Psychology in Your Life, Chapter 13: Self and Personality

2.6 Learning Goal Check: Review & Apply (p. 519)

1. A parent says to a child, "I love you, but I am disappointed that you were careless and broke the vase." According to Rogers's person-centered approach to personality, this is an example of: unconditional positive regard 2. A parent says to a child, "I love you so much more when you do your homework" is an example of: conditions of worth 3. Identify which parent is more likely to raise a child who develops a personality based on the child's sense of self and explain why. According to Carl Rogers, children raised with unconditional positive regard develop a personality based on their true sense of self.

1.9 Common Defense Mechanisms (p. 517)

1. Denial (refusing to acknowledge the source of your anxiety) 2. Repression (unintentionally ignoring the source of your anxiety) 3. Projection (blame-shifting unacceptable qualities about yourself onto someone else) 4. Reaction formation (warding off an uncomfortable thought or feeling by emphasizing the opposite) 5. Rationalization (coming up with excuses and reasoning for an otherwise shameful behaviour) 6. Displacement (shifting your emotion from the source to another, easier target) 7. Sublimination (channeling socially unacceptable thoughts or impulses into constructive, even admirable, behaviour)

3.2 Activity Level (p. 529)

A child's activity level is a measure of their overall energy and behaviour, which can vary greatly from one child to another. Some children may be very active and move around frequently, while others may be more calm and slow-paced.

1.3 Self Schema (p. 505)

A self-schema is an integrated set of memories, beliefs, and generalizations about oneself, which helps to perceive, organize, interpret, and use information about oneself. It helps to filter information and notice things that are relevant to oneself, and summarizes the relevant past information. It can also increase memory for information that is relevant to oneself. Because brain activity in the middle of the frontal lobes is involved in processing information about oneself, damage to the frontal lobes can reduce or eliminate self-awareness.

1.11 Learning Goal Check: Review (p. 518)

According to Freud's psychodynamic approach to personality, which personality structure operates according to the reality principle? Explain. According to Freud, the ego is the part of the personality that operates according to the reality principle because it uses rational thought and problem solving to mediate between the desires of the id and morals of the superego.

1.3 Conscious, Preconscious, and Unconscious levels (p. 516)

According to the psychodynamic model, the conscious level of mental activity consists of thoughts that you're aware of; the preconscious level contains content not in your awareness but could be brought to it (like long-term memory); and the unconscious level contains material your mind cannot easily retrieve, such as hidden memories, wishes, desires, and motives. Conflicts among these unconscious factors produce anxiety and other psychological discomfort, and to protect you from this, they are kept hidden from awareness: sometimes, these unconscious factors leak into consciousness through Freudian slips, revealing hidden motives that determine behavior

2.3 Personality in Adopted Children (p. 528)

Adoption studies provide further evidence for the genetic basis of personality- children tend to be somewhat similar to their biological parents or siblings. In fact, two non-biologically related children raised in the same household are no more alike in personality than any two strangers. This may be due to the fact that they do not share genes, or that their environments differ.

1.10 Freud's Theory in the Modern Day (p. 518)

Although the psychodynamic theory is rightfully attributed to Sigmund Freud, it has been modified by other scholars, some of whom identify as "Neo-Freudians". Neo-Freudians focus on social interactions, mainly emotional attachments with caregivers, in shaping personality. Freud's central premises are not used much by psychologists today, due to the lack of empirical evidence; however, Freud's ideas continue to have an impact on the psychology and research of personality.

3.4 Three Factors or Personality (p. 521)

Another popular personality theory to be developed in the 20th century was Albert Bandura's social cognitive theory of personality, which emphasized three factors that influence behaviour: the current environment, multiple person factors (like individual characteristics, self-confidence, and expectations), and how someone's behaviour affects their current environment. Bandura coined the term reciprocal determinism to explain how each of these factors interacts with each other to affect personality and behaviour.

4.4 Stability of Conscientiousness and Similar (p. 523)

Basic tendencies, such as shyness, remain stable over time; however consistent patterns of personality change occur as people age. People generally develop increased self-control and emotional stability, becoming less neurotic, extraverted, and open to new experiences as they age, and may also become more agreeable and conscientious. These patterns are found both in self-reports and by ratings from family and friends; this tends to be consistent across cultures, and suggests that personality change may be based in human biology, occurring independently of environmental influences.

4.2 Stability of Personality Traits (p. 531)

Childhood temperament may predict early adulthood behavioral outcomes, although it is not guaranteed- most research finds that personality traits remain quite stable throughout one's life. An analysis of 150 studies, consisting of nearly 50,000 participants, found strong evidence for stability in personality: people's rankings on any personality trait were quite stable over long periods of time, across all age ranges (with stability lowest for young children, and highest for those over age 50). This suggests that personality traits change somewhat in childhood, but become more stable by middle age.

4.9 Learning Goal Check: Review & Apply (p. 524)

Classify the following individuals according to which of the Big Five traits is most obvious and whether that person would likely score high or low on that trait. 1. Jensen always checks her homework twice to make sure it is accurate. conscientiousness; high 2. Keiko prefers tradition and dislikes trying new things. openness to experience: low 3. Mateo tends to stay in the background in social situations and avoids being noticed. extraversion; low 4. Bruce's friends describe him as moody. neuroticism; high 5. Janice is very good-natured and her coworkers seek her out when they feel overwhelmed. agreeableness; high

1.7 Observational Methods (p. 536)

Close acquaintances are likely to predict your behaviour more accurately than you do. This may happen because your friends observe your behaviour in different situations, while you may not pay attention to your own behaviour; you may be more focused on evaluating other people than on observing yourself. Studies show that people become more accurate in predicting others' behaviour over time as they observe their behaviour in different circumstances.: therefor, you are more likely to accurately predict the behaviour of a close friend, than that of an acquaintance.

2.5 Learning Goal Check: Review & Apply (p. 528)

Compared to two strangers, categorize the following people as (1) no more likely to be similar in personality, (2) somewhat more likely to be similar in personality, or (3) much more likely to be similar in personality. 1. Identical twins much more likely to be similar in personality 2. Biological parents and their children somewhat more likely to be similar in personality 3. Adopted children raised in the same household who are not biologically related no more likely to be similar in personality 4. Dizygotic twins somewhat more likely to be similar in personality 5. Children and their adoptive parents no more likely to be similar in personality 6. Biological siblings somewhat more likely to be similar in personality

1.8 Defense Mechanisms (p. 517)

Conflicts between the id and the superego result in anxiety, which is managed by the ego through various defense mechanisms: unconscious strategies used to protect the mind from distress. Defense mechanisms help to prevent negative emotions and can also reduce negative reactions from others. An example of a defense mechanism is *rationalization*, where behavior is justified or explained away by blaming external circumstances.

2.9 Learning Goal Check: Review & Apply (p. 510)

Consider the following situations: Jon, a soccer player, always thinks that he deserves more playing time than his teammates because he views himself as the best player on the team, even though his skills are average. He becomes angry when the coach does not put him into the game. Sumaira feels good about herself for being a good friend to those in need, and she takes pride in her social skills. Mitchell considers himself a business genius and justifies making up false business reports that trick his company's shareholders. He cares only about his own success and does not care if his false reports harm his shareholders. Jon shows evidence of ____, Sumaira shows evidence of ____, and Mitchell shows evidence of ____. narcissism, high self-esteem, the dark triad

2.4 Self-Esteem and Life Outcomes (p. 508)

Despite the emphasis placed on self-esteem in Western culture, research suggests that it may be less important than commonly believed. Studies show that while people with high self-esteem report being happier, self-esteem is weakly related to objective life outcomes. People with high self-esteem who consider themselves more attractive, smarter, and better liked do not necessarily have higher IQs or are thought of more highly by others. Instead, self-esteem influences how you perceive other people's opinions of you. While many successful people have high self-esteem, the reverse is also true. Self-esteem has a slight relationship with some outcomes, such as academic success, but it might be the success that leads to high self-esteem. Furthermore, having a high opinion of oneself can have downsides, as evidenced by violent criminals and school bullies who often have high self-esteem. In conclusion, while having high self-esteem may make people happier, it does not necessarily lead to successful social relationships or life success.

1.3 Optimal Level of Arousal (p. 526)

Each person has an optimal level of arousal that they prefer and function best at; exttaverts are typically underaroused relative to their optimal level of arousal and seek out new experiences to increase arousal, while introverts are often overaroused and prefer quiet, low-stimulus environments. Brain imaging research suggests that multiple brain areas are involved in the development and expression of personality traits; additionally, brain activity patterns can distinguish between the Big Five personality traits.

3.5 Long-Term Effects of Temperament (p. 530)

Early childhood temperament has a significant impact on behaviour and personality throughout a person's development. A study on more than 1,000 individuals born in a one-year period found that the classification of temperament at age 3 predicted personality and behaviours in early adulthood- well-adjusted children at age 3 were less likely to abuse alcohol or have antisocial disorders than undercontrolled children at age 3, and inhibited children were more likely to be anxious, depressed, unemployed, have less social support, and attempt suicide as adults.

3.3 Emotionability (p. 529)

Emotionality describes the intensity of the child's emotional reactions For example, some children cry often or become frightened easily. Some children anger quickly.

3.6 Learning Goal Check: Review (p. 530)

Explain the relationship between temperament and personality. Temperament is the innate biological structure of personality. It is broader than personality traits and reflects how active, emotional, and sociable people are.

1.5 Learning Goal Check: Review & Apply (p. 505)

Explain whether each of the following refers to self-concept, working self-concept, or self-schema. 1. When figure skater Mariana is asked whether she is athletic, she is able to answer very quickly. But she takes more time to answer a question about whether she is a good singer. self-schema 2. Jose thinks of himself as young and inexperienced when he is at his new job, but he considers himself mature and wise when he is teaching his little brother how to use a computer program. working self-concept 3. Patrice describes herself as a first-generation college student. self-concept

4.3 Introversion and Extraversion (p. 523)

Eysenck proposed that people differ in their level of extroversion, with introversion representing shyness, reserve, and quietness, and extraversion representing sociability, boldness, and outgoingness. He believed that this dimension was linked to biological processes.

4.6 Psychotism/Constraint (p. 523)

Eysenck suggested a third dimension of personality traits, called psychoticism (later renamed constraint). Constraint includes aggression, poor impulse control, self-centeredness, and lack of empathy, and ranges from generally controlling impulses to generally not controlling them.

4.4 Stable and Unstable Emotions (p. 523)

Eysenck's second dimension concerns the variability in people's moods and emotions. Emotional stability refers to consistency in one's emotions, whereas instability refers to frequent and drastic mood swings (particularly towards negative emotions).

1.2 Hidden Motives (p. 516)

Freud believed powerful forces drive behaviour, and are often in conflict; he also believed that people are typically unaware of this. For example, a person may unknowingly want to steal something they desire, even though they know it's wrong. According to Freud, conscious awareness is only a small fraction of mental activity, and his psychodynamic theory suggests that most mental processes happen under the surface- conscious awareness is just the tip of the iceberg.

1.4 The Three Structures of Personality (p. 516)

Freud's model of personality organization suggests that there are three structures that interact with each other, differing in their level of conscious accessibility: the id, the superego, and the ego.

4.1 Gene Predisposition (p. 530)

Genes may influence personality traits, but their expression depends on developmental circumstances. For example, Michael Apted's *Up* documentary series followed the development of 14 British people, from age 7 to 63. The films highlighted the apparent stability of personality over time, with most participants exhibiting similar traits throughout their lives: for example, a science-loving boy becomes a physics professor, while a reserved upper-class girl grows into a reserved woman living in the countryside.

1.4 Learning Goal Check: Review & Apply (p. 526)

Given the biological underpinnings of introversion, explain whether an introvert would prefer to study in a noisy café or a quiet library. Because introverts tend to have internal levels of arousal (possibly in the reticular activating system) that are above their optimal levels, they would probably prefer a setting that provides less stimulation, such as a quiet library.

1.2 Reticular Activating System (p. 526)

Hans Eysenck theorized that behavioural differences between introverts and extraverts are based on differences in arousal, which is linked to processing in the reticular activating system, or RAS, of the brai). The RAS is involved in alertness, as well as the different stages of sleep. Eysenck suggested that the RAS differs between introverts and extraverts.

4.2 Eysenck's Trait Theory (p. 522)

Hans Eysenck, a psychologist from the 1960s, suggested that personality traits can be classified into three primary dimensions: the level of introversion or extraversion, emotional stability or instability, and the degree of impulse control.

4.8 Learning Goal Check: Apply (p. 533)

If Sheri is highly extraverted in her 20s, how extraverted is she likely to be in her 50s? As Sheri grows older, she is likely to remain extraverted, but she is likely to become somewhat less extraverted as she ages.

3.2 Rotter's Expectancy Theory (p. 520)

In 1954, Julian Rotter developed a theory known as Rotter's Expectancy Theory, which states that a person's behaviour is a part of personality, determined by a.) the reinforcement (punishment or reward) a behaviour may provide, and b.) how much weight that reinforcement holds to the individual. For example, a student with a party invite one night and an exam the next morning may need to decide whether staying home and studying (likely getting a better grade), or going to the party and having fun, is more important to them.

2.1 Situationism (p. 538)

In 1968, Walter Mischel introduced the concept of situationism in personality. Situationism suggests that behaviours are influenced more by situations than by personality traits. Mischel cited studies to support this idea, where people behaved differently in different situations- for instance, someone who was dishonest in one situation could be honest in another. Mischel argued that a person's behaviour in one situation did not necessarily predict their behaviour in another situation.

4.1 Collectivist Cultures (p. 513)

In 1989, Harry Triandis distinguished between cultures that emphasize the collective self and those that emphasize the personal self: collectivist cultures and individualistic cultures. Collectivist cultures, such as those in Japan, Greece, Pakistan, China, and some regions of Africa, prioritize connections to family, social groups, and ethnic groups, along with conformity to societal norms and group cohesiveness- in Japan, for instance, people tend to dress similarly and respect situational norms, and in China, it is common for a family to order multiple dishes and share them all together at the table. In these cultures, one's sense of self is largely influenced by their social roles and personal relationships. Children raised in these cultures are usually tsight to follow group norms, obey authority figures, and to not challenge or complain about their status in society.

5.1 The Carli Roommate Study (p. 524)

In 1991, Carli and colleagues studied the relationship between personality similarity and relationship satisfaction, assigning randomly-selected duos to live together as roommates for 6 months. Following the 6-month period, each roommate in the study was given a questionnaire, asking about things such as personality traits, relationship satisfaction, and intention to continue living together. The results of the study showed that personality similarity had a positive correlationship with relationship satisfaction, suggesting that people tended to like their roommates more when they had personality traits in common.

5.3 Roommate Preferences (p. 525)

In 2005, a study by Ogletree et al. found that a third of college-age participants in their study experienced roommate conflict related to living space cleanliness; thus, knowing how clean someone likes to keep their environment, and how this relates to your preference, is very important information. To obtain this information from a potential roommate, you can go a variety of directions, such as talking to their previous roommates, making your own observations, or simply asking them directly.

3.6 Learning Goal Check: Apply (p. 521)

In explaining why his date was unsuccessful, Joe blamed a snowstorm for canceling the concert that his date was excited to attend. Based on his explanation, explain whether Joe more likely has an internal locus of control or an external locus of control. Joe's explanation for his unsuccessful date suggests that he has an external locus of control because he blames the weather, which is beyond his control.

3.1 Social Cognitive Approaches (p. 520)

In the early 20th century, personality was believed to result from learned responses to reinforcement. However, by the 1950s, cognition was recognized as important in understanding human behaviour, including personality. This shift led to the development of social cognitive approaches to personality.

4.2 Individualistic Cultures (p. 514)

Individualist cultures emphasize individual rights, freedoms, self-expression, and diversity; some examples of individualist cultures are northern and western Europe, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United States. For instance, in the United States, people dress differently, cultivate personal interests, and enjoy standing out. When dining out, each person tends to orders what they prefer. Parents and teachers in individualist cultures encourage children to be self-reliant and to pursue personal success, even at the expense of interpersonal relationships. Because of this, children raised in individualist cultures develop a sense of self based on feeling distinct from others.

3.5 Upward Comparison (p. 512)

Individuals with low self-esteem often engage in upward comparisons, where they compare themselves with someone who they perceive as superior.

2.6 Interactionism (p. 538)

Interactionism is the idea accepted by most trait theorists, which states that behaviour is influenced by both situational factors and by one's underlying temperament.

4.5 Situational Causes of Personality Changes (p. 532)

Life circumstances usually bring changes in personality (especially during emerging adulthood): new duties and obligations that come with growing older can change behaviour, thoughts, and emotions in predictable ways. For instance, a person's first job can instill new and unfamiliar behaviors that make the person more conscientious, decreasing neuroticism over time. Additionally, tangible benefits (such as having more money) can permit people to engage in enjoyable behaviours, and also bring personality changes. These connections suggest that changes in personality may be influenced by environmental factors.

2.2 Person/Situation Debate (p. 538)

Mischel's critique of personality traits led to conflict between social psychologists, who study situation forces, and personality psychologists, who focus on individual traits. Personality was defined as relatively stable across situations, but Mischel argued there was little stability- this led to the person/situation debate, which resulted in both person and situation being considered important by personality psychologists.

3.2 Positive Illusions (p. 512)

Most people have positive illusions (overly favourable and unrealistic beliefs about themselves) in at least three areas: First, people often experience the better-than-average effect; second, they believe they can control what happens more than they actually can; and third, they are unrealistically optimistic about their future. Positive illusions can be beneficial when promoting optimism, but detrimental when individuals overestimate their abilities and underestimate their vulnerabilities.

2.6 Narcicissm (p. 509)

Narcissism is a personality trait associated with inflated self-esteem. Narcissists tend to be self-centered, view themselves as superior to others, and feel entitled to special treatment. They have poor relationships with others, tend to become angry when challenged, and are often unfaithful. Narcissism tends to decrease as people approach middle age.

4.5 Neurotic (p. 523)

Pairing Token: a30d-1467

2.4 Parenting Style vs. Genetics (p. 528)

Parenting style has less impact on personality than assumed, although children do need adequate parenting to be properly socialized (with improperly socialized children being more likely to become delinquent or display antisocial behaviour). Similarities in personality between biological siblings and parents have genetic component; however, parenting style may not have a significant impact on children's personalities.

3.3 Locus of Control (p. 520)

Part of Rotter's expectancy theory focused on the level of control individuals believed they had over their life, known as their locus of control: people's basic expectations of whether they can control the outcome of their life, good or bad. Someone can have an internal or an external locus of control, with the former believing they have control over outcomes, and the latter believing it's out of their hands; for example, if someone with an internal locus of control received an unexpected promotion, they'd likely attribute it to their hard word. Someone with an external locus of control may attribute it to luck, instead.

1.8 Accuracy of Self-Judgement (p. 537)

People may have blind spots about certain aspects of their personality; this is especially true for traits that are highly important to them. On the other hand, people may be better at judging themselves for traits that are not easily observed by others, such as anxiety or optimism. When it comes to easy-to-observe traits, such as talkativeness or charm, friends may be more accurate at judging them; as well as that, traits that are hard to observe but highly meaningful to people (such as creativity) are more likely to be judged accurately by friends than the person with the trait.

3.7 Self-Serving Bias (p. 513)

People with high self-esteem tend to credit success to themselves and blame failure on external factors, known as the self-serving bias; an example would be a stident who credit their skills for success, and describe a test as arbitrary if they fail. We compare ourselves to those who did worse when thinking about failures and focus on our strengths, so-serving biases can protect positive beliefs about ourselves; however, caution is advised due to the link with narcissism and the dark triad.

1.5 Personality Assessment (p. 535)

Personality assessments can be done through self-report measures, where individuals respond to questions on questionnaires. These assessments are used by personality researchers to predict behavior and measure traits. Because self-reports measure only what is reported, and do not uncover hidden conflicts or wishes, they can be quite unreliable: people's desire to look good, along with the absence of objective standards, can lead to inconsistencies.

4.7 Life Events and Personality Changes (p. 533)

Personality can be changed by major life events: for example, one study examined personality change in bereaved caregivers. The study found that bereaved caregivers became more agreeable, sociable, and conscientious

4.6 Personality Changes in Adulthood (p. 532)

Personality changes as a result of age-related roles and experiences; for example, adulthood is a period of "growing up," which would naturally lead to personality changes. For example, commitment in a relationship is associated with decreased neuroticism, and life experiences (such as forming relationships) affect personality development.

2.3 Interaction of Personality and Situation (p. 538)

Personality expression can vary across different situations- for example, an introverted and extraverted friend duo may behave entirely differently from each other at a party, but would likely behave similarly at a funeral. Personality psychologists distinguish between situations like this with the terms "strong situations" and "weak situations".

1.1 Personality (p. 504)

Personality is an individual's characteristic patterns of thoughts, emotional responses, and behaviours that tend to remain consistent over time and in various situations. It is an integral part of an individual's identity and self-concept.

5.2 Similarity in Roommates (p. 525)

Personality similarity seems to play a role in relationship satisfaction, but it's not a guarantee; however, incompatible living habits such as routines or cleanlieness preferences, can cause conflict between roommates. Interestingly enough, a person's preference for either a tidy or messy living space is linked to conscientiousness; this makes it an important trait to pay attention to, as it'll likely affect more than just your physical environment.

4.1 Trait Approaches (p. 522)

Personality theories focus on underlying processes that occur in everyone, although individuals differ due to various factors; most namedly, trait approaches. Trait approaches describe consistent behavioural tendencies over time and situations. Traits exist on a continuum, with most people falling in the middle and few at the extremes.

1.2 Projective Measures (p. 535)

Psychodynamic theory explores the role of unconscious conflicts in shaping personality, and projective measures are used to explore that by having individuals interpret ambiguous stimulus items. These projective measures to reveal hidden aspects of personality such as motives, wishes, and unconscious conflicts. However, projective measures have been criticized in the past: both for being subjective, and for being insufficiently validated.

2.7 Psychopathy (p. 510)

Psychopathy is characterized by a general disregard for the well-being of others. Those who exhibit high levels of psychopathy often exhibit callousness towards others and strategic behavior in the pursuit of their own goals; additionally, individuals with psychopathy tend to be impulsive and take risks, and have lower levels of fear compared to others.

2.3 Self-Compassion (p. 508)

Recent research suggests that treating yourself with self-compassion can improve your overall well-being. Self-compassion involves treating yourself with kindness, care, and acceptance during difficult times. This approach can lead to greater life satisfaction and fewer feelings of depression, and has been found to be a good predictor of better mental health during the first year of college. If you want to practice self-compassion, treat yourself as you would treat a good friend. For instance, when a good friend makes a mistake, you might offer comfort by reminding them that everyone makes mistakes. Similarly, during difficult times, show yourself compassion by being gentle and understanding towards yourself. This approach can help to improve your self-esteem and well-being.

3.1 Better-than-Average Effect (p. 511)

Research consistently shows that people have a tendency to show favouritism to anything they associate with themselves, includes preferring things they own or even the letters in their name. The positive views of self can seem inflated, as most people describe themselves as above average in almost every way, despite the statistical impossibility of this: this phenomenon is referred to as the better-than-average effect, with those with high self-esteem being more likely to exhibit it.

1.1 Assessing Personality (p. 533)

Researchers have different methods for assessing personality: thoughts, emotional responses, and behaviours. The chosen method depends on theoretical orientation; for example, trait researchers use personality descriptions, while humanistic psychologists use whole-person approaches. Psychodynamic theorists assess unconscious forces, and use one of four main methods to assess personality: projective measures, self-report measures, naturally occurring assessments, and observational methods.

4.3 Basic Tendencies and Characteristic Adaptions (p. 531)

Researchers use the terms basic tendencies and characteristic adaptations to describe changes in personality over time. Basic tendencies are largely determined by biology and therefore very stable, while characteristic , adaptations are adjustments to situational demands, and don't indicate changes in basic tendencies (despite being fairly concistent). Changes in behaviour produced by characteristic adaptations are often necessary to adjust to new circumstances. For example, an extraverted man may party and have multiple partners in his youth, but later enjoy traveling and having many friends: both reflect his basic tendency of extraversion.

2.4 Conditions of Worth (p. 519)

Rogers believed that most parents provide love and support that are conditional. That is, parents love and support their children on the condition that the children do what the parents want them to do and live up to the parents' standards. This condition creates a discrepancy between the children's sense of self and development of a personality based on conditions of worth. Parents who do not approve of their children's behavior may withhold their love and support. As a result, children quickly abandon their true feelings, dreams, and desires. They accept only those parts of themselves that elicit parental love and support. Thus, as children grow older they may lose touch with their true selves as they attempt to develop a personality that depends on getting approval from others.

2.3 Personality Development (p. 519)

Rogers's theory highlights the importance of people's treatment by others in influencing personality and sense of self. In other words, we are influenced by the extent to which others love us and accept us, in spite of our faults or weaknesses. For example, our relationship partners take us for better or for worse, which allows us to be genuine in our relationships and true to ourselves. For Rogers, love and acceptance are especially important during childhood, when personality and feelings about the self are affected by the way parents show affection for their children.

1.2 Self-Concept (p. 504)

Self-concept encompasses an individual's thoughts, beliefs, and feelings about themselves, including their physical body and awareness of being unique; it includes various aspects such as gender, age, family status, interpersonal style, personal characteristics, and physical traits. A clear self-concept helps individuals maintain a sense of consistency over time, and can influences individuals in many ways.

2.1 Self-Esteem (p. 507)

Self-esteem is an evaluative aspect of self-concept that reflects how someone values or feels about themselves. Even if they acknowledge positive qualities, it's possible for someone to have low self-esteem. During adolescence, self-esteem tends to decrease and is at its lowest for young women aged 18-22. However, in young adulthood, self-esteem tends to increase and peaks in the 60s before declining towards the end of life. Women often have lower self-esteem than men, especially during adolescence, although the gap appears to be narrowing.

2.2 Reflected Appraisal (p. 507)

Several theories suggest that self-esteem is linked to reflected appraisal, which refers to an individual's perception of how others see them. When a person internalizes the values and beliefs expressed by significant people in their life, they tend to adopt these attitudes and behaviours as their own. As a result, they start treating themselves the way they believe others would treat them. This implies that if someone perceives that the important people in their life do not value them, they may struggle to develop positive self-regard.

1.1 Freud's Psychodynamic Theory (p. 515)

Sigmund Freud was a physician who developed ideas about personality by observing patients, and believed many problems were caused by psychological rather than physical factors. From his clinical work, Freud developed his psychodynamic theory of personality, which suggests that unconscious forces like wishes, desires, and hidden memories determine behavior and influence personality. Freud's ideas are controversial and not well-supported by scientific research; despite this, his theories had a significant impact on psychological thinking for much of its early history.

3.4 Sociability (p. 529)

Sociability reflects the child's inclination to socialize with others. Children who score high on sociability tend to seek the company of others rather than spending time alone.

3.3 Social Comparison and Sense of Self (p. 512)

Social comparison happens when you compare your actions, abilities, and beliefs with those of others; it's more common when there is no objective standard (such as comparing financial success), and is an important way of understanding actions and emotions.

4.3 Learning Goal Check: Review (p. 514)

Specify whether a person from Japan or from Australia is more likely to have a sense of self that emphasizes strong relationships with family. A person from a collectivist culture, such as the culture in Japan, is more likely to have a sense of self that emphasizes strong relationships with family than a person from an individualistic culture, such as the culture in Australia.

3.8 Learning Goal Check: Review & Apply (p. 513)

Specify whether each of the following reflects positive illusions, an upward comparison, a downward comparison, a temporal comparison, or a self-serving bias. 1. Looking back, Elizabeth feels she has developed wisdom because she made poor decisions earlier in life. temporal comparison 2. Aspiring musician Kendra frets that she is not as successful as Billie Eilish. upward comparison 3. Trevor, who claims that he is a great driver, says that black ice was responsible for his car crash. self-serving bias 4. Rebekah feels happy when she realizes she has the biggest house in her neighborhood. downward comparison 5. Jeffrey expects to become a millionaire before age 40. positive illusions

2.4 Strong Situations (p. 538)

Strong situations such as elevators, religious services, and job interviews tend to hide personality difference. This is because of the strong influence of the social environment.

1.9 Learning Goal Check: Review & Apply (p. 537)

Suppose you want to know whether a person is high or low on the personality dimensions of the dark triad. Which would provide the more accurate measure: self-reports or observational methods? Explain. Self-reports can be biased because people are motivated to view and present themselves in a positive light. Observational methods tend to be accurate for traits that are easily observable. Therefore, observational methods might be more accurate than self-reports for assessing dark triad characteristics.

3.1 Temperament (p. 529)

Temperament is the biologically based tendency to feel or act in certain ways, broader than personality traits, and is often assessed at 14 months of age. It tends to predicts personality characteristics. There are three aspects of temperament: activity level, emotionality, and sociability. It's suggested that these three aspects are the main personality factors influenced by genes, and that they tend to persist throughout an individual's life; evidence from twin studies, adoption studies, and family studies support this.

3.6 Temporal Comparison (p. 512)

Temporal comparison refers to a type of downward comparison where individuals perceive their present self as superior to their past self.

1.1 Behaviours and Personalities (p. 526)

Tendencies reflect personality, which includes thoughts, emotions, and behaviours, and is linked to biological processes.

4.7 The Five Factor Theory (p. 523)

The Five-Gavtory theory identifies five basic personality traits known as the Big Five: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Two of these reflect Eysenck's theory: extraversion (introversion/extraversion dimension) and neuroticism (unstable/stable dimension). Each factor can be present at varying degrees, creating unique individuals, and the theory is evidence-based, appearingacross cultures. It seems to predict various behaviours, as well as satisfaction with life, job, and marriage.

1.3 Rorschach Inkblot Test (p. 535)

The Rorschach inkblot test is a well-known projective measure in which individuals describe what they see in an inkblot. This is intended to reveal unconscious conflicts and other problems. The Rorschach has been known for producing false positives for psychological disorders in both adults and children, though, resulting in much criticsm.

1.4 Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) (p. 535)

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is classic projective measure developed by Christiana Morgan and Henry Murray in order to study motives related to personality, such as achievement motivation. The TAT involves looking at an ambiguous picture and telling a story about it, which is scored based on the motivational themes that emerge from the story. Thus far, the TAT has been useful for measuring motivational traits (especially those related to achievement, power, and affiliation), and it continues to be used in contemporary research.

2.5 The Dark Triad (p. 510)

The dark triad of personality traits consists of narcissism, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism, which are associated with self-promotion, dishonesty, and aggression. These traits are characterized by a lack of empathy, a willingness to be dishonest, and a low level of agreeableness. Despite society's negative view of these traits, research has found that possessing the dark triad traits can lead to career success, such as making more money, holding leadership positions, and winning political elections. However, while the dark triad traits may provide benefits in the short term, they ultimately have negative consequences for social relationships and personal well-being.

1.6 Electronically Activated Record (EAR) (p. 536)

The electronically activated record (EAR) is an example of a method for assessing personality in real-life situations. It is a device that records snippets of conversation and auditory information in daily interactions. Studies using the EAR have shown that personality traits predicted by self-report, such as the five-factor theory, correspond to real-world behaviors. For example, extraverts talk more and spend less time alone, agreeable people swear less, conscientious people attend class more, and people open to experience spend more time in restaurants, bars, and coffee shops.

4.8 OCEAN (p. 523)

The five-factor theory includes five personality traits called the Big Five: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. The first letters of each personality trait can be used to create the mnemonic "OCEAN", making it easy to remember the five traits.

2.2 Personality in Identical vs. Fraternal Twins (p. 527)

The five-factor theory of personality has been supported by various studies, which demonstrate greater similarity in personality traits between identical twins than between fraternal twins. The majority of these twin studies indicate that genetic factors account for approximately half (40-60 percent) of the individual differences in all personality traits.

1.5 Id (p. 517)

The id is the first structure in Freud's model of personality organization, which exists in the unconscious and operates according to the pleasure principle, pushing you to seek pleasure and avoid pain. It's also associated with the libido (which was used by Freud in a broader sense, rather than the typically sexual connotation it holds today): the energy that drives pleasure-seeking impulses and desires, is associated with the id.

2.2 Person-Centered Approach (p. 519)

The most prominent humanistic psychologist, Carl Rogers, introduced a person-centered approach to understanding personality and human relationships. In the therapeutic technique Rogers developed, the therapist creates a supportive and accepting environment. The therapist and the client deal with the client's problems and concerns as the client understands them Rogers emphasized two issues as crucial in the development of personality. The first issue is your personal understanding of your life-that is, your self-concept. The second issue is how others see you and evaluate you, which affects your self-esteem.

1.6 Superego (p. 517)

The superego, which is the second structure, primarily functions to inhibit the id's impulses. While mostly residing in the unconscious, the superego is established during childhood and reflects moral standards learned from society and parental figures. It represents a firm structure of conscience or morality.

2.8 Machiavellianism (p. 510)

The term Machiavellianism derives from the name of the Italian philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli, who, during the 1500s, advocated dishonest practices, such as deception and dishonesty, as valuable means to achieve political objectives. The personality trait associated with this term refers to individuals who use manipulative tactics to benefit themselves and exhibit a disregard for conventional ethical values.

1.7 Ego (p. 517)

The third structure in Freud's model of personality organization is the ego, which acts as a mediator between the id and superego: it's aim is to fulfill the id's desires while adhering to the superego's rules. The ego operates according to the *reality principle*, which involves rational thinking and problem-solving. Freud's psychodynamic theory suggests that the unique interactions between the id, superego, and ego are responsible for individual differences in personality.

2.1 Personality Research in Twins (p. 527)

There is strong evidence that genes influence nearly all personality traits. Twin research has been used to study how genes affect personality, using both identical twins (who share the same genes), and fraternal twins (who don't necessarily share the same genes). Genes explain about half of the differences in personality traits between people, although are no specific genes for any particular personality trait: rather, the combined actions of hundreds of genes influence personality overall.

2.5 Unconditional Positive Regard (p. 519)

To prevent conditions of worth, Rogers encouraged parents to accept and prize their children no matter how the children behave or how well they meet parents' expectations, an approach called unconditional positive regard. That is, he emphasized that parents should separate their evaluations of the child's behavior from their evaluations of the child. Unconditional positive regard helps children develop personalities based on their true selves. In other words, the best way parents can help children develop their true personalities is to express disapproval of the children's bad behavior while at the same time expressing their love for the children. According to Rogers, children raised with unconditional positive regard will develop a healthy sense of self-esteem and have a better chance to fulfill their personal growth. Research has provided support for Rogers's theory.

3.4 Downward Comparison (p. 512)

Typically, individuals with high self-esteem engage in downward comparisons, where they compare themselves with individuals that they perceive as inferior.

2.1 Humanistic Approaches (p. 518)

Until the early 1950s, most theories of personality painted a rather bleak view of people. For example, Freud's theories emphasized a dark side filled with anxiety and conflict. Against this backdrop, a new and more positive view of personality began to emerge. Humanistic approaches emphasize how your unique goodness, growth, and self-understanding influence your personality. These approaches propose that you seek to fulfill your potential for personal growth through greater self-understanding, culminating in self-actualization.

2.5 Weak Situations (p. 538)

Weak situations such as parks, bars, and one's home tend to expose differences in personality. This is because the social environment has a weak influence on behaviour.

1.4 Working Self-Concept (p. 506)

Working self-concept is the immediate experience of the self at a moment in time, and depends on the personal information being processed at that time. Self-descriptions are influenced by memories, people, situations, and roles in those situations; working self-concept influences behaviour, emphasizing characteristics that make one distinct from others. People tend to mention characteristics such as ethnicity, gender, or age when they differ from others around them; however, people generally try to avoid standing out from the crowd too much.

2.7 Learning Goal Check: Apply (p. 539)

Your favourite psychology professor seems very friendly in the classroom but also reserved and quite formal. At a recent rock concert, you see that professor dancing like a wild person and singing at the top of her lungs. Use the concepts of strong situation and weak situation to explain why you should not be surprised. A classroom is a strong situation that guides your professor's behaviour, and the social norms for how one behaves in a classroom tend to mask individual differences in personality that might emerge in a weak situation, such as a rock concert.

5.4 Learning Goal Check: Apply (p. 525)

Your friend Chloe is considering two possible roommates. She finds Maddie interesting because they are both a bit shy, they both like to go to bed early, and they both enjoy binge watching the same shows. But Nakisha is an intriguing roommate possibility because she is way more outgoing, spontaneous, and party-loving than Maddie is. Chloe thinks that rooming with Nakisha might encourage her to socialize more often. What advice should you give Chloe about selecting a roommate? You should explain to Chloe that she is most likely to live successfully with someone who is similar to her- in this case, Maddie.