Psychology Chapter Nine
1. Flattened nose 2. Underdeveloped upper jaw 3. Widely spaced eyes.
3 Facial deformities associated with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome:
Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
A Swiss developmentalist and arguably the most important developmental theorist of all time who believed the best way to understand how children think is to observe them closely as they interact with objects and solve problems. Much of his work was based on his observations of his own three children. He was less concerned with whether children answered questions correctly than with how they arrived at their answers.Proposed that children progress at about the same ages through an ordered sequence of series of four stages of cognitive development: the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages. "A giant with a giant theory,"- social historian Morton Hunt.
Longevity
A a factor that for now lies beyond our control and is partly determined by genes.
Stage 2: Instrumental purpose orientation
A behavior is judged good when it serves the person's needs or interests. Preconventional. Behavior is judged good when it serves personal needs or interests
Osteoporosis
A bone disease characterized by a loss of bone density in which the bones become porous, brittle, and more prone to fracture.
naming or describing them in words.
A child forms symbolic representations of objects and experiences by:
Ego Identity
A coming to terms with the fundamental question, "Who am I?" Continuing to develop throughout life, Adolescents who successfully weather an identity crisis emerge as their own people, as people who have achieved a state of;
Rubella
A common childhood disease that can lead to serious birth defects if contracted by the mother during pregnancy (also called German measles).
Dementia
A condition involving a major deterioration or loss of mental abilities involved in memory, reasoning, judgment, and ability to carry out purposeful behavior. Characterized by a sharp decline in mental abilities, especially memory and reasoning ability. May develop in late adulthood and is not a normal consequence of aging. A disease that damages or destroys brain tissue involved in higher mental functions, resulting in more severe memory loss than ordinary forgetfulness and difficulty performing routine activities.
Ethnic Identity
A connectedness with one's ethnic and cultural heritage.
Stagnation
A failure to achieve generativity. A kind of self-absorption in which people indulge themselves as though they themselves were "their one and only child"
vocabulary
A form of crystallized intelligence that tends to increase as we age:
Strange Situation
A laboratory-based method developed by Mary Ainsworth to observe how infants react to separations and reunions with caregivers, typically their mothers.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
A leading cause of mental disability and syndrome caused by maternal use of alcohol during pregnancy in which the child shows developmental delays and facial deformities. Pattern of physical and mental defects in babies from maternal alcohol use during pregnancy. More commonly it is found in babies whose mothers engaged in binge drinking before they knew they were pregnant
Spina Bifida
A neural tube defect in which the child is born with a hole in the tube surrounding the spinal cord. Most cases are mild and do not involve any significant problems, but in severe cases, problems such as difficulty walking or performing daily activities without assistance may result.
odors
A newborn can detect objects visually (though not with perfect acuity) and can discriminate among different sounds, _______________, and tastes.
sexual appetite or drive
A persistent stereotype about menopause is that it signals the end of the woman's:
The fourth week of pregnancy
A primitive heart takes shape and begins beating at about which week?
Erik Erikson (1992-1994)
A prominent psychodynamic theorist, emphasized the importance of social relationships in human development. He believed our personalities are shaped by how we deal with a series of psychosocial crises or challenges during stages of psychosocial development.
Placenta
A protective Environment. Nutrients and waste materials are exchanged between the mother and the embryo (and fetus) through the:
Midlife Crisis
A sense of entrapment from the closing down of future options, of feeling that life is open-ended no more, of a loss of purpose or a sense of failure from not having fulfilled one's youthful ambitions or aspirations. Not inevitable and may in fact be more the exception than the rule. A state of psychological crisis, often occurring during middle adulthood, in which people grapple with the loss of their youth.
Moratorium
A state of identity crisis concerning one's beliefs or career choices. People in moratorium are currently working through their personal beliefs or struggling to determine which career course to pursue.
Fallopian Tube
A straw-like tube between an ovary and the uterus through which an ovum passes after ovulation.
emotional and behavioral problems and use of alcohol and other drugs
A strong parent-teen connection and close communication also has a protective effect against negative outcomes such as:
Symbolic Representations
A term referring to the use of words to represent (name) objects and describe experiences.
Fluid Intelligence
A type of intelligence needed to think quickly in solving problems. Mental Flexibility. Begins to decline in middle and later adulthood. A form of intelligence associated with the ability to think abstractly and flexibly in solving problems.
trimesters
A typical 9-month pregnancy is commonly divided into 3-month periods called:
hypertension, cancer, and heart disease.
A weakened immune system makes people more likely to develop infectious diseases and less able to protect themselves from chronic diseases associated with aging such as:
beta-amyloid
AD is characterized by the formation of sticky masses of plaque (clumps of degenerative brain tissue) in the brain. These plaques are composed of a fibrous material called:
Fluid Intelligence
Abilities that rely on information-processing skills such as reaction time, attention, and working memory
Crystalized Knowledge
Ability to use or apply already-acquired knowledge
2050
About 5 million Americans suffer from Alzheimer's Disease, but as the general population continues to age, this number is expected to more than double to 13.8 million people by the year:
Neural Tube
About three weeks into pregnancy, two ridges fold together to form a structure in the developing organism from which the nervous system develops, as well as the heart and blood vessels.
ego integrity versus despair
According to Erik Erikson, the central challenge of psychosocial development in late adulthood. The struggle to maintain a sense of meaning and satisfaction in life rather than drifting into a state of despair and bitterness. To maintain one's sense of dignity and psychological integrity.
identity versus role diffusion
According to Erikson, the major psychosocial challenge facing adolescents:
Form a mental representation of an object that is not visibly present.
According to Jean Piaget, object permanence is not complete at 8 months old. Object Permanence reaches a mature level towards the end of the sensorimotor stage when the child begins to acquire the ability to:
1. Assimilation 2. Accomodation
According to Jean Piaget, these two processes are ongoing throughout life:
1. Using the proper eating utensils 2.Brushing teeth before bed 3. Covering our mouths when we cough or sneeze 4. Waiting in line.
According to Vygotsky, children must learn the social expectancies of their culture. In American culture, this social knowledge includes such everyday behaviors as:
"No."
According to the American Society of Pediatrics, when asked if their was any safe level of alcohol use in pregnancy, they answered with a firm:
stages
According to the psychodynamic theorist Erik Erikson, psychosocial development progresses through a series of ________ that begin in early childhood and continue through adulthood.
"are more likely to act impulsively, on instinct, without fully understanding or analyzing the consequences of their actions"
Adolescents may be able to think logically and rationally, but, as psychiatrist David Fassler says, they:
42 percent
Adolescents may be more than just "hormones with feet," but sexual thoughts and interests often do take center stage during this period. The average age of first intercourse decreased during the second half of the twentieth century and attitudes toward premarital sex became more permissive.Yet the percentages of teenagers engaging in sexual intercourse is declining from more than 50 percent at the turn of the new millennium to modern day at about:
formal
Adolescents may progress to the stage of ________________ operations, which, according to Piaget, is denoted by the ability to engage in abstract thinking and reasoning.
formal operational thinking
Adolescents who develop _______________ become capable of solving abstract problems.
16 weeks
After how many weeks will the fetus begin to take on a clearly recognizable human form.
Crystalized Intelligence
After many years spent as a young man studying in the field of philosophy, Johan was very well versed in many of the different philosophers and their teachings. That he can still remember and write about those different philosophers and what they taught at the ripe-old age of 82, exemplifies:
2;3 4;6
After the rapid growth that takes place during infancy, children typically gain ____ to ___ inches and _____ to _________ pounds a year until the growth spurt of adolescence.
age
Age-related declines in memory are generally not significant enough to impair daily functioning. In fact, some decline in mental processing speed needed to solve problems quickly is expected as people age. However, performance on tasks involving crystallized intelligence, such as tests of verbal ability and vocabulary skills, remains relatively intact as people:
AZT
Aggressive treatment of HIV-infected mothers with the antiviral drug _____________ greatly reduces the risk of maternal transmission of the virus to the fetus.
fetus
Alcohol or any other drug used during pregnancy, whether legal or illegal (illicit), or any medication, whether prescribed or bought over the counter, is potentially harmful to the:
1. Promotion of early independence in children 2. Expectations of children assuming responsible roles within the family and community.
All cultures help children move from a state of complete dependency in infancy toward assuming more responsibility for their own behavior; however, they vary in what two ways:
Two sex chromosomes
All other body cells, other than reproductive cells, contain:
Alzheimer's disease.
Also known as "AD" and possesses a gradual onset that leads to a slow but progressive deterioration of mental functioning involving profound memory loss and impaired judgment and reasoning ability. It affects about one in eight people age 65 or older and more than one in three people over the age of 85. Can affect younger people, but is much less common than people over the age of 65. An irreversible brain disease with a progressive course of deterioration of mental functioning. The most common cause of dementia and the 6th leading cause of death in the United States claiming about 85,000 lives annually.
exploration
Although Erikson believed that an identity crisis is a normal part of the development of the healthy personality, some contemporary scholars instead of using "crisis" to avoid implying that the process of examining one's different possibilities in life is inherently fraught with anguish and struggle, use the term:
Pregnancy
Although FAS is more likely to occur with heavy maternal drinking, there is actually no established safe limit for alcohol use in:
mother's face
Although a newborn's vision is not a complete blur, it's still blurry. Despite this, newborns can still recognize their:
later-maturing boys.
Although early-maturing boys are more likely to engage in deviant social behavior such as drinking, smoking, or breaking the law, overall they generally have more positive outcomes than...
crisis
Although some people experience a midlife crisis, most appear to weather the changes in their middle years without a period of personal upheaval or state of:
contraceptives
Although some teen mothers become pregnant to fill an emotional void or to rebel against their families, most teenage pregnancies result from failure to use:
70 years
Although the birth rate among U.S. teens still exceeds that of many other developed countries, teenage birth rates have been declining steadily and now stand at their lowest levels in more than:
memories
Amyloid plaques may or may not play a causative role in AD or are merely a symptom of the disease. A possible causal role in which the formation of amyloid plaques leads to inflammation in the brain, which in turn causes damage to sensitive neural networks responsible for forming and maintaining:
Schema
An action strategy or a mental representation that helps people understand and interact with the world.
Graying of America
An aging of the population that has already begun to have profound effects on our society signified by a steadily growth in population of people aged 65 and older.
differences in parenting styles
An important avenue of investigation into parenting influences on children's development focuses on:
self-esteem
An important component of psychological adjustment that tends to rise during adolescence and through middle adulthood (ages 50 to 60) before declining toward the end of life,
Peer Pressure
An important influence in the social and emotional development of adolescents.Whether real or imagined, can promote or restrain sexual activity.
development of Ethnic Identity
An important part of the process of identity formation during adolescence, especially for adolescents of color.
Moro Reflex
An inborn reflex, elicited by a sudden noise, head falls backwards, or loss of support, in which the infant extends its arms, arches its back, and brings its arms toward each other as though attempting to grab hold of someone.
Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles
An underlying set of self-chosen, abstract ethical principles that serve as a guiding framework for moral judgments. Beliefs in the sanctity of human life or in the "Golden Rule" exemplify such universal ethical principles. People at this stage are guided by their own internal moral compass, regardless of the dictates of society's laws or the opinions of others. They may believe that if laws devalue the sanctity of human life, it becomes immoral to obey them. Adopting an internal moral code based on universal values that takes precedence over social rules and laws
Reflex
An unlearned, automatic response to a particular stimulus
preoperational stage
Another form of representational thinking is make-believe or pretend play. In pretend play, children form mental representations that allow them to enact scenes with characters that are not physically present. By age 5 or 6, children are creating scenes with imagined characters or reenacting scenes they have seen on TV or in movies. Pretend play becomes increasingly complex as children progress through the:
knowledge and experience
Apart from the occasional social embarrassment of fumbling over people's names, expectable cognitive declines in midlife usually occur gradually and may not be noticeable or interfere with social or occupational functioning. These declines may also be offset by increased:
Assimilation
Application of an established schema to new objects or problems.
through the imaginary audience and the personal fable.
As Piaget noted, preschoolers show egocentrism with respect to their difficulty in seeing things from other people's points of view. Psychologist David Elkind (1985) believes that adolescent egocentrism typically reveals itself in two ways:
self-esteem and emotional adjustment.
As adolescents experiment with greater independence, peer relationships become increasingly important influences in their psychosocial development. "Fitting in" or belonging comes to play an even greater role in determining their:
1. general decline in sensory and motor abilities. 2. Loss of bone density and muscle mass 3. senses become less acute, especially smell. 4. The skin loses elasticity, and wrinkles appear. 5. Night vision fades 6. Joints stiffen 7. Reaction times slow 8. Declines in the functioning of the immune system, the body's system of defense against disease-causing agents, makes older people more susceptible to illness, including life-threatening illnesses such as cancer. 10. Declining fluid intelligence
As we age, we experience what symptoms? a general decline in sensory and motor abilities. We continue to lose bone density as well as muscle mass, and our senses become less acute, especially our sense of smell
odor
At 5 to 6 days of age, infants can detect their mother's:
inborn reflexes, such as grasping and sucking.
At birth through 1 month, the infant's behaviors are limited to:
conventional
At the ___________________ level, conformity with conventional rules of right and wrong are valued because of the need to do what others expect or because one has an obligation to obey the law.
consequences
At the preconventional level, moral judgments are based on the perceived ____________________ of behavior. Behaviors that avoid punishment are good; those that incur punishment from an external authority are bad.
postconventional
At the___________________ level, moral judgments are based on value systems the individual develops through personal reflection, such as valuing the importance of human life and the concept of justice above that of the law. Postconventional thinking does not develop until adolescence, if ever.
The fourth stage of Psychosocial Development: Industry Vs. Inferiority
At this stage, which corresponds to the elementary school period of 6 to 12 years, the child faces the central challenge of developing industriousness and self-confidence. If children believe they perform competently in the classroom and on the playing field in relation to their peers, they will likely become industrious by taking an active role in school and extracurricular activities. But if the pendulum swings too far in the other direction and failure outweighs success, feelings of inadequacy or inferiority may develop, causing the child to become withdrawn and unmotivated.
early infancy
Attachment styles forged in ____________ ___________ may have lasting consequences for later development
forceful
Authoritarian Parenting's style of discipline:
1. Limit Setting 2. Maturity Expectations
Authoritarian Style of parenting has "high" priority listed in what two categories?
1. Communications with children 2. Warmth and support
Authoritarian Style of parenting has "low" priority listed in what two categories?
1. Limit Setting 2. Maturity Expectations 3. Communications with children 4. Warmth and Support
Authoritative Style of parenting has "high" priority listed in what four categories?
Reasoning
Authoritative Style's style of discipline:
1. Rely on reason, not force 2. Show warmth 3. Listen to your children's opinions 4. Set mature but reasonable expectations.
Authoritative parents set firm limits but take the time to explain their decisions and to listen to their children's point of view. They also help children develop a sense of competence by setting reasonable demands for mature behavior. There are 4 suggestions for becoming an authoritative parent:
Conservation
Awareness that substance quantity remains constant despite changes in shape/appearance.
Reflexes
Babies are born with a number of basic:
1. Denial 2. Anger 3. Bargaining 4. Depression 5. Final Acceptance
Based on her interviews with terminally ill people, Psychiatrist Elisabeth Kübler-Ross observed some common themes and identified five stages of dying through which many people pass:
the preconventional level, the conventional level, and the postconventional level.
Based on his studies of responses to these types of hypothetical situations, Kohlberg determined that moral development progresses through a sequence of six stages organized into three levels of moral reasoning:
Secure Attachments; Insecure Attachments
Based on these observations, Psychologist Mary Ainsworth noted three basic attachment styles in infants, one characterized by _____________ and the other two by _________________________.
40%
Because of its smaller size, a 1-year-old will sway about ____________ more while standing than will an adult and consequently will have less time to respond to balance disturbances to maintain itself in an upright position.
fat
Beginning in the late 20s, people start losing lean body tissue, especially muscle. With each passing decade, they tend to lose about 7 pounds of lean body mass as more and more lean tissue turns to:
Fluid intelligence; Crystallized intelligence; Menopause
Beginning in their 20s, people start to experience a gradual decline in lean body mass and muscle tissue. _____________________—including rapid problem-solving ability and memory for lists of words, names, or text—tends to decline with increasing age during middle and late adulthood. ________________________ remains relatively intact and may actually improve in some respects. ___________________________, the cessation of menstruation, is the major physical marker of middle adulthood in women. Menopause is associated with a dramatic decline in estrogen production. Testosterone production in men also declines with age, but more gradually.
Egocentrism
Belief that everyone thinks as you do.
Volume
Between birth and adulthood, the brain will increase fourfold in:
Infancy Period
Birth to one year old.
Attachment
Bonding between an infant and a parent or caregiver on an emotional level. The enduring emotional bond that infants and older children form with their caregivers. Develops over time during infancy.
Prenatal Development
Brings into focus the long-debated issue of how much of our development is due to nature (genes) and how much to nurture (the environment).
a moving object
By 1 month of age, an infant can visually follow:
Basic Color Vision
By 2 months of age, the infant has visually developed:
8;12
By ___ to ______ months, the infant's actions are intended to reach a particular goal. The child will perform purposeful actions such as crawling to the other side of the room to open the bottom drawers of cabinets where toys are kept.
Two
By ________ months of age, infants can lift their chins
Nine
By _________ months, they can sit without support.
Five
By __________ months, infants can roll over.
8
By about ___ months, the child will begin looking for a hidden object. By this age, the child has begun to develop a concept of object permanence, the recognition that objects continue to exist even if they have disappeared from sight.
Six
By about __________ months, they can reliably grasp stationary objects and begin catching moving objects.
poorer memory functioning and longer reaction times
By and large, people also perform best on standardized intelligence tests in early adulthood. Some decline in cognitive abilities occurs during middle and late adulthood, especially:
Developing a clear sense of themselves and of their future direction in life.
By psychologically separating from their parents, adolescents may begin to grapple with the major psychosocial challenge they face:
"ba" and "ma"
By several months of age, infants can differentiate among various speech sounds, such as between:
Depth Perception
By six months of age, the infant has developed visual:
second or third
By the ___________ or ___________ month, infants begin bringing objects to their mouths:
Racial Characteristics
By the age of 4 to 6 months, babies can discriminate among happy, angry, and neutral facial expressions and show a preference for faces reflecting their own:
Standing without support
By the end of the first year, infants will master the most difficult balancing problem they'll ever face in life:
Twelfth week of pregnancy
By what week are all of the major organ systems, as well as the fingers and toes, formed, corresponding to the end of the first trimester:
Explaining to children how their behavior affects others
Can also help children develop more appropriate social behaviors
Teratogens
Certain environmental influences or agents that may harm a developing embryo or fetus. Derived from the Greek root "teras" meaning "monster."
1. Liver damage 2. Impaired hearing and vision 3. Deformities in their teeth and bones
Children born with congenital syphilis may suffer from what four things:
Academically; Socially
Children in two-parent, mother-father households tend to fare better _______________ and ____________ than those in households comprised either of mothers living with unmarried heterosexual partners or single-mother households, even after taking differences in income levels into account
lesbian; gay
Children raised by __________ and ____________ parents tend to do as well in school and have relationships with peers that are as good as those of children of heterosexual parents
Preoperational Children
Children who fail to recognize that the quantity of an object remains the same when placed in a different-sized container.
1. Develop problem behaviors at home and school 2. Less likely to develop healthy peer relationships
Children whose parents use discipline inconsistently, rely on harsh punishment, and are highly critical are more likely than others to do what two things:
Show warmth
Children's self-esteem is molded by how others, especially their parents, relate to them. Express your feelings verbally by using praise and physically by means of hugs, kisses, and holding hands when walking together. Praise the child for accomplishing tasks, even small ones.
Children whose fathers share meals with them, spend leisure time with them, and assist them with schoolwork tend to perform better academically than those with less engaged fathers
Compare children who have more active fathers in their lives than less active:
Prenatal Period
Conception to birth.
Visual Cliff Apparatus
Consists of a glass panel covering what appears to be a sudden drop-off. An infant who has developed depth perception will crawl toward a parent on the opposite end but will hesitate and refuse to venture into the "deep" end even if coaxed by the parent.
Anthony Ong
Cornell University Psychologist who stated, "We all age. It is how we age, however, that determines the quality of our lives"
1. Americans placed greater value than did Indians on a justice orientation in determining morally correct choices—believing that what is just or fair governs what is right. Indians placed a greater weight on interpersonal responsibilities, such as upholding one's obligations to others and being responsive to other people's needs.
Cross-cultural evidence based on a study comparing moral reasoning in Americans and Indians showed what two aspects in which they differ?
age
Crystallized intelligence, which includes abilities such as verbal ability (vocabulary comprehension) and numerical skills, remains relatively stable or may even improve as we:
1. brain infections 2. tumors 3. Parkinson's disease 4. brain injuries 5. strokes 6. chronic alcoholism.
Dementia is caused by many physical conditions, including:
n Piaget's theory, children in the sensorimotor stage, from birth to about 2 years, explore their world through their senses, motor responses, and purposeful manipulation of objects. During the preoperational stage, from about 2 to 7 years of age, the child's thinking is more representational but is limited by centration, egocentricity, animistic thinking, and irreversibility. The concrete operational stage, beginning around age 7 in Western cultures, is characterized by development of the principle of conservation and the ability to draw logical relationships among concrete objects or events. The formal operational stage, the most advanced stage of cognitive development according to Piaget, is characterized by the ability to engage in deductive thinking, generate hypotheses, and engage in abstract thought.
Describe Piaget's stages of cognitive development.
Vygotsky focused on how children acquire knowledge of their social world. He believed this knowledge is achieved through the interaction of the child (novice) with the parent (expert) within a zone of proximal development that takes into account the child's present and potentially realizable knowledge structures.
Describe Vygotsky's psychosocial theory of cognitive development
Foreclosure
Describes people who have adopted a set of beliefs or a course of action without undergoing a period of serious self-exploration or self-examination. They have not gone through an identity crisis to arrive at their beliefs and occupational choices. Most base their commitments on what others, especially their parents, instilled in them.
Identity Achievement
Describes people who have emerged from an identity crisis (a period of serious self-reflection) with a commitment to a relatively stable set of personal beliefs and to a course of action, such as following a major course of study in pursuing a particular career.
Happiness, life satisfaction, and a sense of well-being
Despite the many challenges of late adulthood, including the aches and pains many older people face, many indications of emotional health are as high or even higher in older adults than in younger adults, including:
20s and 30s.
Development doesn't stop with the end of puberty. Physical and psychological development is a continuing process that lasts a lifetime. Early adulthood encompasses the:
Nature; Nurture Genetics; environmental influences
Developmental psychologists believe temperament is shaped by both _________ and ___________—that is, by ___________ as well as ________________________.
1. Selective optimization and compensation. 2. Optimism 3. Self-challenge.
Developmental psychologists highlight the importance of several key characteristics associated with more successful aging:
1. Authoritative 2. Authoritarian 3. Permissive
Diana Baumrind, a leading researcher in this parental influences on child development, identified three basic parenting styles:
1. Being highly spirited 2. Not becoming "pushovers."
Difficult infants may also grow up to have positive qualities such as:
Alzheimer's Disease
Disease of age characterized by memory loss, mental confusion, eventual near-total loss of mental abilities.
Implantation
Does not occur for another week or so after conception. For the first three or four days following conception, the mass of dividing cells moves about the uterus before:
Developmental Psychology Course
Dr. Holmes is a pediatrician whose college-aged son is interested in taking a few psychology elective courses. His son is most interested in how a child's mind develops in response to physical maturation and brain growth. Dr. Holmes's son should enroll in a:
identity crises in life.
Due to the fact that our occupational goals, political, moral, and religious beliefs often change over time, we may weather many:
Amniotic Sac
During Prenatal Development, the uterine sac that contains, suspends, and protects the fetus.
1;8
During months ___ through _____, the infant gains increasing voluntary control over some of its movements, such as by acquiring the ability to grasp objects placed above its crib. The infant is now beginning to act on the world and to repeat actions that have interesting effects.
Three
During the first ________ months, infants slowly begin replacing reflexive movements with voluntary, purposeful movements:
30 inches
During the first year of life, infants grow in height from about 20 inches to around:
21 or 22 pounds
During the first year of life, infants on average triple their birth weight from about 7 pounds to:
walk
During the first year, an infant acquires the ability to move its body, sit without support, turn over, crawl, and begin to stand and __________ on its own.
lower self-esteem than their later-maturing peers, a more negative body image, more symptoms of anxiety and depression, earlier sexual behavior, and more substance abuse problems
Earlier-maturing girls may encounter unwelcome sexual attention and believe they no longer "fit in" with their peers. They tend to have...
physically present
Early in the sensorimotor stage, infants are aware of an object's existence only if it is:
imaginary; fable
Egocentricity in adolescence involves concepts of the ______________ audience (believing everyone else is as concerned about us as we are ourselves) and the personal _____________ (an exaggerated sense of uniqueness and perceptions of personal invulnerability).
Animistic Thinking: To Piaget, the child's belief that inanimate objects have living qualities.
Egocentrism leads to another type of thinking typical of the preoperational child: animistic thinking:
Young Adulthood
Eighteen to forty years old.
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
Emphasizes the role of adaptation in cognitive development as comprising two complementary processes, assimilation and accommodation.
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
Emphasizes the social interaction between children and adults as the basis for the child's acquisition of the skills, values, and behaviors needed to meet the demands imposed by the particular culture.
Set mature but reasonable expectations
Encourage children to adopt more mature behaviors in line with their developmental level. If a child requires assistance, demonstrate how to perform the expected behavior, and give the child encouragement and feedback when he or she attempts it independently.
Listen to your children's opinions
Encourage children to express their opinions and feelings, but explain why it is important to follow the rules.
Piaget
Encouraged us to view children not as passive responders to stimuli but as natural scientists who seek to understand the world and to operate on it.
integrity
Erickson proposed that the major psychosocial challenge of late adulthood is one of finding a sense of ____________ (meaning and fulfillment in life) rather than falling into a state of despair.
identity versus role diffusion.
Erik Erikson believed children progress through a series of four stages of psychosocial development. Erikson's fifth stage of psychosocial development occurs during adolescence: the stage of...
The second stage of Psychosocial Development: Autonomy Vs. Shame and Doubt
Erik Erikson believed the central psychosocial challenge faced during the second and third years of life concerns autonomy. The child is now becoming mobile within the home and is "getting into everything." Parents may warmly encourage the child toward greater independence and nurture this newly developed sense of autonomy. However, if they demand too much too soon or make excessive demands that the child cannot meet (such as in the area of toilet training), the child may become riddled with feelings of self-doubt and shame that come to pervade later development, even into adulthood.
1. Trust versus mistrust 2. Autonomy versus shame and doubt 3. Initiative versus guilt 4. Industry versus inferiority.
Erik Erikson described four stages of psychosocial development in childhood, each characterized by a particular life crisis or challenge:
identity; crisis
Erikson believed the achievement of a sense of who one is and what one stands for (ego ____________) is the major psychosocial challenge of adolescence. Erikson coined the term identity ________________ to describe a period of serious soul-searching in which adolescents attempt to come to terms with their ego identity and future direction in life.
ego integrity -meaningfulness and satisfaction with one's life or even as one approaches the end of life
Erikson believed the major psychosocial challenge of late adulthood involves maintaining a sense of:
identity; isolation; generativity
Erikson proposed the following stages of psychosocial development in adolescence and adulthood: ego __________ versus role diffusion (adolescence), intimacy versus _________________ (early adulthood), __________________ versus stagnation (middle adulthood).
Though his theory remains a guiding framework for understanding cognitive development, it has been challenged in terms of the ages at which children acquire certain abilities and its lack of attention to cultural factors.
Evaluation of Piaget's Theory:
temperments
Even if basic temperament cannot be changed, however, children are better able to adapt successfully to their environment when parents, teachers, and other caregivers take their underlying _______________ into account.
heart
Even in the womb, fetuses respond more strongly, as shown by more forceful ___________ rate responses, to their mother's voice than to voices of female strangers
IQ scores in children
Even moderate drinking during pregnancy is associated with lower:
Attachment
Evidence shows that placing infants in day care does not prevent the development of secure attachments to their mothers. Although concerns were raised in the past that full-time day care might interfere with the infant's attachment to its mother, recent evidence has failed to show any ill effects of day care placement on the security of infant-other ___________.
Rely on reason, not force
Explain the rules, but keep explanations brief. When the child throws food against the wall, you can say, "We don't do that. That makes a mess, and I'll have to clean it up."
Both men and women can apply a justice orientation and a care orientation when forming moral judgments.
FACT:
Kohlberg's classic studies set the stage for further research on moral reasoning that has continued to the present day.
FACT:
Staying actively involved in meaningful activities and personal projects can contribute not only to preserving mental sharpness but also to emotional well-being. Research evidence also gives credence to the familiar adage that it is better to give than to receive. A study of older adults showed that giving support to others was associated with a higher survival rate and was more strongly linked to extending longevity than was receiving support
FACT:
Whether the developmental (stage-based) model should be replaced or refined remains an ongoing debate in the field.
FACT:
Despite the common belief, most adolescents and their parents say they love and respect one another and agree on many of the principal issues in life.
Fact:
poor school performance, family problems, having friends who engage in riskier behaviors, impulsivity, and availability of risk-taking opportunities
Factors linked to increased risk taking in teens include:
Konrad Lorenz
Famed scientist who studied studied imprinting in geese and other species. "Father Goose."
2 lbs.
Fewer than half of infants born at the end of the second trimester that weigh less than ____________ will survive, even with intense medical treatment.
spina bifida
Folic acid, when taken early in pregnancy, greatly reduces the risk of neural tube defects such as:
coronary heart disease.
Following a healthy, balanced diet is a key factor in promoting health and longevity. Following a low-fat diet that is rich in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains can reduce the risks of potentially life-shortening diseases, such as
breasts
For girls, the most obvious physical sign of maturation is the development of:
Middle Adulthood
Forty to Sixty years old.
1. Certain drugs taken by the mother 2. X-rays 3. Environmental contaminants such as lead or mercury 4. Infectious organisms capable of passing through the placenta to the embryo or fetus.
Four Teratogens include:
30 percent
From ages 20 to 70, in regards to muscle cells, people are likely to lose as much as:
Environment in which the child is raised
Genes may shape basic temperament, but the degree to which genes become expressed in observable behavioral traits depends in part on the:
Kolberg's; justice
Gilligan pointed out that _______________ model was based only on the responses of males and did not take female voices into account. Through her own research, Gilligan concluded that females tend to adopt a care orientation, whereas males tend to adopt a _____________ orientation. Other researchers have found that differences in moral reasoning between men and women are less clear-cut, although women have a greater tendency to adopt a care orientation.
earlier
Girls typically experience their growth spurt _____________ than boys, so they may be taller than their male age mates for a while. But boys, on the average, eventually surpass girls in height and body weight. Boys also develop greater upper-body musculature.
Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation
Good behavior is defined simply as behavior that avoids punishment by an external authority. Preconventional. Behavior is judged good if it serves to avoid punishment
1. Spending time with children (plenty of time!), 2. Modeling appropriate behaviors 3. Helping children acquire skills to develop healthy peer relationships 4. Stating rules clearly 5. Setting limits 6. Being consistent in correcting inappropriate behavior and praising good behavior 7. Providing a warm, secure environment
Good parenting encompasses 7 qualities:
Chinese, Malaysian, and Indian
Greater physical play with fathers is not characteristic of all cultures. In _________, _________________, and ____________ cultures, fathers and mothers rarely engage in physical play with their children.
Teratogen
Harmful substances that can cause birth defects.
Carol Gilligan
Harvard psychologist who addressed the issue of gender bias in Kohlberg's work by pointing out that Kohlberg's studies were based entirely on research with men. Argued that women tend to apply a different moral standard than men, one defined by a care orientation rather than a justice orientation adopted by men
Cultural Learning
Has a strong bearing on child rearing, leading to variations across cultures in how children are raised
1. Independence 2. Cooperative Play 3. Positively affects a child's cognitive and language skills. 4. Positively affects a child's emotional development.
Higher-quality center-based day care and preschool care help foster what four positive aspects?
sexually desirable.
How a woman views menopause can have a strong bearing on her adjustment. Women who have been raised to believe menopause is connected with a loss of femininity may lose sexual interest or feel less:
1. Kohlberg's central belief that children and adolescents progress through stages of moral development has been supported in later research; however, critics question whether Kohlberg's developmental perspective captures the ways in which people form moral judgments and make morally laden decisions in their everyday lives. 2. Critics also question whether Kohlberg's concept of postconventional thinking is more a reflection of his own personal ideals than a universal stage of moral development 3. Though evidence generally supports Kohlberg's stage model of moral reasoning, critics contend that his model may contain cultural and gender biases.
How have critics questioned Kohlberg's beliefs and stage-based model?
James Marcia
Identified four identity statuses (Identity Achievement, Foreclosure, Moratorium, Identity Diffusion) that describe where people stand in their ego identities at any given time:
Erikson's stages are (1) trust versus mistrust (birth to 1 year) (2) autonomy versus shame and doubt (ages 1 to 3) (3) initiative versus guilt (ages 3 to 6) (4) industry versus inferiority (ages 6 to 12).
Identify and describe Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development in childhood.
Authoritative parents expect mature behavior, use reasoning, and set firm limits. Authoritarian parents set firm limits but are overly controlling and rely on harsh styles of discipline. Permissive parents have an "anything goes" style characterized by a lax approach to limit setting
Identify and describe the major parenting styles.
The three types are the 1. easy child, the 2. difficult child, and the 3. slow-to-warm-up child. Easy children have generally positive moods, react well to changes, and quickly develop regular feeding and sleep schedules. Difficult children have largely negative moods, react negatively to new situations and people, and have problems establishing regular feeding and sleep schedules. Slow-to-warm-up children tend to become withdrawn when facing new situations, and experience mild levels of distress. The three types of infant attachment styles are the secure type, the insecure-avoidant type, and the insecure-resistant type. The secure type of infant attaches to the mother and uses her as a secure base to explore the environment. The insecure-avoidant type freely explores the environment but tends to ignore the mother. The insecure-resistant type clings excessively to the mother but shows ambivalence or resistance toward her.
Identify and describe three types of infant temperament and three types of infant attachment styles.
Identity Crisis
In Erikson's theory, a stressful period of serious soul-searching and self-examination of issues relating to personal values and one's direction in life. Describes the stressful period of soul-searching and serious self-examination that many adolescents experience when struggling to develop a set of personal values and direction in life.
Conservation
In Piaget's theory, the ability to recognize that the quantity or amount of an object remains constant despite superficial changes in its outward appearance.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZBD)
In Vygotsky's theory, the range between children's present level of knowledge and their potential knowledge state if they receive proper guidance and instruction. Refers to the range between the skills children can currently perform and those they could perform if they received proper guidance and instruction.
1. Moro Reflex 2. Palmar Grasp Reflex
In ancestral times, these two reflexes may have had survival value by preventing infants from falling as their mothers carried them around all day:
in early adulthood
In general, people perform best on standardized tests of intelligence:
Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment Type (Type D)
In later studies, researchers identified a fourth type of attachment style. These infants of this type showed disorganized and unusual responses during separations and reunions, such as freezing in place or appearing dazed or confused when the mother left the room and was unable to approach her for support when she returned, even though they appeared fearful or distressed. Seems confused and disorganized in handling maternal separations and reunions; unable to seek support from mother when distressed
contact comfort
In one early study, infant monkeys were raised in cages containing two types of surrogate mothers: a wire cylinder or a soft, terry cloth-covered cylinder. The infant monkeys showed clear preferences for the cloth mother, even when they were fed by an apparatus containing a bottle attached to the wire mother. ___________________ apparently was a stronger determinant of attachment than food.
35%
In the New York Longitudinal Study (NYLS), the remaining __________% of the children studied represented a mixed group who could not be easily classified.
Denser
In the first two years of life, the interconnections or synapses between neurons in the brain grow __________________, enabling the infant to organize its movements and engage the world by manipulating objects and acquiring knowledge about its environment.
Stage Four: Industry Versus Inferiority
In which of the following stages in Erikson's theory of psychosocial development do children compare their abilities to those of their friends and classmates?
Sensorimotor
In which stage does Piaget suggest a child learns by interacting with the environment through using his or her senses and developing motor skills?
Stage 3. "good boy-good girl" orientation
Individuals believe that conformity with rules and regulations is important because of the need to be perceived by others as a "good boy" or a "good girl." They value the need to do the "right thing" in the eyes of others. Conventional. Conforming with rules to impress others
Postconventional
Individuals generally reach this level of moral reasoning during adolescence, if they reach it at all.
The first stage of Psychosocial Development: Trust versus mistrust.
Infancy (birth to 1 year). The infant faces is the development of a sense of trust toward its social environment. With a positive parent-child relationship in which parents treat the infant warmly and are responsive to its needs, a sense of trust and warmth toward others begins to develop. But if the parents are seldom there when the infant needs them, or if they are detached or respond coldly, the infant develops a basic mistrust of others. The world may seem a cold and threatening place.
palmar
Infant Reflexes include the rooting, eyeblink, sucking, Moro, __________ grasp, and Babinski reflexes.
memories
Infants are capable of learning simple responses and retaining ____________ of these learned behaviors for days or even weeks.
Memory
Infants are capable of sensing a wide range of sensory stimuli and of learning simple responses and retaining them in:
1. Memories for faces 2. Sounds of particular words one day after hearing them
Infants as young as 6 or 7 months can also retain what two things ?
1. Rooting Reflex 2. Eyeblink Reflex 3. Sucking Reflex 4. Palmar Grasp 5. Moro
Infants enter the world with some motor reflexes that may have had survival value among ancestral humans. Three of these reflexes are:
environment
Infants may seem to do little more than eat and sleep, but a closer look reveals they are both active learners and active perceivers of their:
Difficult
Infants with more _____________ temperaments tend to influence their parents to adopt harsher styles of parenting
Well-being
Investigators find that having a strong sense of personal identity in midlife is associated with higher levels of:
Postconventional Level
Involves applying one's own moral standards or abstract principles rather than relying on authority figures or blindly adhering to social rules or conventions. The thinker believes that when laws are unjust, a moral person is bound to disobey them. In Kohlberg's (1969) studies, only about one in four people had reached thelevel by age 16. Even in adulthood, most people remain at the level of conventional moral reasoning.
Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation
Involves the belief that laws are based on mutual agreement among members of a society, but they are not infallible. They should be open to question rather than followed blindly out of respect for authority. Weigh the rights of the individual against the rights of society. They might argue that although laws should be obeyed, protection of a life is a more important value than protection of property. Viewing rules and laws as based on mutual agreement in the service of the common good
Autonomy and Decision making
Issues relating to independence come to the fore in the adolescent's social and personality development, but these issues often bring adolescents into conflict with their parents. Adolescent yearnings for independence often lead to some withdrawal from family members and to arguments with parents over issues of:
Sensorimotor Stage
Jean Piaget's first stage of cognitive development that spans a period of momentous growth in the infant's cognitive development. During this stage, which actually consists of six substages, the child becomes increasingly capable of performing more complex behaviors and skills. Given it's name by Jean Piaget, the infant explores its world by using its senses and applying its developing motor skills (body movement and hand control). The infant's intelligence is expressed through action and purposeful manipulation of objects.
1. Sensorimotor 2. Preoperational 3. Concrete operational 4. Formal operational
Jean Piaget's four stages of cognitive development:
preoperational stage
Jean Piaget's term used for his second stage of cognitive development in order to describe the cognitive abilities of children roughly ages 2 to 7 years because they lacked the ability to perform basic logical operations—to apply basic principles of logic to their experiences. During this period, however, extraordinary growth occurs in the ability to form mental or symbolic representations of the world, especially with the use of language. Language makes the child's thinking processes far more expansive and efficient than was possible in the sensorimotor stage.
Concrete Operational Stage
Jean Piaget's third stage of cognitive development that is marked by the development of conservation. To Piaget, conservation is the ability to recognize that the amount or quantity of a substance does not change if its outward appearance is changed, so long as nothing is either added to it or subtracted from it. The child also becomes capable of decentered thinking and much less egocentric, capable of performing simple, logical operations but only when tied to concrete examples. Occurs from 7-11 years of age.
Stage 1 is characterized by an obedience and punishment orientation. Stage 2 represents an instrumental purpose orientation.
Kohlberg divided preconventional moral reasoning into two stages.
Stage 5, the social contract orientation Stage 6, adoption of universal ethical principles
Kohlberg identified two stages of postconventional moral reasoning:
individual rights and social justice.
Kohlberg's model emphasizes ideals found primarily in Western cultures, such as:
Adolescent Growth Spurt
Lasts for 2 to 3 years, during which time adolescents may shoot up 8 inches to 1 foot or more.
preconventional
Lawrence Kohlberg posed moral dilemmas to children and then classified their responses. Children whose responses indicated that they based their moral judgments on the perceived consequences of actions were classified at the ____________________ level of moral reasoning.
prenatally
Learning even occurs ____________, as shown by newborns' preference for their mother's voice and for sounds reflecting their native language
1. healthy diet 2. Regular exercise 3. Avoidance of harmful substances 4. An active, involved lifestyle.
Longevity is partly determined by genetic inheritance and partly by factors people can directly control, such as:
aging
Major weight gains are neither a normal nor an inevitable consequence of:
parents
Many adolescents or adults never grapple with an identity crisis. They may develop a firm sense of ego identity by modeling themselves after others, especially:
1. Genetics 2. Peer Influencing 3. Quality of Parenting
Many factors influence a child's intellectual, emotional, and social development, including:
young or middle adulthood.
Many gay adolescents face the challenge of coming to terms with their sexuality against the backdrop of social condemnation and discrimination against gays in the broader culture. Their struggle for self-acceptance often requires stripping away layers of denial about their sexuality. Some gay men and lesbians fail to achieve a "coming out" to themselves—that is, a personal acceptance of their sexual orientation—until:
white males
Many older adults, perhaps as many as one in five, experience periods of depressed mood, and 1 to 5 percent develop a full-fledged depressive disorder. Suicide rates are much higher among middle age and older adults, especially older:
genetic factors
Many psychologists believe that children differ in their basic temperaments and that these differences are at least partially determined by:
fables
Many sexually active teenagers believe pregnancy is something that could not happen to them, getting caught up in their own, personal:
Premature Birth
Maternal malnutrition is associated with a greater risk of ____________________. (Birth prior to 37 weeks of gestation) and low birth weight (less than 5 pounds, or about 2,500 grams).
1. Miscarriage (spontaneous abortion) 2. Premature birth 3. Low birth weight 4. Infant mortality
Maternal smoking can have harmful consequences on the fetus and newborn, including:
sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
Maternal smoking during pregnancy is also linked to increased risks of ________________________________- the sudden and unexplained death of infants that usually occurs when they are asleep in their cribs.
1. Reduced attention span 2. Learning problems 3. Behavioral problems
Maternal smoking during pregnancy is also linked to increased risks of developmental problems in children such as:
Asthma
Maternal smoking during pregnancy is also linked to increased risks of lung problems in children such as:
how people live
May be even more important determinants of longevity than genes
Shaping
May include raising one's own children or helping to make the world a better place for other children or future generations of children.
adulthood.
Men do experience a gradual decline in testosterone as they age, in contrast to the sharp decline in estrogen production that occurs in women during menopause. Unlike women, men can maintain fertility well into later:
60 or 65.
Middle adulthood spans the period from about age 40 to about age:
Accomodation
Modification of an established schema to fit a new object/problem.
Conventional Level
Moral reasoning is based on conformity with conventional rules of right and wrong. Individuals at this level recognize that the purpose of social rules is to preserve the social order and ensure harmonious relationships among people.
Stage 4. Authority or law-and-order orientation
Moral reasoning now goes beyond the need to gain approval from others: Rules must be obeyed and applied evenhandedly because they are needed for the orderly functioning of society. Each of us has a duty to uphold the law, simply because it is the law. Conventional. Obeying rules and laws because they are needed to maintain social order
mild range
Most adolescents are generally happy and optimistic about their futures. Though adolescents may have wider and more frequent changes in moods than adults, most of their mood swings fall within a:
Six months of life.
Most newborn reflexes disappear within the first
1. general physical health 2. engagement in stimulating activities 3. openness to new experiences
Most of us can expect to retain the bulk of our mental abilities throughout our lives. A long-term longitudinal study of cognitive ability shows that preserved intellectual ability in later life is associated with such factors as:
basic care (changing, feeding, bathing)
Mothers and fathers tend to differ in their parenting behavior. Compared to mothers, fathers typically provide less _______ ________ , but engage in more physically active play with their children
Mother's Voice
Newborns can hear many different types of sounds. They are particularly sensitive to sounds falling within the frequency of the human voice and can discriminate their ____________ _____________ over other voices.
Third Trimester
Newborns' motor skills are not limited to simple reflexes. They can engage in some goal-directed behaviors, such as bringing their hands to their mouths to suck their thumbs, an ability that first appears prenatally during the:
1. Moral Reasons 2. Fear of getting caught 3. Fear of pregnancy 4. Fear of contracting a sexually transmitted disease 5. Living in an intact family 6. Having a family with low levels of conflict 7. Having at least one parent who graduated from college 8. Placing importance on religion and attending religious services frequently 9. Having less exposure to sexual content in music, movies, television, and magazines
Nine factors linked to sexual restraint among teens:
egocentric thinking
Not all adolescents, nor even all adults, reach the stage of formal operational thinking. Their thinking remains tied to concrete examples and relationships among objects rather than between ideas and abstract concepts. Whether or not formal operational thinking develops, many adolescents show certain forms of:
other faces
Not only can newborns recognize their mother's face, but they also tend to show a preference for looking at her face over:
Sexual maturation
Occurring during puberty and leads to reproductive capability, whether or not youngsters are psychologically prepared for it.
difficult, emotionally stressed
Of the three temperament groups, the ________________, _____________________ infants are the ones most likely to develop mental health problems, especially depression, in later childhood and early adulthood
2030
One in eight Americans (12.5 percent) is age 65 or older, a percentage that is expected to climb to 20 percent by the year:
more
Others may actually feel liberated by the cutting of ties between sex and reproduction. A large-scale survey of post-menopausal women showed most were satisfied with their sexual activity, and most who expressed dissatisfaction actually wanted:
90
Our fund of information and knowledge actually increases through much of the life span and only begins to decline around the well-advanced age of:
Authoritative
Parenting style is an important influence on children's development. Which of the following terms describes a parent who is warm, supportive, and consistent; who understands the child's point of view; and who communicates well?
smoking
Parents also influence their adolescents in more subtle ways, and not always for the better. For example, adolescents tend to mimic their parents' health-related behaviors, which may include negative behaviors such as:
tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana
Parents are often concerned that their teenagers may "run with the wrong crowd." Peer pressure is a major factor in teenagers initiating sexual intercourse as well as their use of:
Authoritative Style
Parents set reasonable limits for their children but are not over-controlling. The parent is the authority figure, firm but understanding, willing to give advice, but also willing to listen to children's concerns. Parents explain the reasons for their decisions rather than just "laying down the law." To Baumrind, this parenting is the most successful parenting style. Evidence shows that children of these parents tend to achieve the most positive outcomes in childhood and adolescence. They tend to have high self-esteem and to be self-reliant, competent, and popular with peers. The flexible but firm child-rearing approach of these parents encourages children to be independent and assertive but also respectful of the needs of others.
Temperament
Pattern of behavior and mood that is general to a person. A characteristic style of behavior or disposition. Some theorists to it as the "how" of behavior.
negative consequences
Peer relationships can also have ___________ ___________________ Children and adolescents have a strong need for peer acceptance and may be influenced by peers to engage in deviant activities they might never attempt on their own.
Social Schemas
People form mental images or representations to make sense of their social environment, an example of which is the first impressions they form when meeting new people. These are called:
1. personal needs 2. values 3. life goals
People who achieve ego identity clearly understand what three things about themselves?
formal operational thinking
People who develop f__________ ______________ ____________________—the final stage of cognitive development in Piaget's theory—become capable of creating hypothetical situations and scenarios and playing them through in their minds. They can mount an argument in favor of something that runs counter to their own views and can imagine many different alternative futures. They are able to use deductive reasoning in which one derives conclusions about specific cases or individuals based on a set of premises.
7.6 years
People who hold more positive views about aging tend to live longer by an average of:
Movements
Perhaps the most remarkable fact is the rapid development of the infant's abilities to sense, perceive, learn, and direct its:
Puberty
Period during which a person matures sexually and becomes capable of reproduction. The stage of development at which individuals become physiologically capable of reproducing. The major event in physical development in adolescence. The period of physical growth and sexual maturation during which we attain full sexual maturity. Not any single event, but a process that unfolds over time. Lasts about 3 to 4 years, by the end of which time adolescents become physically capable of reproduction.
Menopause
Period when a female stops menstruating and is no longer fertile.
Lax
Permissive Parenting's style of discipline:
Warmth and support
Permissive Style of parenting has "high" priority listed in what category?
1. Limit Setting 2. Maturity Expectations
Permissive Style of parenting has "low" priority listed in what two categories?
Communications with children
Permissive Style of parenting has "moderate" priority listed in what category?
1. Memory functioning 2. Ability to learn new skills 3. Sensory acuteness 4. Muscle strength 5. Reaction time 6. Cardiovascular condition.
Physical and cognitive development tend to peak in early adulthood. During their 20s, most people are at their height in:
Secondary Sex Characteristics (pubic hair, breasts, voice deepening.)
Physical characteristics that differentiate males and females but are not directly involved in reproduction. Puberty begins with the appearance of:
Primary Sex Characteristics (changes in sex organs that affect reproduction such as penis/testes and uterus)
Physical characteristics, such as the gonads, that differentiate males and females and play a direct role in reproduction. Puberty also begins with these.
Maturation
Physical growth and development of the body, brain, and nervous system. The biological unfolding of the organism according to the underlying genetic code or blueprint. Largely determines how organisms, including ourselves, grow and develop physically.
Formal Operations
Piaget's final stage of cognitive development characterized by ability to engage in abstract thought.
1. Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years) The child uses its senses and developing motor skills to explore and act upon the world, and develops object permanence, which is the recognition that objects continue to exist even if they are not presently in sight. 2. Preoperational stage (2 to 7 years) The child uses language to symbolize objects and actions in words. Yet the child's thinking is limited by egocentrism, animistic thought, centration, and irreversibility. 3. Concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years) The child becomes able to perform simple logical operations tied to concrete problems. The child demonstrates conservation, or ability to recognize that the amount of a substance does not change if its shape or size is rearranged. 4. Formal operational stage (begins around puberty, age 11 or 12) The child or adolescent develops abstract reasoning abilities. Not all children, nor all adults, progress to this stage.
Piaget's stages of cognitive development: The child progresses through a fixed sequence of stages involving qualitative leaps in ability and ways of understanding and interacting with the world.
Infant Mortality and Attention Difficulties
Preterm and low-birth-weight babies face a higher risk of infant mortality and later developmental problems, including:
androgens
Produced by her adrenal glands. A woman's sex drive is fueled by the small amounts of male sex hormones called:
1. Requiring help selecting clothes 2. Help recalling names and addresses 3. Help maintaining personal hygiene. 4. They may start wandering 5. May no longer be able to recognize family and friends 6. May lose ability to speak coherently.
Progressive expectancies of Alzheimer's Disease:
Working "in the zone"
Providing less experienced individuals, or novices, with the support or instruction they need to advance beyond the level they would be able to accomplish on their own
Elisabeth Kübler-Ross.
Psychiatrist who focused on how people cope with impending death.
Midlife Transition
Psychologist Daniel Levinson believes that at about the age of 40, people experience a time of reckoning or
G. Stanley Hall
Psychologist and founder of the American Psychological Association who characterized adolescence as a time of sturm und drang, or "storm and stress."
Mary Ainsworth
Psychologist who developed a laboratory-based method, called the strange situation, to observe how infants react to separations and reunions with caregivers, typically their mothers.
Lawrence Kohlberg
Psychologist who studied how individuals make moral judgments about conflict-laden issues. He was interested in the process by which people arrive at moral choices—what makes something right or wrong—rather than in the particular choices they make. He developed a methodology in which he presented subjects with hypothetical situations involving conflicting moral values, or moral dilemmas.
intimate relationships and finding a place in the world.
Psychosocial development in early adulthood often centers on establishing:
sexual maturity
Puberty spans the period of physical development that begins with the appearance of secondary sex characteristics and ends with the attainment of full:
death rate
Recent research also shows that older adults who felt younger than their actual age had a lower:
Object Permanence
Recognition that items continue to exist even when they are no longer visible.
Emerging Adulthood
Recognizes that many young people today assume typical roles of full-fledged adulthood in terms of marriage, holding a steady job, and parenthood later than their counterparts did in earlier generations. The period of psychosocial development, roughly spanning the ages of 18 to 25, during which the person makes the transition from adolescence to adulthood coined by Psychologist Jeffrey Arnett.
Palmar Grasp Reflex
Reflex that is so strong that the infant can literally be lifted by its hands. The reflexive curling of the infant's fingers around an object that touches its palm.
1. Heart disease 2. Stroke 3. Diabetes 4. Osteoporosis.
Regular exercise is associated with a lower risk of certain cancers, such as cancer of the colon and helps lower the risk of other major killers such as:
Alzheimer's disease
Regular physical activity or vigorous exercise doesn't just keep the body strong, but also helps the mind stay sharp and helps combat depression, and may even reduce the risk of:
foreign tongue
Remarkably, in just a few hours after birth, infants can differentiate sounds in their native language from those in a __________________________, suggesting that exposure to sounds in the womb may predispose them to recognize similar sounds that later become incorporated in the language they develop.
Ovum (egg cell) (contains only one copy of the two sex chromosomes.)
Reproductive cell or germ cell of females
Sperm (contains only one copy of the two sex chromosomes.)
Reproductive cell or germ cell of males:
Midlife
Research evidence supports Erikson's view that generativity is primarily a task of:
Sucking Reflex
Rhythmic sucking in response to stimulation of the tongue or mouth, allowing the infant to obtain nourishment from a breast or bottle. Prompted whenever an object like a nipple or a finger is placed in the mouth.
1. Heart disease 2. Deafness 3. Intellectual Disability (formerly called mental retardation)
Rubella can lead to serious birth defects if contracted during pregnancy, including:
240 to 320 million years ago.
Scientists believe that sexual reproduction began some:
1. Further development of depth perception and visual acuity 2. Sits without support 3. Stands holding on
Seven Milestone Sensory Skills and Learning Abilities of infants 7 to 9 months of age.
1. Develops depth perception 2. Discerns differences among certain facial expressions 3. Retains memory for certain faces 4. Grasps stationary objects 5. Catches moving objects 6. Brings objects into field of view 7. Able to roll over
Seven Milestone Sensory Skills and Learning Abilities of infants four to six months of age.
1. Discriminates direction of a moving object 2. Has developed basic color vision 3. Can discern differences in the tempo (beat) of a pattern of sounds 4. Discriminates among faces of different people 5. Learns simple responses and remembers them for several days (at 2 months) to several weeks (at 6 months) 6. Lifts chin 7. Brings objects to mouth
Seven Milestone Sensory Skills and Learning Abilities of infants two-three months of age.
Operational Stage of Cognitive Development
Seven year old Dan is asked to imagine three trucks, a blue one, a red one, and a green one, all of different sizes. He is told that the blue truck is bigger than the red one and the red one is bigger than the green one. He is then asked, which truck is larger, the blue one or the green one. After a pause, he concludes correctly that the blue one is bigger. According to Piaget, Oswald has reached the concrete:
Their mother's odor, face, and voice, 2. Different tastes.
Shortly after birth, infants are able to discern many different stimuli, including:
Middle Childhood
Six to twelve years old.
Late Adulthood
Sixty-five years and older.
Role Diffusion
Some individuals may fail to develop a clear sense of ego identity, remaining at sea, as it were, aimlessly taking each day as it comes. In Erikson's model, a state of being and lack of direction or aimlessness with respect to one's role in life or public identity. Individuals remain confused and in a drifting state in which they lack a clear set of values and direction in life. They may be especially vulnerable to negative peer influences such as drug use.
40
Some investigators and social observers focus less on stages of adult development and more on how people cope with the transitions they face during the course of their lives. For example, psychologist Daniel Levinson and his colleagues suggested that a midlife transition begins at about age:
function
Some reflexes appear to be remnants of our evolutionary heritage that may no longer serve any adaptive:
Americans
Substantial variations in attachment behaviors exist across cultures. For example, ______________ place a greater emphasis on exploration and independence in young children than do the Japanese.
positive
Successful aging is associated with the ability to concentrate on what is important and meaningful, to maintain a _____________ outlook, and to continue to challenge oneself.
Selective optimization and compensation
Successful aging tactic associated with the ability to optimize one's time and use available resources to compensate for shortcomings in physical energy, memory, or fluid intelligence. Optimizing time by focusing on things that are more meaningful and important, such as visiting with family and friends more often—allowing the pursuit of emotional goals that afford satisfaction. Compensating for declining functioning by using written reminders, allowing more time to learn new information, and using mechanical devices, such as hearing aids or canes, to compensate for loss of sensory or motor ability.
Optimism
Successful aging tactic linked to higher levels of life satisfaction and lower levels of depressive symptoms in later life.
self-challenge
Successful aging tactic that is a primary feature of successful adjustment at any age. The key for most older (and younger) adults is not to do less but to do more of the things that matter. Evidence shows that psychological factors such as maintaining a sense of purpose in life and having a sense of control over one's life is associated with greater longevity.
involved
Suggestions for living a longer and happier life include developing healthy exercise and nutrition habits, staying __________________ and helping others, managing stress, and exercising the mind.
Amniotic Fluid
Surrounds the embryo and acts as a kind of shock absorber to cushion the embryo and fetus from damage that could result from the mother's movements.
1. Requiring more time to solve problems and have greater difficulties with tasks involving pattern recognition, such as piecing together jigsaw puzzle 2. Encountering more difficulties with memory for newly acquired information, such as remembering people's names or where they parked the car 3. Decline in working memory—keeping information briefly in mind while mulling it over or performing mental calculations
Symptoms of declining fluid intelligence:
stress.
Taking care of your body, such as by taking frequent breaks, practicing relaxation skills, and exercising regularly, can help you cope more effectively with:
crystallized intelligence
Tends to peak around middle age and remains relatively intact as we age. Associated with wisdom and knowledge and includes mental abilities such as vocabulary and arithmetical skills. A form of intelligence associated with the use of knowledge or wisdom.
1. Central Nervous System 2. Heart
Teratogens may risk MAJOR structural physical abnormalities of week 3 of the embryonic stage, affecting what two features?
1. Ears 2. Arms 3. Eyes 4. Legs 5. Teeth 6. Palate 7. External Genitalia
Teratogens may risk MAJOR structural physical abnormalities of week 7 of the embryonic stage, affecting what 7 features?
1. Ears 2. Palate 3. External Genitalia
Teratogens may risk MAJOR structural physical abnormalities of weeks 12-15 of the Fetal stage, affecting what 3 features?
1. Central Nervous System 2. Heart 3. Ears 4. Arms 5. Eyes 6. Legs
Teratogens may risk MAJOR structural physical abnormalities of weeks 4, 5, and 6 of the embryonic stage, affecting what 6 features?
1. Ears 2. Eyes 3. Teeth 4. Palate 5. External Genitalia
Teratogens may risk MAJOR structural physical abnormalities of weeks 7-11 of the Fetal stage, affecting what 5 features?
1. Central Nervous System 2. Ears 3. Eyes 4. Teeth 5. Palate 6. External Genitalia
Teratogens may risk MINOR structural physical abnormalities of weeks 12-15 of the Fetal stage, affecting what 6 features?
1. Central Nervous System 2. Ears 3. Eyes 4. Teeth 5. External Genitalia
Teratogens may risk MINOR structural physical abnormalities of weeks 16-19 of the Fetal stage, affecting what 5 features?
1. Central Nervous System 2. Eyes 3. External Genitalia
Teratogens may risk MINOR structural physical abnormalities of weeks 20-36 of the Fetal stage all the way up through Full Term at 37-38 weeks, affecting what 3 features?
1. Teeth 2. Ear
Teratogens may risk MINOR structural physical abnormalities of weeks 6 and 7 of the embryonic stage, affecting what two features?
1. Central Nervous System 2. Heart 3. Ears 4. Arms 5. Legs
Teratogens may risk MINOR structural physical abnormalities of weeks 7-11 of the Fetal stage, affecting what 5 features?
1. Teeth 2. Palate
Teratogens may risk a rare but MAJOR structural physical abnormalities of week 6 of the embryonic stage, affecting what two features?
Eighth week of development
Teratogens that may damage the arms and legs are most likely to have an effect during the fourth through the:
Cultures with different child-rearing practices
The Ainsworth method may not be appropriate for assessing attachment behaviors in children from:
Lev Vygotsky
The Russian psychologist who was concerned primarily with how children come to understand their social world. He believed that cultural learning is acquired through a gradual process of social interactions between children and parents, teachers, and other members of the culture. These interactions provide the basis for acquiring the knowledge that children need to solve everyday challenges and to meet the demands the culture imposes on them. According to his view, the adult is the expert and the child is the novice, and the relationship between them is one of tutor and student.
Slow-to-warm-up
The _______________ infants are more likely than other infants to be anxious or moody in childhood.
6 months; memories
The ability to respond to depth cues and to discern facial expressions develops within the first _____________________. Infants are also capable of learning simple responses and retaining _______________ of those responses.
Decentered Thinking
The ability to take into account more than one aspect of a situation at a time.
judgment, reasoning, and putting the brakes on risky or impulsive behavior
The adolescent brain is still maturing, including that part of the brain, the prefrontal cortex, responsible for:
ego identity
The attainment of a firm sense of self- who one is, where one is headed in life, and what one believes. In Erickson's theory, the attainment of a psychological sense of knowing oneself and one's direction in life and, according to Erik Erikson, the major life challenge adolescents face is the development of a sense of:
physical health status.
The average 65-year-old today can expect to live to about age 83 for men or age 85 for women. For older adults in good health, reaching age 65 is experienced more as an extension of middle age than as entry into old age, particularly if they continue to work. A major determinant of psychological adjustment in later life is:
86.6 years
The average female 65-year-old today can expect to live on the average to the age of:
81 years
The average female baby born today in the United States can expect to live:
84.5 years
The average male 65-year-old today can expect to live on the average to the age of:
76 years
The average male baby born today in the United States can expect to live:
Rooting Reflex
The basic reflexive turning of the newborn's head in the direction of a touch on its cheek. Helps the baby obtain nourishment by orienting its head toward the breast or bottle.
Menarche
The beginning of menstruation
Developmental Psychology
The branch of psychology that studies the systematic changes that occur during the life span. The branch of psychology that explores physical, emotional, cognitive, and social aspects of development. Perspective of psychology that examines changes in behavior and personality that occur across the lifespan.
adult roles and relationships.
The challenges of young adulthood have largely to do with sorting out:
Personal Fable
The common belief among adolescents that their feelings and experiences cannot possibly be understood by others and that they are personally invulnerable to harm. An exaggerated sense of one's uniqueness and invulnerability. Encapsulates the belief that "bad things can't happen to me."
Imaginary Audience
The common belief among adolescents that they are the center of other people's attention. Describes the adolescent's belief that other people are as keenly interested in his or her concerns and needs as the adolescent is. Adolescents may feel as though they are always on stage, as though all eyes are continually scrutinizing how they look, what they wear, and how they act. They view themselves as the center of attention and feel extremely self-conscious and overly concerned about the slightest flaw in their appearance.
Embryo
The developing organism at an early stage of prenatal development. Organism in progress from implantation in the uterine wall through the eighth week after conception
Fetus
The developing organism in the later stages of prenatal development. Organism in progress from the third month after conception until birth.
Easy; Fussier
The distinct types of temperament observed in infancy predict later differences in adjustment. ___________ infants are generally better adjusted as adults than infants with other temperaments. ________________ infants tend to have more conduct problems in childhood, especially among boys
Umbilical Cord
The embryo and later, the fetus, are connected to the placenta by the ____________ ______ which allows nutrients and oxygen to pass from mother to fetus; however, not allowing their blood streams to mix.
Folic Acid a day
The federal government recommends that all pregnant women take 800 micrograms of:
B vitamin Folic Acid a day
The federal government recommends that all women of childbearing age take 400 micrograms of:
X Chromosomes
The female of the species carries two
Uterus
The female reproductive organ in which the fertilized ovum becomes implanted and develops to term.
Maternal malnutrition and teratogens.
The fetus faces many risks, including:
second trimester of pregnancy
The fetus increases more than 30-fold in weight during the _________________________, going from about 1 ounce to 2 pounds.
14 inches
The fetus increases more than 30-fold in weight during the second trimester and grows from 4 inches to:
Formal Operations Stage
The final stage in Piaget's theory—the stage of full cognitive maturity. In Western societies, tends to begin around puberty, at about age 11 or 12. However, not all children enter this stage at this time, and some never do, even as adults. Characterized by the ability to think in abstract terms, to generate hypotheses, and to think deductively. Can think through hypothetical situations and can follow arguments from their premises to their conclusions and back again. The level of full cognitive maturity in Piaget's theory, characterized by the ability to think in abstract terms.
Menarche
The first menstruation. The beginning of menstruation, between ages 10 and 18, or at an average age of 12.5 years. Girls today enter puberty at much earlier ages than girls in earlier generations. The average European American girl today shows breast development and other signs of puberty by age 10, as compared to age 15 at the beginning of the twentieth century. The average African American girl today begins showing signs of puberty at a somewhat earlier age.
germinal stage
The first stage of prenatal development, which ends with implantation in the uterine wall, is called the:
Imprinting
The formation of a strong bond of the newborn animal to the first moving object seen after birth.
Implantation
The germinal stage is the period from conception to:
1. Easy Children 2. Difficult Children 3. Slow-to-warm-up Children
The investigatorsof the New York Longitudinal Study (NYLS) identified three general types of temperament that could be used to classify about two out of three of the children in the study group. These types are:
intimacy vs. isolation
The major psychosocial challenge of early adulthood, according to Erikson, is that of
X and Y sex chromosomes
The male of the species carries a combination of:
Justice Orientation
The moral standard of men according to Carol Gilligan:
Care Orientation
The moral standard of women according to Carol Gilligan:
1. Infectious Diseases: Rubella, HIV/AIDS, Syphilis 2. Smoking 3. Alcohol and Drugs
The most dangerous tertogens:
New York Longitudinal Study (NYLS)
The most widely used classification of temperaments is based on a study of middle-class and upper-middle-class infants from the New York City area called the: the New York Longitudinal Study (NYLS)
Bonding
The parent's tie to the infant that may form in the hours following birth.
adolescence
The period of life beginning at puberty and ending with early adulthood. The link in the life chain between childhood and adulthood.
Fluid Intelligence; Alzheimer's Disease
The physical and cognitive changes one can expect later in life include a general decline in sensory and motor abilities, in immune system functioning, and in _________________, memory for new information, and mental processing speed. However, cognitive changes are generally not severe enough to significantly impair daily functioning. ______________________ and other forms of dementia are brain diseases, not normal consequences of aging.
puberty
The physical growth period during which young people mature sexually and reach their full reproductive capacity is known as:
Age of Viability
The point at which the fetus becomes capable of sustaining life on its own by the end of the second trimester:
Normal Neurological Development
The presence and later disappearance of particular reflexes at expected periods of time are taken as signs of:
suicidal thoughts or attempt suicide.
The process of achieving self-acceptance can be so difficult that many gay adolescents have:
intellectual, emotional, and social development.
The quality of parenting is an important influence on children's:
unanswered
The question of whether it is possible to change basic temperament remains:
people ages 65 and older.
The ranks of the fastest-growing segment of the population:
Object Permanence
The recognition that objects continue to exist even if they have disappeared from sight.
Eyeblink Reflex
The reflexive blinking of the eyes that protects the newborn from bright light and foreign objects.
Babinski Reflex
The reflexive fanning out and curling of the infant's toes and inward twisting of its foot when the sole of the foot is stroked.
Ovulation
The release of an egg cell (ovum) from the ovary.
Fourth Month of Pregnancy
The risk of transmission of sexually transmitted diseases can be reduced if the infected mother is treated effectively with antibiotics prior to the:
1. Lower brain volumes 2. Areas of thinning neural tissue in the cerebral cortex
The risks of smoking extend to grade-school children, as those with mothers who smoked continuously during pregnancy, showing signs of abnormal brain development including:
Development
The risks posed by teratogens are greatest during certain critical periods of:
inductive reasoning and spatial orientation.
The sharpest declines occur with fluid intelligence, the kind of intelligence needed for abstract reasoning skills, such as:
Zygote
The single cell egg cell that has been fertilized.
Vision
The slowest of the senses to develop.
Embryonic Stage
The stage of prenatal development from implantation through about the eighth week of pregnancy during which the major organ systems begin to form. Spans the period of about 2 weeks to about 8 weeks after conception.
Fetal Stage
The stage of prenatal development in which the fetus develops, beginning around the ninth week of pregnancy and lasting until the birth of the child. Characterized by continued maturation of the fetus's organ systems and dramatic increases in size.
Germinal Stage
The stage of prenatal development that spans the period from fertilization through implantation. The first stage of prenatal development, which ends with implantation in the uterine wall. Roughly corresponds to the first 2 weeks after conception:
Identity Diffusion
The state describing people who are not yet committed to a set of personal beliefs or career choices and show no real interest in developing these commitments. Issues of ego identity have not yet taken center stage in their lives.
Attachment Behaviors
The ties that bind infants to their caregivers. Found in a wide variety of species.
Menopause
The time of life when menstruation ends. The most dramatic physical change during middle age is the cessation of menstruation and reproductive capability in women- major life event for most women and may symbolize other issues they may face in middle adulthood, including changes in appearance, health, and sexuality. Typically occurs in a woman's late 40s or early 50s.
Working Memory
The type of memory that enables us to hold and manipulate information in mind, such as when we perform mental arithmetic or juggle two or more ideas in our head at the same time. Fluid intelligence relies on:
Fertilization
The union of sperm and ovum.
Erik Erikson
Theorist who believed that the process of coming to terms with one's personal identity and the question "Who am I?" represents the major life challenge of adolescence.
Daniel Levinson
Theorist who recognized that late adulthood is characterized by increasing awareness of the psychological and physical changes that accompany aging and the need to come to terms with death, pointing out that one of the important life tasks older adults face is to rediscover the self—to understand who one is and find meaningful activities that continue to fill life with meaning and purpose—as well as to maintain connections with families and friends.
Maintaining social contacts and expanding social relationships by forming new friendships, which takes on added importance when coping with the loss of loved ones and old friends.
There is much we can do to preserve our mental health as we age, such as:
boosting memory and slowing the rate of decline
There is presently no cure for AD and the available drugs can only provide modest benefits in:
Slow-to-warm-up Children
These children (called "inhibited children" by others) have low activity levels; avoid novel stimuli; require more time to adjust to new situations than most children; and typically react to unfamiliar situations by becoming withdrawn, subdued, or mildly distressed. This category described about 15 percent of the group. Shows low activity levels; becomes inhibited, withdrawn, or fretful when exposed to new situations
Easy Children
These children are playful and respond positively to new stimuli. They adapt easily to changes; display a happy, engaging mood; and are quick to develop regular sleeping and feeding schedules. About 40 percent of the NYLS children were classified in this category. Playful; interested in new situations or novel stimuli; quickly develops regular sleeping and eating patterns.
Difficult Children
These children react negatively to new situations or people, have irritable dispositions, and have difficulty establishing regular sleeping and feeding schedules. About 10 percent of the group fell into this category. Irritable; has difficulty adjusting to new situations or people and establishing regular sleeping and feeding schedules.
Insecure-resistant type (Type C)
These infants clung to the mother and were reluctant to explore the environment despite the presence of desirable toys. They showed a high level of distress when the mother departed and continued to experience some distress despite her attempts to comfort them when she returned. They also showed ambivalence or resistance toward the mother, first reaching out to her to be picked up and then pushing her away or twisting their bodies to get free of her. About 10 percent of the infants showed this attachment pattern. Clings to mother; avoids venturing into unfamiliar situations; becomes very upset when mother leaves and fails to be comforted completely when she returns; shows some ambivalence or resistance toward mother
Insecure-Avoidant Type (type A)
These infants paid little attention to the mother when she was in the room and separated easily from her to explore the environment. They showed little distress when the mother departed and ignored her when she returned. About 20 percent of the infants in the typical sample fit this type. Pays little attention to mother when she is present and shows little distress when she leaves
Secure Type (type B)
These infants used their mothers as a secure base for exploring the environment, periodically looking around to check on her whereabouts and limiting exploration when she was absent. They sometimes cried when the mother left but warmly greeted her and were easily soothed by her when she returned. Soon they began exploring again. About 65 to 70 percent of middle-class samples of infants. Indicated that most infants show this pattern of attachment in cross-cultural studies. Uses mother as secure base to explore the environment; may be upset when she leaves but is easily comforted when she returns.
Permissive Style
These parents have an "anything goes" attitude toward raising their children. They may respond affectionately to children but be extremely lax in setting limits and imposing discipline. Children with these parents tend to be impulsive and lacking in self-control. Because they lack the experience of conforming to other people's demands, they may not develop effective interpersonal skills
Authoritarian Style
These parents who adopt this style of parenting are rigid and over-controlling. They expect and demand unquestioned obedience from their children. If children dare to ask why they are being told to do something, the answer is likely to be "Because I say so." These parents are unresponsive to their children's needs and rely on harsh forms of discipline while allowing their children little control over their lives. Children of theseparents tend to be inhibited, moody, withdrawn, fearful, and distrustful of others. They are also at higher risk of becoming overweight. The most negative outcomes in adolescence are found in boys with these parents. They typically perform more poorly in school; are more dependent and lacking in initiative and self-confidence; and tend to be conflicted, unhappy, and unfriendly toward peers
1. Has blurry vision 2. Visually tracks a moving object 3. Sensitive to sounds within range of human voice 4. Shows preference for mother's voice and native language sounds (develops prenatally) 5. Detects mother's odor 6. Discerns certain pleasant or unpleasant basic odors 7. Shows taste preference for sweetness 8. Responds to a soothing voice 9. Discerns differences in how they are held 10. Shows preferences for face-like stimuli and responds to certain facial features 11. Demonstrates basic reflexes 12. Sucks thumb 13. Mimics facial movements
Thirteen Milestone Sensory Skills and Learning Abilities of birth to one month of age in infants.
Japanese Culture
This culture practices and emphasizes mother-infant closeness and interdependence, which may make it more difficult for these infants to manage brief separations from their mothers
Traditional Hispanic families
This culture tends to believe that the father is expected to be the provider and protector of the female, and the mother assumes full responsibility for child care.
Asian culture
This culture tends to emphasize respect for parental authority, especially the father's, and warm maternal relationships
African American families
This culture tends to have strong kinship bonds and to involve grandmothers in more direct child care responsibilities than may be typical of other groups.
The third stage of Psychosocial Development: Initiative Vs. Guilt
This stage, corresponding to the preschool years of 3 to 6, is a time of climbing gyms and play dates, a time at which the child is challenged to initiate actions and carry them out. Children who largely succeed in their efforts and are praised for their accomplishments will come to develop a sense of initiative and competence. In contrast, children who frequently fail to accomplish tasks and cannot seem to "get things right" may develop feelings of guilt and powerlessness, especially if they are ridiculed or harshly criticized for their awkwardness or missteps.
rubella
Those who lack immunity to ________________ may be vaccinated before becoming pregnant to protect their future offspring.
1. His observations of children's cognitive abilities were limited to a small sample of children, including his own children. 2. Cognitive development in childhood may be more variable from child to child than would be expected based on the fixed stages in Piaget's theory. 3. Piaget may also have underestimated the abilities of young children. 4. Although Piaget believed that infants can't develop the ability to mimic faces until late in their first year, we now know that imitation of facial expressions can even be conducted by: 5. Children may also develop object permanence and the ability to view events from other people's perspectives at earlier ages than Piaget's model would suppose 6. Piaget failed to account for cultural differences in the timing by which these stages unfold. While all children go through the ordered sequence of stages, cross-cultural evidence shows that the ages at which children pass through these stages depend greatly on cultural factors.
Though Piaget continues to have an enormous impact on the field of developmental psychology, a number of challenges to his theory have surfaced. What are these criticisms?
Egocentrism: To Piaget, the tendency to see the world only from one's own perspective.
Though cognitive abilities expand dramatically during the preoperational stage, Piaget noted that the child's thinking processes are still quite limited. For example, the preoperational child demonstrates:
normal nor helpful
Though disagreements with parents are common, in regards to adolescents, serious conflict is neither:
emotional concerns
Though effective psychological and drug treatments for depression in older adults are available, the disorder often goes untreated, partly because health care providers may focus more on the physical complaints of older adults than on their:
biases
Though evidence generally supports Kohlberg's stage model of moral reasoning, critics contend that his model may contain cultural and gender:
vulnerability
Though the cause or causes of AD remain unknown, we know that genetic factors play an important role in determining:
teratogens
Threats include maternal diet, maternal diseases and disorders, and use of certain medications and drugs. Exposure to particular __________________ causes the greatest harm during critical periods of vulnerability.
selective optimization and compensation, optimism, and self-challenge
Three characteristics associated with successful aging:
1. Germinal stage 2. Embryonic stage 3. Fetal stage
Three major prenatal stages or periods:
Preschool Period
Three to six years old.
midlife transition
To Daniel Levinson, this age is a time of reckoning when we assess our lives in terms of whether we have reached the dreams we held in our youth. We may feel life is starting to slip away and realize we are now a full generation older than the youngest of the young adults. We may start to wonder whether we have more to look back on than forward to. Many middle-age adults compare their accomplishments to their earlier dreams and may despair if they find they have fallen short.
intimacy versus isolation
To Erik Erikson, the key psychosocial crisis of young adulthood. Forming intimate relationships on the one hand versus remaining lonely and isolated on the other.
1. strengthen and enrich us 2. weaken and diminish us
To Erikson, each stage of adult life presents unique challenges that can do either one of two things:
generativity versus stagnation
To Erikson, the key psychosocial challenge adults face in midlife. Efforts directed at shaping the new generation or generations to come.
Irreversibility
To Piaget, the inability to reverse the direction of a sequence of events to their starting point.
Centration
To Piaget, the tendency to focus on only one aspect of a situation at a time.
Cultural Blank Slates
To Vygotsky, children are born as ______________ ___________ __________________ and must learn the skills, values, and behaviors valued by the given culture.
More Hispanic women are entering the workforce and pursuing advanced educational opportunities.
Traditional Hispanic gender roles are changing because:
Adolescence
Twelve to Eighteen years old. Period of growth beginning at puberty and ending at young adulthood.
1. Develops near 20/20 vision 2. Walks holding on and without support
Two Milestone Sensory Skills and Learning Abilities of infants 10 to 12 months of age.
1. Irreversibility 2. Centration
Two other limitations of the preoperational child's thinking are:
Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk
Two people who used a visual cliff apparatus to measure the depth perception of infants.
Harry and Marguerite Harlow
Two psychologists who conducted landmark research showing that baby monkeys developed attachment behaviors to inanimate objects placed in their cages.
1. HIV/AIDS 2. Syphilis
Two sexually transmitted infections that be transmitted from mother to child during pregnancy:
Gender and cultural biases
Two types of biases for which Kohlberg's theory has been criticized.
Imaginary audience and personal fable
Two ways in which egocentric thinking becomes expressed during adolescence:
Fourth Month
Typically the mother will feel the first fetal movements around the middle of the:
takes time to develop, at least over the course of infancy.
Unlike the developmental concept of bonding, attachment:
1. live below the poverty level 2. quit school 3. depend on public assistance
Unwed teenage mothers face serious obstacles to their educational and social development. They are more likely than other girls to:
Basic Attachment Style
Using a laboratory method for measuring attachment behavior in infants, investigators can classify infants according to their:
Depth Perception
Using a visual cliff apparatus consisting of a glass panel that covers an apparent sudden drop-off, Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk (1960) showed that most infants about 6 months or older will hesitate and then refuse to crawl across to the deep side, indicating that they have developed:
zone of proximal development (ZPD) (also knows as the zone of potential development.
Vygotsky emphasized that social learning occurs within a:
Sociocultural Realities
We need to take s__________________ _____________________ into account when applying Baumrind's parenting styles. Some cultures emphasize authoritarian styles of parenting more than others do. It may be unfair or misleading to apply these categories when classifying parenting styles in other cultures that have different child-rearing traditions.
1. Solve abstract reasoning problems 2. Identify patterns and relationships 3. Solve puzzles 4. Remember names we have just heard or information we have just read
We use fluid intelligence to:
1. The more securely attached infant is likely to be better adjusted in childhood and adolescence than the less securely attached infant. 2. The more securely attached infant is likely to have better peer relationships and self-esteem. 3. The more securely attached infant is likely to exhibit fewer problem behaviors than the less securely attached infant.
What are the differences between a child who has a secure attachment style and a child who has a less secure attachment style?
Fetuses show a preference for their mother's voices
What evidence (based on the sense of hearing) do we have to support the belief that a fetus is capable of learning?
Unclear
What infants make of different facial expressions remains:
Learning to initiate actions and carry them out.
What is the major challenge of psychosocial development for a preschooler (ages 3-6), who is adhering to the third life crises, otherwise known as Initiative Vs. Guilt?
Building a sense of independence and self-control.
What is the major challenge of psychosocial development for a toddler (ages 1-3), who is adhering to the second life crises, otherwise known as Autonomy Vs. Shame and Doubt?
Becoming productive and involved.
What is the major challenge of psychosocial development for an elementary school-aged child (ages 3-6) (Middle Childhood), who is adhering to the fourth life crises, otherwise known as Industry Vs. Inferiority
Developing a basic sense of trust in the caregiver and the environment
What is the major challenge of psychosocial development for an infant (approximately from newly born to 1 year old), who is adhering to the first life crises, otherwise known as Trust Vs. Mistrust?
estrogen and progesterone.
With menopause, the ovaries no longer ripen egg cells or produce the sex hormones:
Authoritarian
Within our own society, ___________________ styles in families of lower socioeconomic status (SES) may represent a type of adaptation to stresses that families in poorer neighborhoods might face, such as heightened risks of violence and drug abuse. Parents in lower SES families may believe they need to enforce stricter limits on their children to protect them from these outside threats
Immunity to the disease
Women exposed to rubella in childhood acquire:
30
Working memory seems to peak around age:
relationships.
Young adults who have forged a strong sense of ego identity during adolescence may be prepared in early adulthood to form intimate attachments—to "fuse" their identities—with others in marriage and in lasting friendships. Those who have failed to achieve ego identity or a commitment to a stable life role may lack the personal stability to form lasting, secure:
social support
Young people today are likely to view social networking as a natural extension of their real-life circle of friends. Many adolescents today spend more time connecting with their friends through social media sites than through "face time." Online connections may actually strengthen real-life relationships. Many college students also use social networking to maintain contacts with friends from high school and to draw upon them for:
Peer
_________ __________________ provide the child with opportunities to develop socially competent behaviors in relating to others outside the family and as a member of a group. The acceptance and approval of peer group members help shape the child's developing self-esteem and sense of competence. Provide opportunities for children to develop social competencies and establish feelings of closeness and loyalty that can serve as the basis for later relationships.
Egocentric Thinking
_______________ ________________ doesn't mean the child is selfish or unconcerned about others; rather, the child at this stage lacks the cognitive ability to take another person's point of view or perspective. In the child's mind, he or she is the center of the universe.
Difficult; Slow-to-warm up
_______________ or _______________ child may need more time and gentle encouragement when adjusting to new situations such as beginning school, making friends, or joining in play activities with other children.
Imitative
_________________ behavior may be the basis for shared communication between the infant and others.
Adolescents
________________________ often show a form of egocentric thinking in which they believe their concerns and needs should be as important to others as they are to themselves.
Preconventional Level
base their moral judgments on the perceived consequences of behavior
Toddler Period
one year to three years old.