Psychology Exam

Pheromones

A pheromone is a chemical substance produced and released into the environment by an animal affecting the behavior or physiology of others of its own species In animals there are two types of pheromones: - Primer pheromones: Cause close, long-term physiological changes, such as hormonal effects (e.g. menstrual cycle) - Signaling pheromones: Produce rapid behavioral effects, such as mating In humans, there is some evidence of primer pheromones. Some psychologists have argued that pheromones may affect: - The menstrual cycle in groups of women - Olfactory (smell) recognition of newborn by its mother - Individuals may exude different odors based on mood For all the published research that shows these effects, there is an equal number of studies showing that there are no effects. So far no pheromones have been found. Examples: Zhou et al (2014), Wedekind (1953)

Schema

A schema is basically 'how to' knowledge - they are mental representations that are derived from prior experience and knowledge It's a model of how memory works Schema theory is a cognitive theory of how humans process incoming information, relate it to existing knowledge, and use it Can help us perceive things E.g. - Sports cars are: fast, shiny, expensive, small, etc. How schemas work We can't see schemas inside someone's head but they give us a useful model - or best guess - to study the mind Schema theory suggests what we already know will influence the outcome of our information processing Suggests we are active processors of information We interpret and integrate information to make sense of our experiences If information is missing our brain fills the blanks in based on our schemas - it invents something that seems to fit in Our schemas come from past experiences Example: Bartlett (1932)

Enculturation

A significant part of the development of our personal identity is the learning and maintenance of the necessary and appropriate behaviours and norms of our own culture. It is a constant process that reinforces an identity in a culture. For example, for Asian American families, enculturation refers to the process of becoming socialized into and maintaining the norms of the Asian culture. Example: Odden and Rochat (2004)

Stereotyping

A stereotype is defined as a social perception of an individual in terms of group membership or physical attributes. It is a generalization that is made about a group and then attributed to members of the group. These generalizations can either be positive or negative. Stereotyping is a form of categorization that affects the behavior of those who stereotype and those who are stereotyped. Formation of stereotype Hamilton and Gifford (1976) argue that stereotypes are the results of an illusory correlation. This is when people see a relationship between two variables even when there is none. an example of this is when people form false associations between membership of a social group and a specific behaviours such as women's inferior ability in mathematics. The illusory correlation phenomenon causes people to overestimate a link between the two variables (e.g. "women" and "ability in mathematics"). Illusory correlations can come in many forms and culturally-based prejudice about social groups can to come extent be classified as illusory correlation. Illusory correlation is an example of what researchers call "cognitive bias", that is, a person's tendency to make errors in judgement based on cognitive factors. Example: Hamilton and Gifford (1976) Effects of stereotyping Stereotypes can also affect behavior. Stereotype threat occurs when one is in a situation where there is a threat of being judged or treated stereotypically, or a fear of doing something that would inadvertently confirm that stereotype. Example: Steele and Aronson (1995)

Acculturation

Acculturation Acculturation is the process of cultural and psychological change that takes place as a result of contact between two or more cultural groups. At the individual level, it involves changes in a persona's behavior. Moving to a new culture often results in a personal battle between enculturation (maintaining your own cultural identity) and acculturation (changing one's culture in order to fit in). The result of this tension is known as acculturative stress. It can be referred to as "culture shock." Example: Leuck and Wilson (2010)

Ando et al (2009)

Ando et al (2009) (Culture and therapy - Indigenous) Aim: Wanted to determine the effect of mindfulness based meditation therapy on anxiety and depression in Japanese patients undergoing anti-cancer treatment Sample: 28 patients Procedure The 28 patients participated in two sessions of meditation therapy They were instructed to practice at home between session The study used a pre-test / post-test design Patients completed questionnaires before and after the treatment Results Showed that anxiety and depression levels decreased significantly The researchers argue that a sense of spiritual well being is what resulted in lower levels of both anxiety and depression

Hormones

Another class of chemicals that affect behavior which is similar to neurotransmitters (they are also chemical messengers). They carry chemical signals from one cell to another. They differ from neurotransmitters because they travel through the bloodstream which is secreted by glands in the endocrine system. Hormones are produced by the pituitary gland. This gland receives signals from the hypothalamus which then is secreted by the pituitary gland. Hormones take longer for the changes to be apparent. Hormones can only produce a reaction in certain cells (target cells) that have a selective receptor site for the hormone. When the hormone binds to the target cell, it either increases or decreases its function. There are at least 50 different types of hormones. Some hormones act like neurotransmitters by targeting receptor sites on the neuron's synaptic gap, even though the chemical is not stored in the terminal buttons, but is secreted by an endocrine gland. Examples: Wagner and Beuving (1979), Cahill and McGaugh (1995)

Bandura et al (1961)

Bandura et al (1961) (Methodology in sociocultural approach - Social cognitive theory) Aim: First, the researchers wanted to see if children would imitate aggression modelled by an adult; and second, they wanted to know if children were more likely to imitate same-sex models. Procedure: Children aged 3 to 6 years (36 boys and 36 girls) were divided into groups. The groups were matched with regard to aggression based on an evaluation by their parents and teachers. One group was exposed to adult models who showed aggression by either bashing an inflatable "Bobo" doll or using verbal aggression toward the Bobo; a second group observed a non-aggressive adult who assembled toys for 10 minutes, and a third group served as a control and did not see any model. In the first and second groups, some children watched same-sex models and some watched opposite-sex models. After watching the models, the children were placed in a room with toys. Very soon, they were taken out of the room, being told that those toys were for other children, and then they were put into the room with the Bobo doll. This was done so that all of the children experienced some level of frustration that may lead to them showing aggression. The children were observed behind a one-way mirror and their behaviours were recorded. Bandura's group found that the children who had observed the aggressive models were significantly more aggressive—both physically and verbally. The children showed clear signs of observational learning. With regard to the second aim, Bandura observed that girls were more likely to imitate verbal aggression, whereas boys were more likely to imitate physical aggression. When boys observed women bashing the Bobo doll, they often made comments like "Ladies shouldn't do that!" In other words, the children were more likely to imitate the same-sex adult. Results Children in the aggressive condition showed significantly more imitation of physical and verbal aggressive behaviour and non-aggressive verbal responses than children in the non-aggressive or control conditions. Children in the aggressive condition showed more partial imitation and non-imitative physical and verbal aggression than those in the nonaggressive or control conditions. Results here were however not always significant. Children in the non-aggressive condition showed very little aggression, although results were not always significantly less than the control group. Children who saw the same sex model imitated the model's behaviour significantly more in the following categories: Boys imitated male models more than girls for physical and verbal aggression, non-imitative aggression and gun play. Girls imitated female models more than boys for verbal imitative aggression and non-imitative aggression. However results were not significant. The behaviour of the male model exerted greater influence than the female model. Overall, the boys in Bandura et al. (1961) produced more imitative physical aggression than girls. Conclusion Children will imitate aggressive/non-aggressive behaviours displayed by adult models, even if the model is not present. Children can learn behaviour through observation and imitation. Behaviour modelled by male adults has a greater influence on children's behaviour than behaviour modelled by a female adult. Both boys and girls are more likely to learn highly masculine-typed behaviour such as physical aggression from a male adult rather than a female. Boys and girls are likely to learn verbal aggression from a same-sex adult. Critical Thinking The children were placed in a situation wherein they had witness aggressive behaviour. This manipulation lead some of the children to become aggressive, which could have led the children to have more aggressive dispositions across their lives, thus the children had not been adequately protected from harm.

Bartlett et al (1932)

Bartlett - War of the Ghosts (1932) (Schema theory - Reconstructive memory) Aim: Bartlett used an experiment to study the role of schema in recalling a story from an unfamiliar culture. Aimed to see how memory of a story is affected by previous knowledge Wanted to see if cultural background and unfamiliarity with a text could lead to distortion of memory when the story was recalled Hypothesis: memory is reconstructive and that people store and retrieve information according to expectations formed by cultural schemas Procedure: Told people a Native American legend called The War of the Ghosts. Participants were British, so names and places were unfamiliar One group were told to use: - Serial reproduction where participant A reads a story and then reproduces it to participant B who then reproduces it to participant C, and so on, until six or seven productions have been created The other group were told to use: - Repeated reproduction where a participant learns material and then recalls ir repeatedly over various testing occasions. It is the same person who recalls the story each time. Results Stories became shorter (180 words) More conventional E.g. hunting seals = fishing Details became to fit British culture Added detail/or emotions Changed details to match their own culture Conclusion The participants linked what they know from their own culture/past experiences to this "foreign" story Altering it to make sense to them Reconstructing their memory Changing their memory to fit their past experiences Cultural experiences can influence our schemas Critical thinking All participants were male and all from Britain Can be hard to generalize for different cultures and gender - there may be differences in memory processing between cultures and gender He did not standardize the intervals at which the participants reproduced the material they learned - Can alter one's memory as some may remember things better because of shorter intervals No significant independent variable was manipulated with other factors held constant to observe its systematic effect on some dependent variable Others have tried to replicate the findings but have not been successful - Shows that this study have low reliability

Biases in thinking and decision-making

Biases in thinking and decision-making Humans are not always rational thinkers. Instead, they rely on intuitive thinking and make mental shortcuts, resulting in a number of well-researched biases. The tendency to focus on a limited amount of available information, to seek out information that confirms pre-existing beliefs as well as the tendency to avoid the mental stress of maintaining inconsistent cognitions seem to be common sources of biases in thinking and decision-making. One bias is the framing effect, in which people react to choices depending on how they are presented or "framed". People prefer certain outcomes when information is framed in positive language, but refer less certain outcomes when the same information is framed in negative language. Example: Tversky and Kahneman (1986)

Biomedical treatments

Biomedical treatments are based on the assumption that if the problem is based on a biological malfunction, drugs should be used to restore the biological system. These antidepressants may reduce depressive symptoms but they have side effects and do not "cure" patients. Some antidepressants include SSRI - Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. SSRIs block the reuptake of serotonin by the terminal buttons, leaving more in the synapse. Examples: Kirsch et al (2002), Leuchter et al (2008)

Bouchard - Minnesota Twin study (1979)

Bouchard - Minnesota Twin study (1990) (Genetic similarities - Ethics) Aim To determine how much intelligence is attributed to genetics and the environment Procedure Longitudinal study - the most cross-cultural study to date In this study, MZA (identical twins raised apart) are compared to MZTs (identical twins raised together) - DZA vs DZT Another advantage of this is that the mean age of the MZAs was 41 years old (at the start of the study) Each twin completed about 50 hours of testing and interviews. Results Concordance rates for IQ were 86% for MZ raised TOGETHER. Concordance rates were 76% for MZ twins reared APART. DZ twins raised TOGETHER had 55%, and DZ twins raised APART HAD 47%. This is based on the assumption that any similarity between their IQs must be due to genetics rather than the environment. Conclusion Researchers were able to determine that 70% of the heritability estimate comes from genetic inheritance. - 30% may be attributed to other factors. Siblings are usually raised in the same environment, so the influence may not be truly genetic, making it difficult to differentiate the influence of genetics and environment. The researchers were able to conclude that the higher the genetic similarity, the higher the concordance rate in intelligence Criticisms There are some ethical concerns about the way he reunited the twins Bouchard relied on media coverage to recruit participants There was no adequate control to establish the frequency of contact between the twins prior to the study We cannot assume that twins who are raised together experience the same environment

Cahill and McGaugh (1995)

Cahill and McGaugh (1995) (Hormones) Aim: To investigate the role of adrenaline and the amygdala on emotional memory Procedure: Participants were divided into two groups Each group saw 12 slides that were accompanied by a very different story In the first condition, the participant heard a boring story: - Woman and her son paid a visit to the son's father in a hospital where they experienced the staff in a disaster preparation drill of a simulated accident victim In the second condition, the participant heard a story: - The boy was involved in a car accident where his feet were severed. He was brought to the hospital where his limbs were reattached Two weeks later, the participating were tested on their memory for specific details of the story The test was a recall task that comprised of a series of questions about the slides with three options for them to choose from E.g. "what was the job of the father in the story?" - A janitor - A lab technician - A surgeon Researchers then conducted a follow-up study: The previous procedure was repeated, but the participants of the "traumatic story" condition were injected with a beta-blocker called propranolol This interfered with the release of adrenaline This study was used to prevent activation of the amygdala which resulted in the inability of the formation of an emotional memory Results: In the original version, researchers discovered that the participants who heard the more emotional story presented better memory of specific details of the story. They also remembered more details from the slides In the follow up study, they discovered that those who had received the beta-blocker performed the same as the group that heard the "boring" story Conclusion : Adrenaline and activation of the amygdala play a significant role in the creation of memories connected to emotional arousal

Multi-store model of memory (MSM)

Cognitive psychologists have suggested ways to conceptualize the architecture and processes of the memory system by creating models of memory. A model of memory is a hypothesized representation of memory. In order to understand the possible structure and function of memory, researchers within the cognitive approach have suggested models of memory that can be tested to determine their validity. Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) suggested a basic structure of memory with the MSM It is inspired by computer science It argues that: - Memory consists of a number of separate locations in which information is stored - These memory processes are sequential - Each memory store operates in a single, uniform way In this model, short-term memory (STM) acts as a way for information to gain access to long-term memory Example: Glanzer and Cunitz (1966)

Cognitive psychology

Cognitive psychology is the study of the structure and functions of the human mind. Cognitive psychologists are involved in researching how the human mind comes to know things about the world and how it uses this knowledge. According to these psychologists, the mind can be conceptualized as a set of mental processes that are carried out by the brain. These processes include perception, attention, thinking, problem solving, and more. Main Ideas Humans are information processors and cognitive processes guide our behavior - How we process or organize information determines how we behave Cognitive processes can be studied scientifically - We can carry out experimental research that enables us to scientifically study cognitive processes - However, we can't "see" thoughts. We can't really prove that there is a thought process behind behavior These cognitive processes are influenced by social and cultural factors - Our social and cultural upbringing help us make sense of the world

Cultural dimensions

Cultural Dimensions Culture is a dynamic system of rules that is shared by a group and transmitted across generations. Dimensions of culture are how the values of society affect behavior. A dimension describes the trends of behavior in a given culture. Hofstede's research has derived many cultural dimensions, including individualism vs collectivism. Example: Kulkofsky (2011)

Culture and cognition

Culture and Cognition Culture has many effects on our behavior, attitudes, and cognitive processes. Culture plays a role in the creation of our schema, and these in, in turn, affect what and how we remember. Culture plays a big role in the cognitive process of memory. Example: Kulkovsky (2011)

HM study

HM Study (Research method - Scanning techniques - Localization of function - Ethics) When he was 7, HM had a serious head injury when he fell off his bike. At the age of 10, the epileptic attacks began. When he turned 27, he became so consumed by seizures he could not have a normal life as his medication was no help to him. To alleviate his pain, a neurosurgeon, William Scoville, performed surgery and removed tissue from the medial temporal lobe (including the hippocampus) on both sides of his brain. After the operation, HM recalled his childhood with great memory with no apparent change in his personality. However, he suffered from anterograde amnesia (the disability of transferring information from short-term to long-term memory). Milner's research: Milner used several different strategies (method triangulation) Psychometric testing: - HM was tested on his IQ - Before the operation, his results being above average with 104 - After the operation, his results came back with 112 due to the decrease in seizures Directly observing his behavior Interviews with both HM and family members Cognitive testing: - Memory recall tests and learning tasks were exuded (e.g. reverse mirror drawing) Corkin (1997) used an MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) to scan the damage in HM's brain Findings HM was not able to acquire new episodic knowledge (memory for events) HM was not able to acquire new semantic knowledge (general knowledge about the world) - This suggests that the parts of the brain that were removed were vital in formulating long-term explicit memory He was able to remember his house and could sketch an image of the floor plan of his new home - This suggests that he was able to form a cognitive map of the spatial layout of his house HM had a capacity for working memory, as he was able to carry out normal conversations - This requires a small amount of retention of what has just been said and heard - When asked to recall number 584, he was able to do so 15 minutes later HM was able to retain procedural memories (memories in the form of motor skills - e.g. mowing a lawn) MRI findings (SCANNING TECHNIQUES): - The MRI scan was performed in 1992 and 2003 where Corkin assessed the severity of the damage - It was possible to observe that parts of HM's temporal lobe and hippocampus suffered the most (LOCALIZATION OF FUNCTION) - However, the damage was less severe as originally estimated by Scoville - The damage to the hippocampus tells us that this is the reason of the problems HM encountered in transferring short-term memory to long-term memory. This is also the area where the neurotransmitter acetylcholine is believed to have a role in learning and forming of explicit memories Conclusion Researchers were able to conclude that the hippocampus plays a vital role in the formation and retainment of short-term memory However, researchers were also able to say that short-term memory is not stored in the hippocampus as HM was able to acquire information for a while if he rehearsed it Because HM was able to recall some memories for events that happened before his surgery, this suggests that the medial temporal region is not the area of permanent storage but rather plays a role in organizing permanent storage of memories somewhere else in the brain Implicit memory contains several stores (e.g. procedural and emotional memory, skills, and habits). Each of which is related to different areas of the brain Critical thinking Scanning and brain imaging is a useful method in psychology. Psychologists are able to acquire information on brain activity and structure. Through this, they can link brain activity to behavior, or link certain parts of the brain to behavior. There are no outside variables affecting what is being seen in the scan itself. Scans are reliable and accurate. With this experiment, Corkin was able to link the absence hippocampus inability to link new memories. He was able to see a direct cause and effect relationship. However, there are some disadvantages to this method. People with claustrophobia may find these "contraptions" quite intimidating and frightening. Going through an fMRI or MRI involves going into a tight space. With PET scans, the use of radioactive substances that are injected into the patient may come to be harmful in the long-run. Also, scans use the reductionist approach, which explores how the nature of things is influenced by reducing them to the interaction of basic and fundamental parts. Scans look at specific parts of the brain and the impact it has on behavior. Scans only focus on fundamental and basic parts. The reductionist approach can be seen in HM's study as well. Researchers look at only HM's brain, without taking into consideration the environmental impact. While the effects that occurred after the removal of his hippocampus, researchers solely identified the reason being because of the removal of this part of the brain.

Culture and treatment

Culture can play an important role in the manifestation of symptoms. Cultural beliefs in a society influence the therapy process because they form a part of the therapist's and the patient's definitions and understands of the problem trying to be solved. If a counselor takes an etic approach, then he/she believes that disorders such as depression and the behaviours that occur alongside occur the same way in every society (UNIVERSAL). If a counselor takes an emic approach then diagnosis/treatment will be heavily influenced by their own culture. Example: Ando et al (2009), Marian and Neisser (2000) Indigenous psychotherapy This kind of therapy is embedded within a culture and does not include anyone from outside. They are carried out by someone who is qualified to be a therapist in the COMMUNITY. The types of therapy are heavily influenced by the beliefs and practices in that culture. Cross-cultural psychotherapy This is when a therapist from a different culture treats a patient. The therapist uses therapeutic methods that have been shown to be effective to meet the cultural needs of the patient.

Elkin et al (1989)

Elkin et al. (1989) (Effectiveness of treatment) Aim To investigate whether there was any significant difference in the effectiveness of the three approaches to therapy (Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy, Interpersonal Therapy, Drug Therapy) Sample 250 patients from 3 different treatment centres in Washington Diagnosed with Major Depressive Disorder Suicidal patients were excluded 28 therapists in different conditions Method/Procedure Randomly assigned to 1/4 treatment conditions for 4 months - IPT - CBT - Drug + clinical management - Placebo + clinical management Triangulated measurements - Soliciting information from patient, therapist and objective observer - Self-reported data from the client would result in demand characteristics - Treatment ran for 16 weeks and the patients were assessed at the start, after six weeks, and after 1 8 months Results: No significant differences in the reduction of depression or improvement of functioning between CBT and IPT or between either of them and the drug treatment All 3 treatments achieved significant success, all superior to the placebo group The placebo group did show significant improvement Drugs were faster than the other two treatments in symptom reduction - But by the end of 16-week therapy, other treatments have caught up IPT was more effective than CT with severely depressed patients After 18-month follow=up, only 20-30% of participants remained completely symptom-free regardless of treatment received Qualitative IPT and CBT reported greater effects of treatment on their capacity to maintain relationships and recognize sources of depression Generalisability DSM 3 old criteria = old criteria Reliability 28 therapists (2-27 years of experience) - extraneous variable Applications Treatment for Major Depressive Disorder Validity Co-morbidity (more than 1 condition) excluded Placebo or management is why that group improved Impossible to know if there was another variable that was responsible for the improvement Spontaneous remission - Client's relationship with therapist plays an important role in the success of the treatment

Emotion on cognitive processes

Emotion on cognitive processes Research has revealed that emotion and cognitive are constantly interacting. Emotions are believed to perform an adaptive function in the way that they shape the experience of events and guide the individual in how to react to events, objects, and situation with reference to personal relevance and well-being. Memories of emotional events sometimes have a persistence and vividness that other memories seem to lack but there is evidence that even highly emotional memories may fade over time. One of these cognitive processes includes memory. Research shows that emotions play a key role in how memory is formed. The theory of Flashbulb memory was first proposed by Brown and Kulik (1977). They defined flashbulb memory as a highly detailed, very vivid "snapshot" of the moment when a surprising and emotionally arousing event happened. They argued for the special-mechanism hypothesis, which argues for the existence of a special biological memory mechanism that, when triggered by an event exceeding critical levels of surprise, creates a permanent record of the details and circumstances surrounding the experience. Flashbulb memories have different characteristics than "ordinary" memories. Supported by neuroscience, emotional events are better remembered than less emotional events because of the role of the amygdala. Today, the most commonly accepted model of flashbulb memory is called the importance-driven model. It emphasizes that personal consequences determine intensity of emotional reactions. Example: Brown and Kulik (1977)

Genes and behavior

Epigenetics is a field of psychology that looks into what the link between genetics and the environment have on behavior. It looks into the expression of genes through outside environmental factors. Epigenetics may explain how while MZ twins are 100% genetically similar, the concordance rates between them regarding behavior is rarely near 100%. To assume that these MZ twins were raised in the exact same way in the exact same environment would be inaccurate. Environmental factors may express a gene in one twin, but not the other. The concordance rate is rarely near 100% as the twins are not raised as one person. They experience their environment differently, therefore, their concordance rate will never be exactly 100%. Epigenetics takes into consideration the environmental factors, as well as the genetic factors. Examples: Wedekind (1995), Raison and Miller (2012)

Evolutionary explanations for behavior

Evolutionary explanations for behavior Evolutionary psychology is based on the theory that as genes mutate, those that have advantageous characteristics are passed down through a process of natural selection. Darwin's theory of natural selection: The environment presents challenges to the individual. Those who adapt best to the environment will have an increased chance of surviving, having children, and passing down their genes. Species must acquire adaptive characteristics to survive in an ever-changing environment. Through several generations, the result of natural selection is that the species develops characteristics that make it more competitive in its environment. This is called adaptation. Examples: Wedekind (1995), Raison and Miller (2012)

Evaluation of evolutionary arguments

Evolutionary theories are based on the assumption that behaviours are inherited. As we know from our study of genetics, it is difficult to know the extent to which certain behaviours are, in fact, genetically inherited. Since it may be difficult to test empirically some evolution-based theories, researchers may be susceptible to confirmation bias—that is, they see what they expect to see. Much of the research to test evolutionary theories is highly artificial and lacking ecological validity Research often involves animals as participants.It is debatable to what extent we can generalize from animals to human beings. Little is known about the behaviour of early, so statements about how humans "used to be" are hypothetical. Evolutionary arguments often underestimate the role of cultural influences in shaping behaviour.

Genetic similarities

Genetic research in humans in based on correlational studies. The researchers establish relationships between variables, but the researcher does not manipulate the independent variable like an experiment. Therefore, no cause and effect relationship can be deduced. Correlational genetic studies are all done in a similar manner, by studying twins, families, or families that have adopted. With these studies, researchers compare concordance rates through the means of percentage. It expected that the higher the genetic similarity, the higher the concordance rate between the people. Twin Studies: Researchers may observe twins as they share the exact same genes. However, there are monozygotic twins (MZ) and dizygotic twins (DZ). MZ twins are genetically identical as they both came from the same egg that had split in two. They are of the same sex and physically identical. Dizygotic twins are derived from two eggs and are more genetically similar to brothers and sisters (50% of shared genes) Family Studies: These studies are more representative of the general population. If a behavior is suspected of being genetic within a family, researchers use prospective studies. Through these studies, researchers may observe for outcomes, such as a development of a disorder. For example, individuals who are seen as "genetically vulnerable" for schizophrenia can be observed over many years to see if they actually develop the behavior . Adoption Studies: Adopted children share none of their genes with their adoptive parents, but they do share 50% of their genes with their biological parents. If the heritability of a behavior is high and the environment factors low, then the behavior of the adopted children should correlate more strongly with the behavior of their biological parents than their adoptive parents. Examples: Bouchard - Minnesota Twin study, Scarr and Weinburg

Glanzer and Cunitz (1966)

Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) (Multi-store model of memory) Aim: To prove that there are two processes involved in retrieving information Procedure: Showed lists of 15 words one at a time and had subjects recall the words under one of three conditions: - Recall with NO delay - Recall with a 10-second delay -Recall with a 30-second delay Results: With no delay, the first 5 and last 3 words were recalled best With the 10 or 30 second delay (during which the subject counted backwards), there was little effect on the words at the beginning but poor recall on later items This suggests that later words were held in short-term storage and were lost due to interference The earlier words must have been passed to long-term storage The ability to recall words at the beginning that had already been transferred to long-term memory is called : primacy effect The ability to recall words that have just been spoken because they are still in short-term memory is called : recency effect

Hamilton and Gifford (1976)

Hamilton and Gifford (1976) (Formation of stereotypes: Illusory correlation) Aim: Wanted to see the role of illusory correlation in the formation of stereotypes Procedure: Participants listened to a series of statements made about people from two groups (A and B) Twice as many people in group A (26) as group B (13) - group B = minority Each statement was about one individual in one of the two groups - the statement was either positive or negative Each group had the same number of positive and negative comments Participants were then asked how many of the people in each group had positive vs. negative traits Results: They overestimated the number of negative traits in the minority group Conclusion: Psychologists argued that this was because the minority group was by nature smaller in number, their negative behaviors appeared more distinct and appear to be more representative of the group One minority male is caught stealing and it reflects the fact that he is a minority Demonstrates why negative stereotypes may be more common for minority groups than for the majority

John Money (1972)

John Money (1972) (Research method - Ethics) Bruce and Brain were identical twin boys who, at 7 months, were taken for circumcision Bruce was treated first - however, there was an accident and his entire penis was burnt off His parents contacted Dr. Money and asked for advice - he believed that all children were 'gender neutral' until the age of 2 years old Because Bruce was less than a year old, it was decided that they would raise him as a girl named Brenda Aim: Money wanted to see whehter children are born gender neutral and explain that gender is a result of upbringing. He wanted to support his theory of gender neutrality Procedure: Brenda was dressed in female clothing, encouraged to play with "girls" toys and was always told she was a girl At the age of 12, she was given estrogen to encourage female puberty and prevent male features Money tracked Brenda's development over her childhood by organizing annual visits for her and Brian at the University Here, he would ask them questions about their preferences and behavior Findings: Money reported that Brenda had adapted to the role of female and stated that this was consistent with his theory He noted that Brenda enjoyed wearing dresses and desired to become a doctor when she grew up He compared this to her brother who wanted to be a fireman Money believed that comparisons about boys and girls showed that Brenda knew her gender was female Conclusion: Dr Money concluded that it is possible to raise a boy as a girl Case update Despite Money's notes, everybody knew that Brenda was a tomboy who liked to play with her brother's toys and enjoyed aggressive play Teachers reported saying that she was generally more masculine than feminine Later, she was told of her past and from then on, she became David Evaluation Generalizability: The case study only followed one child and the results may not be applicable to all other children Reliability: The case study collected in depth information, however, the behavior of the twins was misreported by Money as he always claimed that the study was successful in the reassignment of Bruce's gender The conclusions from the original study are false and did not represent true findings (researcher bias) Money may have also encouraged the parents to change Bruce's sex in order for his own gain in supporting his theory Application The study strongly suggests that gender reassignment surgery may not always be successful so careful consideration should be taken over what gender to raise an intersex child Validity Real-life case so it has high ecological validity because the boy's life and the events that happened to him were all real and not manipulated in any way This means that the conclusions drawn about the importance of biology on gender identity are based on a real experience and not the result of an experimental conclusion Ethics Numerous ethical issues surround this case study The study is a factor in the mental break down of Bruce Reimer, and the later suicide of David, suggesting that the twins were NOT protected from mental harm

Kasamatsu and Hirai (1999)

Kasamatsu and Hirai (1999) (Neurotransmission) Aim: Researchers wanted to see the effect of serotonin had on human behavior through sensory deprivation (IV) Serotonin - a neurotransmitter that regulates mood, sexual appetite, nausea, and more Method: Blood drawn before Group of Buddhist monks - 72 hour journey to a holy mountain in Japan On the mountain, monks did not eat, drink, speak, and nor were they protected from harsh weather After 48 hours - hallucinations of ancestor's presence Blood drawn after Results: Increased levels of serotonin in brains (DV) Sensory deprivation = increase serotonin Activated parts of the brain that caused hallucinations Conclusion: Through this experiment, researchers were able to conclude that serotonin had a role in behavior Because of the higher levels of serotonin, the Monks began to hallucinate and "feel" the presence of their ancestors Researchers were able to make that link between change in behavior and increased levels of the neurotransmitter: serotonin Critical Thinking Looking at Kasamatsu and Hirai, this study focused on monks as their subjects. The way monks behave and the way "normal" people behave are also different. Monks go through specific training that help cultivate attentional skills, while regular people do not. It would be inaccurate to say that the way "regular" people and monks behave are exactly the same. While this study provided supported evidence, the study was solely focused on monks and their reactions, so it would be hard to generalize "regular" people into the results found. While focusing on this study, it is also important to note the causality of the results founded. As stated before, the increase of serotonin resulted in the monks hallucinating. But it can also be argued that the hallucinations caused the increase of serotonin. It can go both ways, which is why establishing causality can be misleading. The final result can be left up to interpretation, making it easy for others to manipulate and define a certain answer as correct. Researchers conduct these studies to look at what aspects of the brain link to psychology. While it provides substantial supported evidence, it can also be viewed as very reductionist. Reductionism is the breakdown of complex concepts into smaller and more simpler fragments. While neurotransmitters definitely show a link to behavior, it would be wrong to label them as the main drives of behavior. To take into account the social and environmental impacts of behavior would be more accurate, as these concepts also affect human behavior. To base human behavior solely off the biological aspect would inaccurate.

Kirsch et al (2008)

Kirsch et al (2008) (Biological treatments) Procedure: This was a meta-analysis of clinical trials of the six most used antidepressants (including Prozac) The study analyzed all clinical trials of antidepressants submitted to the FDA (US Food and Drug Administration) Results: The results of all the studies were pooled together and it was found that the placebo effect accounted for 80% of the antidepressant response 57% of pharmaceutical companies failed to show a statistically significant difference between antidepressant and a neutral placebo This means that a placebo could be just as effective There was virtually no difference in the effects of placebos and SSRIs on moderate depression But significant differences were observed between the effects of placebos and SSRIs on severe depression Conclusion: Concluded that SSRIs are effective on severe depression

Kulkovsky et al (2011)

Kulkofsky et al (2011) (Emotion and cognition - Culture and cognition - Cultural dimensions) Studied five countries (China, Germany, Turkey, the UK and the USA) Aim: To see if there was any difference in the rate of flashbulb memories in collectivistic and individualistic cultures Procedure There were 274 adults from the five different countries (sample) Participants were given five minutes to recall as many memories as they could of public events in their lifetime They were given a memory question which was similar to the one used by Brown & Kulik (1977) These questions included where they had learned of the vent: - What time of the day it was - What they were doing They were then asked questions about the importance of the event - How personally important it was - How surprised they were - How often they had spoken about it since it happened All questionnaires were provided in the native language of the participants Results Researchers found that in a collectivistic culture like China, personal importance and intensity of emotion played less of a role in predicting flashbulb memory, compared with more individualistic cultures that place greater emphasis on an individual's personal involvement and emotional experiences Because focusing on the individual's own experiences is often de-emphasized in the Chinese context, there would be less rehearsal of the triggering event compared with participants from other cultures = lower chance of developing FBM Conclusion Those in collectivistic cultures remembered events that involved "we", showing evidence of their culture and that culture does indeed have an impact on our memory Opens up the debate on the importance of culture in psychology - there is evidence for biological bases in flashbulb memories but culture seems just as important in determining what makes a flashbulb memory

Localization of function

Localization of function is being able to link specific areas of the brain to specific behaviors. Through scanning and observing, researchers are able to give reasons why a person is behaving a certain way due to a malfunction in some part of the brain, for example. This allows researchers to construct a more accurate understanding of how the brain works. Examples: Maguire (2001), Raine (1997)

Leuck and Wilson (2012)

Lueck and Wilson (2012) (Acculturation) Aim: To investigate the variables that may predict acculturative stress in Asian immigrants and Asian Americans Procedure: Consisted of 2095 Asian Americans Researchers carried out semi-structured interviews Interviewers had cultural and linguistic backgrounds similar to those of the participants Interviews conducted either over the Internet of face-to-face Interviews measured the level of acculturative stress and the impact of language proficiency, language preference, discrimination, social networks, family cohesion and the socioeconomic status Results A bilingual language preference contributed to lower acculturative stress - Asians who are able to both languages equally were able to build up networks of support within and outside their community - Stress may arise when Asian american do not know the native language well enough to discuss sensitive issues with family members at home or in the native country who may have limited or no abilities in English Although bilingualism is a predictor of LOW acculturative stress, the preference for English only is a predictor of HIGH acculturative stress Negative treatment - including prejudice, xenophobia, harassment and threats = higher acculturative stress Sharing similar values and beliefs as a family contributes to lower acculturative stress Acculturative stress was significantly lower among those who were satisfied with their economic opportunities in the US and also among immigrants who, if they would have to make the decision again, would still move to the US

Maguire et al (2001)

Maguire (2001) (Research method - Scanning techniques - Localization of function - Neuroplasticity) Aim: Maguire believed that the hippocampus, a small organ in the brain mainly responsible for memory, stimulated spatial memory and tested this theory on taxi drivers in London. Method: Maguire acquired 16 right-handed male drivers who have been driving for more than 1.5 years (IV) and compared them to 50 normal right-handed males through MRI scanning. The mean age remained the same in both groups Findings: The results showed an increased amount of grey matter in taxi drivers compared to non-taxi drivers. The increased volume was discovered in the rear end (posterior) of the hippocampus. They also found that there was a correlation between the volume of the posterior hippocampus and the number of years the taxi drivers have been driving. This concluded that taxi drivers did indeed have more spatial memory (DV), as seen through the increased grey matter in the posterior hippocampus. Through the method of scanning, psychologists were able to see the correlation between behavior and the brain. In this study, Maguire used the MRI to help see the brains of the subjects, which proves that the use of scanning is useful to psychological experiments. Critical Thinking: It is a quasi-experiment (an experiment where the participants are not randomly assigned to experimental groups), so no cause and effect relationship can be made certain. The researchers did not manipulate the independent variable as it naturally occurred (makes it a natural experiment) Some may argue that those with a larger hippocampus may be more spatially talented and because of this, chose to become taxi drivers. It does not accurately explain the correlation between the size of the hippocampus and the number of years driving In reality, the majority of London taxi drivers are male. This still makes it hard to generalize its findings. Due to the use of MRI, there was no physical harm done to the subjects making it safe and ethical.

Marian and Neisser (2000)

Marian and Neisser (2000) (Culture and therapy) Aim: Wanted to study the role of native language in cue-dependent memory. They wanted to find out to what extent are our memories easier to access when we attempt to access them in the language in which they happened Sample: 20 students who had immigrated to the US in their early teens (bilingual in Russian and English) Procedure: Quasi-experiment Each participant was asked to recall autobiographical information which had happened either before they immigrated to the US (still in Russia) or after they immigrated to the US They were given a series of prompts to react to: - Set 1: summer, neighbors, birthday, cat, doctor, getting lost, frightened, bride - Set 2: snow, friends, holiday, dog, blood, contest, laughing, newborn These two sets were asked in different languages The study was counter-balanced so half were asked a set of words in English first and then the other in Russian and then vice versa (control for order effects) In addition, for some of the words they were asked for memories from childhood and for the other half they were asked stories from their teenage years and early adulthood They were then asked to tell the first story that came to mind (could speak either language) Results Supports the hypothesis of language-dependent recall: Participants retrieved more experiences from the Russian-speaking period of their lives when interviewed in Russian and more experiences from the English-speaking period of their lives when interviewed in English Conclusion This has IMPLICATIONS for therapy It may be easier for patients to recall events from their past in their native language than in their new language, regardless of their level of language proficiency

Martinez and Kesner (1986)

Martinez and Kesner (1986) (Neurotransmission) Aim: Researchers conducted this study to see the role acetylcholine had on memory Method: Trained rats to run through a maze To test the role of this neurotransmitter, researchers manipulated the levels of acetylcholine (IV) There were 3 groups: - Controlled group - A group that was injected with scopolamine (inhibitor) - A group that was injected with physostigmine (enhancer) Results: Lower levels of acetylcholine resulted in slower time (DV) Higher levels of acetylcholine resulted in a faster time Controlled group remained the same Conclusion: Researchers were able to conclude that acetylcholine does have a role in memory This can be seen as the group with lower levels of this neurotransmitter were not able to remember parts of the maze as well as those with normal or enhanced levels of acetylcholine By inhibiting this neurotransmitter, rats did not perform as well because the ability to create new memories was hindered Critical Thinking Looking at Martinez and Kesner, this study used rats as their subjects. The data and results came back from the behavior of rats. While the biology of humans and rats are similar, it is not accurate to say that the way humans and rats behave is exactly the same. It would be hard to generalize, as humans and rats are not the same. While Martinez and Kesner provided supported evidence, it can really be only applied to rats as the experiment was conducted on rats. While it provides substantial supporting evidence, it can also be viewed as very reductionist. Reductionism is the breakdown of complex concepts into smaller and more simpler fragments. While neurotransmitters definitely show a link to behavior, it would be wrong to label them as the main drives of behavior. To take into account the social and environmental impacts of behavior would be more accurate, as these concepts also affect human behavior. To base human behavior solely off the biological aspect would inaccurate.

Memory

Memory The concept of memory refers to the process by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved. Declarative memory: "knowing what" This is the memory of facts and events - refers to those memories that can be easily recalled. There are two subsets of declarative memory: - Episodic memory contains the memory of specific events that have occured at a certain time and a certain place - Semantic memory contains the general knowledge of facts and people - Not linked to time and place Procedural Memory: "knowing how" The unconscious memory of skills and how to do things

Methodology in sociocultural approach

Methodology in sociocultural approach In sociocultural research, the goal is to see how people interact and influence each other. Many research methods, both quantitative and qualitative, are implemented to study this behavior. Quantitative methods, such as experiments and surveys, are used extensively. Qualitative methods, such as focus groups, participant observations and semi-structured interviews, are also used. In case studies, method triangulation is used, where both quantitative and qualitative data is gathered. Example: Bandura et al (1961)

Neurotransmission

Neurons are specialized nerve cells that communicate with other neurons through receiving, processing, and transmitting information. A neuron is made up of 3 main areas: the soma (the neuron's life support), dendrites (branch-like receivers of information), and the axon (the body of the neuron which transmits electrical impulses to other neurons). Information is received through the dendrites which continues to the soma. The information is then processed and then is passed along the axon. The information is released to other neurons at the ends of the axon through terminal buttons. This information is carried by neurotransmitters, the messenger of neurologic information from one cell to another. This chemical exchange of information occurs so that people can respond appropriately to stimuli either from the environment, or any internal changes in the body. The neurotransmitters are then received by receptor sites on the dendrites. Through the transmission of neurotransmitters, psychologists can link the neurotransmitters to the way we behave, feel, learn, and more. Examples: Martinez and Kessler (1991), Kasamatsu and Hirai (1999)

Odden and Rochat (2004)

Odden & Rochat (2004) (Enculturation) Aim: Studied the role of Social Cognitive Learning Theory (observational learning) on the development of cultural norms in Samoa They looked at behavior of line fishing and conceptual understanding of rank and hierarchy Sample: The researchers carried out a longitudinal study of 25 months of 28 children in a single Samoan village Samoan culture is very hierarchical (high power distance index) This includes the rank of parent and a child Social norms limit the amount of time spent between adults and children Parents have a largely non-interventionist approach to their children and their learning Samoan children are largely left to learn things on their own without adults attempting to motivate or organize their learning As fishing lines, spears and nets are limited, children do not participate in fishing with adults Procedure: Through both interviews and observations, the researchers noted that young males spend a lot of time watching the adult males fish, but there is no direct instruction Children of around 10 years old would borrow the adult's fishing equipment and experiment on their own without any supervision By age 12, these children could fish on their own It appears that this is also how they learn the social rules regarding how to behave with people of higher rank - and how the chief system works on the island There is no direct instruction about the system until high school, but children observe parents and overhear their conversations about the system The research gave a multiple-choice test of basic knowledge about the chief system to 46 twelve-year olds Results: Found that the majority of the children had a broad understanding of the concepts and the rituals of their society It appears that the cultural norms are not taught directly, but rather learned through the active observation by the children of the adults in the community Conclusion: In some cultures, cultural norms and behavior happen with observation Process of enculturation is culturally determined

Abnormal - Treatment of disorders

Psychiatrists who specialize in the field of mental disorders need to be able to diagnose and treat mental disorders. They must be able to tell the difference between general sadness and clinical depression. Diagnosis identifies a disorder and establishes the appropriate treatment. Treatments for these psychological disorders are mainly linked to theories about the aetiology of psychological disorders. Symptoms of depression: Affective: Changes in emotions/mood of an individual: distress, sadness, loss of interest Behavioural: Self-destructive behavior and avoidance of social company Cognitive: Feelings of worthlessness, difficulties concentrating, and negative attitudes Somatic: Fatigue, weight loss/gain, loss of appetite, headaches

Psychological treatments

Psychological approaches to treating depression can vary. One of these approaches is psychotherapy. This involves face-to-face interactions with a therapist. Psychotherapy is seen as more personal than drug therapy and can be highly individualized to meet the need of a client. Psychotherapy is generally focused on addressing a person's life situation and subjective understanding of his/her psychological problems. Psychotherapy helps people identify unhealthy thought patterns and behaviour, as well as to suggest strategies to manage stress and symptoms. A therapist may work with an individual alone, but may also include family members in therapy sessions. One widely used psychotherapy is cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT), which is based on cognitive theories of disorders. This is when a therapist helps a client to change negative thought patterns. CBT is a combination of two therapies: Cognitive therapy and behavioural therapy. According to Aaron Beck, one of the pioneers of cognitive therapy, psychological problems are associated with negative thinking patterns and unhealthy behaviours that can be changed through a working relationship between client and therapist. Beck argues that it is not specific events that are at the core of an individual's problem, but rather the way the individual interprets the situation. CBT focuses on current issues and symptoms and involves behavior modification. The first aim of CBT is to identify and correct faulty cognitions and unhealthy behaviors. Therapists do this by: Cognitive reconstructing - The aim is to teach clients to monitor thought processes and then to test them against reality so that they can change their behavior Validity testing - This is when a therapist asks the client to defend his/her beliefs The second aim is to develop effective coping strategies and problem solving skills: Cognitive rehearsal - A client is to imagine a difficult situation and then both the client and the therapist work through the problem. New schemas are formed. Homework - Clients are given homework that encourages self-discovery A growing area of CBT is the role of mindfulness in helping clients not only regulate stress, but to develop a sense of autonomy. This is called mindfulness based cognitive therapy (MBCT). Mindfulness based cognitive therapy This kind of therapy involves practices from Buddhist meditation. These elements of mindfulness involves a person being very in tune with the body and breathing. Mindfulness encourages adopting an attitude of openness and acceptance towards present experiences and thoughts. MBCT also includes methods to alter dysfunctional thoughts that could lead to problematic emotions and behaviors. The aim of this therapy is to help clients let go of negative thinking patterns instead of being obsessed by them. It teaches clients to focus on the present instead of continuously ruminate about the past or future. Example: Segal et al (2010)

Raison and Miller (2012)

Raison and Miller (2012) (Genes and behavior - Evolution) Aim: Argue that genes that increase the risk of depression also increase one's immune response to infections specifically, the genes increase levels of inflammation These genes may have served to protect individuals from disease in their environment Depressive symptoms include - Social withdrawal - Lack of energy - A loss of interest in once enjoyable activities Claim depression may have actually played a key role in protecting our ancestors from infectious disease Procedure: Two genetic variations have been identified as being linked to depression. One is a gene for NPY - a hormone associated with stress A variation of this gene results in lower levels of NPY - which makes it more difficult for the individual to cope with stress When this happens, the immune system is activated and there is more inflammation - effectively it kick starts the immune system People with this variation are likely to pass it onto their offspring Our ancestors would have benefited from this variation as they would be less capable of dealing with stress - In those days stress usually meant physical harm or physical wounds - These usually lead to death Argue that the symptoms of depression also reflect this need to avoid disease/harm or cope with existing harm - Social withdrawal means you devote more energy to healing - Also minimizes exposure to new potential harm To test their theory they gave the drug "infliximab" to depressed patients This drug is an anti-inflammatory drug They found that the drug reduced depressive symptoms in participants who showed elevated levels of inflammation Supports the theory that depression evolved to better resists infections agents Results: They found that the drug reduced depressive symptoms in participants who showed elevated levels of inflammation. The results support the theory that depression evolved to better resist infections agents. Conclusion These patients had the NPY gene mutation, which made them more susceptible to depression but increased the efficiency of their immune system. These patients had elevated levels of inflammation but by reducing these levels, these patients became "less depressive" as more energy could be put into social interactions rather than supplying energy to the immune system. The drug given to the patients were not harmful in any way and were only temporary. Through this study, researchers were able to link the results shown at the present time to back then. By being depressed, our ancestors were more likely to survive as their immune system was more active, along with the fact that they were more likely to stay inside, away from any potential dangers. This trait has been passed down to the current generation, as can be seen with the results of this study.

Robbins (1996)

Robbins - Chess players (1996) (Working memory model) Aim: To study the role of the Central Executive in remembering chess positions by investigating the effect of generating random letter strings Procedure: 20 chess players - given 10 seconds to remember the position of 16 pieces from a chess game When memorizing, participants either: - Used central executive by generating random number sequences while avoiding meaningful combinations (H, G, P) - Carried out articulatory suppression task (said 'the, the, the; in time with a metronome) After 10 seconds, memory was tested as participants were asked to arrange the pieces as they first memorized them Findings: The letter generation = poor memory and performance Articulatory suppression task = good memory and performance Conclusions: The central executive, not the phonological loop, plays a role in remembering chess positions Critical thinking: Design of the controlled experiment allows the researcher to claim a cause+effect relationship - This means that we can say that the letter generation task causes poor memory recall - Randomly generating letter sequences are a valid way of engaging the central executive - Further conditions have shown that the visuo-spatial scratchpad is used in recalling chess positions

Rozenweig, Bennet, and Diamond (1972)

Rozenweig, Bennet, and Diamond (1972) (Ethics - Neuroplasticity) Aim: To see if enrichment or deprivation had an impact on the neurons in the cerebral cortex. Procedure: The researchers placed rats into two different environments: one for enrichment and the other for deprivation In the enriched environment, the rats were put in cages with up to 11 other rats. There were stimulating objects for the rats to play with and also maze training In the deprived environment, the rat was alone with no stimulation The rats stayed 30-60 days in their environments and then they were killed to observe the effect the environment had on the brain structure. Findings: Post-mortem observations showed that those in the simulated environment had increased thickness in the cortex due to the increased dendritic branching compared to the rats in the deprived environment. The frontal lobe (thinking, planning, decision making, etc.) was heavier in the rats that had been in the stimulating environment The combination of the company and various interesting toys created effective conditions in developing cerebral thickness Conclusion: Stimulation and education is essential in the growth of new synapses This experiment showed how learning always results in an increase of dendritic branching Evaluation Animal model - Can results be generalised to humans? - However, brain plasticity is assumed to follow the same pattern in animals and humans the implications of the study are that the human brain will also be affected by environmental factors such as intellectual and social stimulation. The experiment was a rigorously controlled laboratory experiment so it was possible to establish a cause-effect relationship - Control over confounding variables Ethics There are ethical issues in the use of animals in research like this. Since the results contributed to a much better understanding of the role of environmental factors in brain plasticity it can be argued that the research was justified in spite of the ethical issues

Social cognitive theory (SCT)

SCT assumes that humans learn behavior through observational learning (people can learn by watching models and imitating their behavior). Sometimes the model can have a direct effect on the learner, for example a teacher on a student. But often, models serve as indirect models, where they are not actively trying to influence behavior. Unlike some learning that we do, we do not need positive reinforcement to continue the behavior. The awareness that the model was rewarded/punished for a certain behavior is enough for us. This is what Bandura calls vicarious reinforcement. According to Bandura, social cognitive learning involves the following cognitive factors: Attention: The observer must pay attention to the model Retention: The observer must be able to remember the behavior to produce it later on Motivation: Learners must WANT to replicate the behavior Potential: The learner must be able to carry out the behavior Example: Bandura et al (1961)

Social Identity Theory (SIT)

SIT argues that a person has not just one personal self, but rather several social selves that adjust to different groups. According to the theory, we need to understand who we are and know our value in social contexts. This is why we categorize ourselves in terms of group membership. We can boost our sense of self-esteem through association with successful groups. This theory was introduced by Tajfel. He identified three mechanisms involved in the formation of a social identity: Social categorization (in-group and out-group), social identification (how we think of ourselves according to membership of a group), and social comparison (building up self-esteem). Example: Tajfel et al (1971)

Techniques used to study the brain

Scanning Techniques: This method focuses on looking at brain activity through MRI, fMRI, and PET scans. Through these scans, researchers are able to look into the brain and link certain parts of the brain to behaviors subjects exhibit. This technology allows for relatively harmless insights into the brain. Instead of cracking open heads and peering into the actual brain, researchers may observe the brain through scans without physically harming the subjects. Examples: Maguire (2001) Case studies: This method is an in-depth investigation of human behavior. These types of studies usually follow one person, or a group of people, for a long time. It often uses triangulation; more than one method, researcher, approach to gather data. Examples: John Money (1972) Experimentation: Through experiments, psychologists can establish a cause and effect relationship by tightly controlling the variables. Examples: Natural experiment - Maguire (2001) Design: Independent samples measures + No demand characteristics + No order effects + No practice effects (they don't do worse) + No fatigue or boredom - Participant variables - Two different participants are used for each condition Repeated measures + No participant variables - Demand characteristics - Order effects - Practice effects - Counterbalancing can get rid of this (½ in one group and ½ in the other, cancel out) - Fatigue / Boredom Matched pairs + A matched pair in the other condition Types: Field + Ecologically valid - No control Lab + Control - Ecologically valid Natural

Scarr and Weinburg (1976)

Scarr and Weinberg (1976) (Genes and behavior - Genetic similarities) Aim Researchers wanted to see if the heritability of a behavior is high in more genetically similar individuals (adoptive children vs natural children) If the heritability of a behavior is high and environment has little part to play, then the behavior of adopted children should correlate more strongly with the behavior of their biological parents than their adoptive parents Procedure Studied transracial adoption participants who were African American children adopted by middle-class White families - Families were wealthy, white and middle class with high IQ. The adopted children were from poor, lower-class and with lower IQ parents Results The researchers found no significant difference in IQ correlations between adoptive children and their parents They were found to have an average IQ of 106 at the age of 7 Whereas children of a similar background brought up in low income biological families had an average IQ of 97. The IQs of the adopted African American children in Scarr and Weinberg's study was tested years later. By age 17, their IQs had dropped to 97 - same as the average for children of similar background brought up in their biological families Conclusion This finding supports the influence of the environment on behaviour, overriding the influence of genetics. This suggests that intelligence has a lot to do with the environment as well as genetics. Through this study, researchers have made a link that "an enriched environment may raise IQ in children." However, it is also likely that there is a strong interaction between genes and the environment to produce intelligence level. Criticisms IQ of parents was unknown - There may have been a correlation between the IQ of the parents and the children which was unaccounted for. No consideration of the selective placement of children - Often adoption agencies attempt to place children into families that they are similar to - This may be the cause of the concordance rate between the adopted children and their adoptive family Lack of consideration for children who were adopted at a late age and may have been brought up in care

Segal et al (2010)

Segal et al (2010) (Psychological treatment) Aim: To determine the long-term effect of MBCT Sample: 84 people in remission for MDD Procedure: The patients were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: Patients who discontinued their antidepressants and attended 8 weekly group sessions of MBCT Patients continued taking their antidepressants without MBCT Patients discontinued active medication and were switched to a placebo Relapse was defined as a return, for at least 2 weeks, of symptoms sufficient to meet the criteria for major depression Results: The researchers found that MBCT could help prevent recurrent depressive episodes as well as medication and better than a placebo

Steele and Aronson (1995)

Steele and Aronson (1995) (Effect of stereotypes: Stereotype Threat) When we feel there is a threat of being judged or treated stereotypically Aim: Psychologists wanted to see the effect of stereotype threat on performance Procedure: Gave a 30 minute verbal test that was made up of very difficult multiple-choice questions One group was told it was a genuine test on their verbal activities This group was comprised of African Americans that scored significantly lower than European American participants Another group was presented with the same test but was told it was not a test on their abilities These African American students scored higher than the first group, and their performance was not significantly different from the European American students Conclusion: It was not possible to argue that awareness of racial stereotyping was the actual cause of the difference, so they did one more version where the participants had to fill in a personal information questionnaire - Half of the questionnaires asked the participants to identify their race - African Americans who identified their race did poorly, those who did not did just as well as their European American peers

Evaluation of biomedical approach

Strengths Time-efficient: works very quickly Cost-efficient: no need for long and costly sessions with a therapist Alleviates symptoms that make daily life difficult Limitations SSRIs alone reduce depressive symptoms but they have many side effects and do not cure patients Nausea, increased weight gain, insomnia, blurred vision, etc. Lowered self-esteem or sense of autonomy We are still unaware how antidepressants affect the brain in the long-term, it is possible that the heavy use of these could be damaging Treatment is not effective for all patients Takes weeks of treatment before results show Heavy reliance and dependence on drugs Reductionist approach Patients may experience withdrawal symptoms (discontinuation syndrome) = relapse

Evaluation of case studies

Strengths of case studies Opportunity to investigate phenomena that could not be investigated otherwise Permits insight into social processes in a group Stimulates new research Contradicts established theory and helps to develop new theories Weaknesses of case studies Researcher bias Generalization

Evaluation of cognitive based therapy

Strengths: Patients do not experience any side effects Studies indicate it is as effective as antidepressants Reduce the risk of relapse Patients learn how to cope with depression Coping strategies give patients a sense of empowerment Limitations: Depends on the relationship between client and therapist May take a long time to take effect CBT may focus more on the symptoms rather than the causes of the disorder Biases from the therapist may interfere with the therapy

Tajfel et al (1971)

Tajfel et al (1971) (Social identity theory) Aim: The aim of Tajfel's study was to demonstrate that merely putting people into groups (categorisation) is sufficient for people to discriminate in favour of their own group and against members of the other group. Procedure: 48 boys (aged 14-15) were asked to rate 12 paintings by abstract painters (Paul Klee and Wassily Kandinsky) They were not told during the test which artist had painted which painting The boys were then randomly allocated to groups and then told that they had preferred either Klee or Kandinsky Each boy was then given the task to award points to two other boys, one from his same group and one from the other group The only information that each boy was given was code numbers and the same of the group for the two boys they were supposed to award Tajfel created a point allocation system to test how specific variables could influence the boys' choices of reward: - Maximum joint profit (giving the largest reward to members of both groups - Maximum in-group profit (giving the largest reward to a member of the in-group - Maximum differences (giving the largest possible different in reward between the in-group member and the out-group member The way it actually worked out is as follows: - If a Klee member chose a high value for another Klee member, it would give higher profit to the out-group - If a Klee member chose a mid-range value for another Klee member, it would give the same points for the other group - If a Klee member chose a low value for another Klee member, it would award only 1 point to the other team Results The maximum joint profit had a very little effect on the boys' choices However, when the boys had a choice between maximizing profit for all and maximizing profit for members in their in-group, they clearly favored their in-group When they had the choice of maximizing the difference in reward against profit for all, the boys were willing to give their own team fewer points with the goal of maximizing the difference between their in-group and out-group This meant that the boys left the study with less money than if they had all given each other the most amount of money possible Conclusion Tajfel concluded that the out-group discrimination is easy to trigger and that once it has been triggered, we have norms of behavior which include discriminating against the out-group One of the most obvious conclusions that we can draw from this experiment is the natural tendency of members of a group to favor their in-group Tajfel demonstrated that a "minimal group" is all that is necessary for individuals to exhibit discrimination against an out-group This study supports the notion of social identity (how we think of ourselves according to our membership of social groups) because the boys still regarded themselves as belonging to a group even when they were working individually - With minimal effort, we will favor our group - We will show favoritism to our own group members meaning our differences are positive (we're better than you) The study also supports the notion of ingroup favoritism and positive distinctiveness as the boys awarded more points to their in-group members and tried to maintain a difference between the in-group and out-group Critical Thinking Highly controlled experiment Highly standardized, so it is replicable in order to establish reliability Very artificial and may not reflect how the boys would have interacted in a more natural setting (low ecological validity) In addition, the boys have interpreted the task as competitive and tried to win, showing demand characteristics The study used British schoolboys - may be hard to generalize the findings

Biological psychology

The biological approach to studying behaviour argues that there are physiological origins of many behaviors. Psychologists study how the environment factors interact with the biological systems. Many physiological factors can play a role in behaviour, such as: neurotransmission, hormones, and genes, etc.

Brain plasticity

The brain is a dynamic system that constantly interacts with the environment. Due to this interaction, the brain is continously changes. Not only can the brain determine and change behaviour, but behaviour and the environment can also change the brain. Plasticity refers to the brain's ability to alter its own structure according to changes within the body or in the external environment. These changes are a result of the brain learning. Examples: Maguire (2001), Rozenweig, Bennet, and Diamond (1972)

Effectiveness of therapy

The effectiveness of therapy is vital to consider. This ensures that the client is recovering appropriately. In order to study effectiveness, psychologists make use of outcome studies, which focus on the results. Therapy is highly individualized and personal, so it is never the same with everyone. Most research on effectiveness uses randomized double-blind placebo-controlled studies. Examples: Elkin et al (1989), Riggs et al (2007)

Reconstructive Memory

The human memory is not an exact copy of events but rather a reconstruction that may be changed over time, through interactions with others or input from the media. Research has shown that memory may be altered during storage, processing, and retrieval, for example, due to schema processing. Knowing this could be important not only in our daily lives but in particular in relation to eyewitness testimony. Reconstructive memory may be influenced by schema processing. this is where memory processing based on prior knowledge - in the form of schemas - could result in distortion. Example: Bartlett (1932)

Sociocultural approach

The sociocultural approach assumes that culture influences behavior. Culture can be defined as the norms and values that define a specific group or society. Our upbringing and the society we grow up in influence the way we behave.

Thinking and decision making

Thinking and decision making Thinking is the process of using knowledge and information to make plans, interpret the world, and make predictions about the world in general. Thinking can also involve decision making, which is defined as the process of identifying and choosing alternatives based on the values and preferences of the decision-maker. The Dual Process Model of thinking and decision making focuses on two basic modes of thinking - System 1 and System 2. System 1 is the automatic, intuitive and effortless way of thinking. It often employs heuristics (a rule used to make decisions or form judgements - mental shortcuts). This fast mode of thinking allows for efficient processing of the often complex world around us, but it may be prone to errors. System 2 is a slower, conscious and rational mode of thinking. This mode of thinking is assume to require more effort. This rational way of thinking allows us to analyze the world around us and think carefully about what is happening, why it's happening, and what is most likely to happen next. Example: Wason (1968)

Tversky and Kahneman (1986)

Tversky and Kahneman (1986) (Biases in thinking and decision making) Aim To test the influence of positive and negative frames on decision making Sample Self-selected (volunteer) sample of 307 US undergraduate students Procedure Participants were asked to make a decision between one of two options in a hypothetical scenario where they were choosing how to respond to the outbreak of a virulent disease For some of the participants, the information as frame positively while for others it was framed negatively Condition 1 - positive frame - If Program A is adopted, 200 people will be saved. - If Program B is adopted, there is 1/3 probability that 600 people will be saved, and 2/3 probability that no people will be saved Condition 2 - negative frame - If Program C is adopted 400 people will die - If Program D is adopted there is 1/3 probability that nobody will die, and 2/3 probability that 600 people will die All four options, (A, B, C and D) are effectively the same; 200 people will survive and 400 people will not Results Condition 1 - 72% of the participants chose Program A, whereas only 28% chose program B Condition 2 - 22% of the participants choice Program C and 78% choice Program D Positive framing - participants took option A, avoided the possibility of a loss in the less certain option (option B) Negative framing - participants avoided loss (option C) and took a chance on the less certain option D Evaluation Western university student samples under highly controlled - and rather artificial - conditions Many of the questions given to the students would be of little interest to them and were not asked in a way that was natural Studies lack ecological validity as well as cross-cultural support - assuming that cognitive biases are universal Critical thinking It is difficult to measure the actual use of biases in real life situations It is possible that other factors come into play when making decisions, for example, the cost of something, the emotional state, time limits, etc. Most of the research done is with Western university student samples under highly controlled - and rather artificial - conditions. Many of questions given to the students would of little relevance to them and were not asked in a natural way - this lacks ecological validity as well as cross-cultural support

Wagner and Beuving (1979)

Wagner and Beuving (1979) (Hormones) Aim: Researchers tested to see the link between aggression and testosterone levels Procedure: To castrate or not to castrate? Injections of testosterone increased levels of aggression in castrated rats who had previously been judged as aggressive They measured the aggression through bites and attacks (DV) Researchers wanted to measure the level of testosterone (IV) through castrating Researchers measured how aggressive rats are with and without testicles Clear link between testosterone and aggression in rats Conclusion: Found that the absence of testicles resulted in a decrease of aggression Critical Thinking: Hard to generalize as the experiment focused on rats, not humans. UNETHICAL While it provides substantial supported evidence, it can also be viewed as very reductionist. Reductionism is the breakdown of complex concepts into smaller and more simpler fragments. While neurotransmitters definitely show a link to behavior, it would be wrong to label them as the main drives of behavior. To take into account the social and environmental impacts of behavior would be more accurate, as these concepts also affect human behavior. To base human behavior solely off the biological aspect would inaccurate

Wason (1968)

Wason (1968) (Thinking and decision making) Provides evidence to support the dual process model Process: Showed a set of cards and asked the question: Which card(s) must be turned over to test the idea that if a card shows an even number on one face, then its opposite face is red? Results: Participants matched the cards incorrectly Wason called it matching bias, where we're overly influenced by the wording (or context) of the question The reasons as to why the answer was wrong are not things that would normally come to our minds when completing a problem as the one Wason proposed Participants were unable to clearly explain their choices Conclusion: The Wason selection task provides important evidence for the dual process model Most people make the decision of which cards to choose without any reasoning - but as an automatic response to the context of the question Wason found that even when he trained people how to answer and changed the context, the same mistakes were made Critical thinking Biological evidence supports what we see in the Wason Selection Task by showing that different types of processing may be located in different parts of the brain

Wedekind (1995)

Wedekind (1995) (Pheromones, Genes and behavior, Evolution) Wedekind chose to study the Major Histocompatibility Complex, a gorup of genes that influence the immune system The more diverse the MHC genes of the parents, the stronger the immune system of the offspring Evolutionary psycologists argue that our "smell" is the sign of our MHC Wedekind wanted to see if women are attracted to a man because of his MHC. Aim To determine whether MHCs would affect mate choice Sample - Participants - 49 women - Stimulus material - 44 men with a wide range of MHC genes Method/Procedure Each participant was "typed" for their MHC, and a wide varaince of MHCs were included in the sample Gave each man a clean T-shirt and asked him to wear it for 2 nights The men were asked to sleep with a T-Shirt for two nights and keep it in a plastic bag Were forbidden to eat spicy food Double-blind experiment Put each t-shirt in a plastic cardboard box After two days the women were asked to rate how agreeable they found the smell of the T-shirts. The women had to smell seven different T-shirts - 3 similar - 3 dissimilar - 1 control The women ranked the odours from 0-10 for intensity & sexiness Results Women preferred the odours of men with an immune system dissimilar to their own. This lends support to the evolutionary explanations of mate selection in humans Evaluation Supports an evolutionary argument for mate selection in humans Double-blind experiment Minimize researcher bias Minimize demand characteristics Sample may not be considered representative as the participants were similar in age and culture Too reductionist Based on assumption

Working memory model

Working memory model This model can be seen as a development of the multi-store model of memory. The short-term memory in the original model is now a bit more sophisticated in this memory model. Baddely and Hitch (1974) were the one of the first to challenge the view that STM is a single store. Their working memory model suggests that STM is not a single store but rather consists of a number of different stores. Components Central Executive - The central executive is considered the most important part of working memory - Because it controls attention and coordinates the actions of the other components, it can briefly store information, but has a limited capacity - The central executive is modality free, which means that it can store information in any Phonological Loop (inner ear) The phonological loop consists of two parts - Articulatory control system (the voice in your head) - Rehearsals information verbally and has a time based capacity of about 2 seconds - You think of it as a system that you use to mentally rehearse information by repeating it over and over again - Phonological store (sound in your head) - The phonological store uses a sound based code to store information, but this information decays after 2 seconds, unless it is rehearsed by the articulatory control system - The phonological store receives input either directly from the ears or from long term memory - If you imagine your favorite piece of music, you are using your phonological store Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad (inner eye) - Stores and manipulates visual information, inputs is form the eyes or long term memory - If you imagine an object and then picture it rotating you are using your visuo-spatial sketchpad - Holds visual and spatial information Has 2 subsystems: Visual cache - Stores visual data (things that you see) Inner scribe - Records the arrangement of objects in the visual field Episodic Buffer - The purpose is to bind together all of the information from the other components of working memory with information about time and order - Prepares memories for storage in episodic long-term memory Example: Robbins (1996)

Zhou et al (2014)

Zhou et al (2014) (Pheromones) Aim: Researchers carried out a study to see if these substances influenced human sexual behavior Procedure: The sample was made up of 96 participants - 24 heterosexual men - 24 heterosexual woman - 24 gay men - 24 lesbian woman Participants asked to watch stick figures walking on screen and guess gender While carrying out the task, the participants were exposed to the smell of cloves - Condition one: the cloves were mixed with androstadienone (male pheromones) - Condition two: the cloves were mixed with estratetraenol (female pheromones) - Controlled condition: only cloves Findings Smelling androstadienone biased heterosexual females and gay males, but not heterosexual males, toward perceiving the stick figures as more masculine Smelling estratetraenol systematically biases heterosexual males and lesbian woman toward perceiving the stick figures as more feminine Conclusion The researchers concluded that pheromones influence communication of gender information in a sex-specific manner Critical Thinking Ecological validity: - Participants were exposed to very high levels of pheromones In the real world, people are not exposed to high levels like these, which poses the experiment to be very artificial and unnatural Experimental validity - While the subjects viewed the figure as male or female, this should not be accurately linked to sexual behavior as the subjects could've viewed the walk as masculine or feminine. It can be argued whether or not this study really measured sexual behavior Reliability - The amount of subjects that participated is relatively small The study would have to be replicated with a larger amount of people to determine if the results are reliable or not - However, it could be argued that the fact that the experimenter assessed a wide range of sexual orientations increases generalizability More problems: - The human sense of smell is complicated. We are able to detect 400 different odors with odor receptors. Each odor receptor has genetic variations which makes it complicated to see how pheromones would affect humans - Several body odors are not caused by secretions but rather by bacteria that become mixed with our secretions (e.g. armpits). - Despite this, 20% of the population doesn't emit this smell as they do not have this bacteria. This makes a general finding of pheromones a bit less likely Culture: Through the culture we grow up, we associate smells as "good" or "bad". We learn which smells we like and dislike This is potentially a confounding variable as we cannot control how people associate smells. Through this, it would be difficult the role of pheromones in behavior if everyone reacts to different smells in different ways Ecological validity - First participants were exposed to very high levels of pheromones; it is unclear that this response would happen in naturalistic Experimental validity - Although they identified the figure as masculine or feminine, this is not a clear study of sexual behavior but rather if participants perceived a person's walk as feminine or masculine. It can be debated whether this is a reliable measure of sexual behavior Reliability - The study is done on a relatively small sample - The study would need to be replicated on a much larger sample in order to determine whether the results are reliable