maslow's Hierarchy of Human Needs

human needs must be satisfied in the following sequence: physiological needs, safety, love, and belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization - each lower need in the hierarchy comes from a deficiency such as being hungry, afraid, or lonely - higher level needs in a person who is relatively sated in these basic needs such as an individual can turn his or her attention to the fulfillment of a higher calling, achieving a sense of meaning by contributing something of lasting value to the world

Plateau Phase

second phase of human sexual response - a continuation and heightening of arousal begun in the excitement phase. - the increases in breathing, pulse rate, and blood pressure that occurred during the excitement phase become more intense, penile erection and vaginal lubrication are more complete and orgasm is closer

The Cannon-Bard Theory

states that emotion and physiological reactions occur simultaneously.

Schachter and Singer's Two-Factor theory

states that emotion is the result of both physiological arousal and cognitive labeling - Lazarus believed the cognition always directs emotion and Zajonc argued that emotion directs cognition... both are probably right

The James-Lange Theory

states that emotion results from physiological states triggered by environmental stimuli: Emotion follows physiological reactions

Ways to enhance happiness

include engaging in physical activity, helping others, postively self-reflecting, and experiencing meaning. - Another way to enhance happiness is to pursure personally valued goals passionately

Leptin in Hunger

influences eating by inhibiting the production of a neurotransmitter in the hypothalamus that induces eating

The Evolutionary Approach

instinct: an innated (unlearned) biological pattern of behavior that is assumed to be universal throughout a species - according to evolutionary psychologists, the motivations for sex, aggression, achievement, and other behaviors are rooted in our evolutionary past and we can understand similarities among members of the human species through these shared evolutionary roots. Because evolutionary approaches emphasize the passing on one's genes, these theories focus on domains of life that are especially relevant to reproduction. - example: evolutionary theorists notes that in terms of romantic partners, across many cultures, men prefer younger women to older women, and women prefer mena who have resources. In general, most human behavior is far too complex to be explained on the basis of instinct. Indeed, it would hardly seem adaptive for humans to have a fixed action pattern that is invariably set in motion by a particular signal in the envirnoment. To understand human behavior, psychologists have developed a variety of other appraoches, as we now consider

Sensation and Perception of Sexual Activity

involved in sexual behavior - the sensory system of touch usually predominates during sexual intimancy, but vision also plays a powerful role for some individuals - in general, women are more aroused by touch; men by what they see.

Self- Regulating

involves setting goals, monitoring progress, and making adjustments in behavior to attain desired outcomes. - Research suggests that setting short-term goals is a good strategy for reaching a long-term goal

MOtivations for Sexual behavior

involves the hypothalamus - the role of sex hormones in human sexual behavior, especially in women is not clear - thoughts and images are central in the sexual lives of humans. Sexual scripts influence sexual behavior, as do sensory/perceptual factors - females tend to be more sexually aroused by touch - men more sexually aroused by vision - sexual values vary across cultures, which values then influence sexual behavior

Emotion

is a feeling, or affect, that has 3 components: physiological arousal, conscious experience, and behavioral expression - the biology of emotion focuses on physiological arousal involving the autonomic nervous system and its two subsystems. Skin conductance level and the polygraph have been used to measure emotional arousal

Happiness

is a highly hertiable and there is reason to consider each person as having a happiness set point - still, many people would like to increase their level of happiness. One obstacle to changing happiness is the hedonic treadmill: the idea that we quickly adapt to changes that might enhance our happiness - Another obstacle is that pursuing happiness for its own sake often backfires

Julie is described by her friends as "anxious" and "a worry wart". According to the 5 factor model, Julie would probably be considered to be a(n)

neurotic

Hypothalamus and hunger

plays an important role in regulating hunger - the lateral hypothalamus is inbolbed in stimulating eating - the ventromedial hypothalamus is used in restricting eating

Albert Bandura's notion that people are affected by their environment, but can also influence that environment, is known as _____.

reciprocal determinism

Sexual Orientation

refers to the direction of a person's erotic attraction. Heterosexual, bisexual, and homosexual- is most likely determined by a combination of genetic, hormonal, cognitive, and envirnomental factors. - based on scientific evidence, the APA now supports gay marriage and argued against discrimination against gay men and lesbians in parenting, custody, and adoption

Self-Determination Theory

states that intrinsic motivation occurs when individuals are engaged in the pursuit of organsmic needs that are innate and universal. - these needs include competence, relatedness, and autonomy - intrinsic motivations is based on internal factors - extrinsis motivation is based on external factors such as rewards and punishments

Hypothalamus during sex

the importance in sexual activity is due to the electrically stimulaing or surgically removing it. Electrical stimulation of certain hypothalamic areas increases sexual behavior while surgical removal of some hypothalamic areas inhibit sexual behavior - Electrical stimulation of the hypothalamus in a male can lead to as many as 20 ejaculations in an hour

Self- Actualization

the motivation to develop one's full potential as a human being- the highest and most elusive of Maslow's proposed needs

Serotonin in Hunger

the neurotransmitter is partly responsible for the satiating effect of CCK and its antagonists have been used to treat obesity in humans

Yerkers-Dodson Law

the physiological principle stating that performance is best under conditions of moderate arousal rather than either low or high arousal - at low end of arousal, you may be too lethargic to perform tasks well. At the high end of arousal you may not be able to concentrate, and your performance likely suffered. If it was too low, you may not have worked fast enough to finish the test. Also think about performance in sports. Being too aroused usually harms athletes' performance; a thumping heart and rapid breathing accompanied many golfers' missed putts. - the relationship between arousal and performance is one reason that individuals who have to perform well under stressful conditions (such as EMTs, lifeguards, and marines) are trained to overlearn important procedures so that they do not require much thought. With this extra learning, when these individuals are under conditions of high arousal, they can rely on automatic pilot to do what needs to be done.

Set Point

the weight maintained when the individual makes no effort to gain or lose weight - is determined in part by the amount of stored fat in he body - fat is stored in adipose cell or fat cells - when these cells are filled, you do not feel hungry - when people gain weight- because of genetic predisposition, childhood eating patterns or adult eating- their fat-cell number increases, and they might not be able to get rid of extra ones - A normal weight individual has 10 to 20 billion fat cells - an obese individual can have up to 100 billion fat cells - an obese individual has to eat more to feel satisfied

Resolution Phase

third phase of the of the human sexual response cycle - involves an explosive discharge of neuromuscular tension and an intensely pleasurable feeling. - some individuals sense that time is standing still when it takes place, but in fact orgasm lasts for only about 3 to 15 seconds

Blood Chemistry

three key chemical substances play a role in hunger, eating, and satiety: glucose, insulin, and leptin.

Personology seeks to understand and describe a person as a whole.

true

The behavioral inhibition system is particularly sensitive to punishment.

true

Optimum Arousal Theory

when psychologist talk about arousal, they are generally referring to a person's feelings of being alert and engaged. When we are excited, our arousal levels are high. When we are bored, our levels are low. You have probably noticed that motivation influences arousal levels. Sometimes you can want something (for example, to do well on a test) so much that you feel "over-motivated" and axious. On the other hand, you might be so unmotivcated for a task (such as doing dishes) that you can hardly force yourself to complete it.