Psychology of Drugs and Behaviour Final Content
What is the past year use of cocaine for Canadians aged 15 and older?
About 2%
Describe what occurs to mescaline once ingested.
Absorbed readily from the digestive tract but passes poorly through the blood brain barrier
The early use of khat was in the form of a beverage called...
Abyssinian tea
What are the most common ways of administering DMT?
Inhalation or smoking, although it may be injected
What occurs in the cholinergic nervous system?
Involved in many life sustaining physiological functions, as well as learning and memory
Describe the process of using the cloth strip containing the amphetamine from the Benzedrine.
It was found that the desired effect could be made stronger if the nasal inhaler was cracked open and the cloth strip containing the amphetamine was removed to either be chewed, brewed into a tea, or placed on a cloth or in a bag and used like a solvent
What is methcathinone sometimes used as a substitute for?
Meth
Why is Oxycontin the most widely abused prescription medication?
Oxycontin is a time releasing drug, but when crushed the dosage can be received all at once (snorted or injected) instead of a small dose with a few hours
Where in Ontario does the highest production of methamphetamine occur?
Perth County
Describe the reward system of the brain in relation to stimulants.
The reward system of the brain involves neural pathways extending from the VTA to the nucleus accumbens and the final important neurochemical result seems to be an increase in dopaminergic activity in the nucleus accumbens. This is what is called the *mesolimbic, dopaminergic reward pathway*.
Modern technology makes data collection easy, what is a negative component to this? (relating to stimulants)
Qualitative description of the motor effects of stimulants is lost
Describe the use of ibogaine by heroin addicts.
Users felt that the ibogaine experience was potentially healing, and eventually ibogaine gained a reputation among heroine users as useful if they were trying to quit
Why are opiates termed "narcotics"?
Termed narcotics from the Greek word "narke" meaning numb, sleep or stupor
What are the effects of psilocybin?
Variable, cannot be consistently produced in a lab setting
When hydrocodone is combined with acetaminophen what is it known as?
Vicodin
What drug has been discussed for the treatment of cocaine addiction?
Vigabatrin
The hallucinogens comprise a very...class of drugs.
The hallucinogens comprise a very chemically heterogenous class of drugs, unlike any other drug classifications.
What effects does myristicin and elemicin have on the body?
The initial effects include nausea and vomiting which gives way after about 2 hours to a weak hallucinogenic effect. It is commonly reported that people need only one administration to dissuade them from further use.
What was the main reason for a decline in barbiturate abuse?
The introduction of benzodiazepines
What is the main difference between crack and cocaine hydrochloride?
The method of administration
How is salvia divinorum administered?
The most common methods if use are chewing a quid, smoking in the form of a cigarette, or making a tea.
Why was LSD used in psychotherapy in the 50s and 60s?
The rationale was that while under the influence of the drug the user would more openly communicate about inner feelings and also be more open to therapeutic suggestions.
Why was methcathinone synthesized?
To treat depression
Describe the modern day use of khat.
Typically the leaves are chewed in the afternoon or in the evening at a social party
Describe opium.
Unrefined, gummy, brown residue that is collected from the opium poppy seed capsule
How long do the effects of ibogaine last?
Up to 30hrs
Describe atropines' effects on the cholinergic system and the resulting physiological effects.
- Atropine blocks cholinergic receptors reducing neural activity in cholinergic pathways. Physiological effects include... - At low doses the drug may produce an initial increase in general arousal. - At only slightly higher doses do sedative effects begin to appear, producing a semi-awake, dream-like state in which the user may experience pleasing hallucinations, vivd, often erotic, dreams and a sense of weightlessness often reported as the sensation of flying. - Upon awakening the user may have a difficult time realizing that the hallucinations and dreams were not real and may exhibit anterograde amnesia. - At higher doses the phase of pleasantness is replaced with much more powerful and frightening images, often producing a psychotic-like reaction. Since the experience can be quite frightening, repeated recreational use is typically unheard of.
Describe the use of buprenorphine as a treatment for opiate addiction.
- Available as Subutex (just buprenorphine) or Suboxone (buprenorphine + naloxone) - Both forms are taken as sublingual tablets, and when taken this way the naloxone in Suboxone has no effect. - If the user were to crush the tablet in order to inject it, then the naloxone does exert an antagonistic action.
What is the street name for methcathinone?
"cat"
What is the name for methamphetamine when it is injected?
"crank"
What is the most common street name for barbiturates?
"downers"
What is the name for methamphetamine when it is smoked?
"ice"
What is the common street name for psilocybin?
"shrooms"
What did Aztec and Mayan people call psilocybin mushrooms?
"teonanactl", which means "flesh of the gods"
Describe the rating scale for stimulant motor effects (of a rat) produced by Robbins et al.
*Hyperactive*: The first drug effect will be a noticeable increase in motor behaviour characterized by running and rapid jerky changes in position *Slow-patterned*: The actual pace of movement will have slowed but there is now a discernible pattern, such as moving around the perimeter of the box. *Fast-patterned*: The pace of movements increases, there is a pattern to the movements, but there are sudden stops and starts. *In place, restricted*: One of the more interesting effects and very relevant to stimulant psychosis in humans. Now the patterned behaviour is broken up by prolonged period of remaining in one place and making repetitive movements with the head, legs or entire body. These repetitive non-functional behaviours are called stereotypies: dyskinetic, convulsive-retropulsion (jumping backwards), jumping in place, convulsions, possibly death
Describe "Holyfire" or "St. Anthony's Fire".
- "Holyfire" or "St. Anthony's Fire" may have resulted from the strong vasoconstrictive action of lysergic acid amide that had been baked into bread made from infected grains. - The restriction of blood flow to the limbs caused by the vasoconstriction leads to a sensation of warmth (hence "fire"). - If the vasoconstriction prolonged the affected limb may actually die and fall off. - When a person with "holy fire" made a pilgrimage to St. Anthony's shrine the may have been cured because they removed themselves form the locale with the infected grain.
What are the symptoms of ergotism?
- "holy fire" - Tingling sensation on the skin - Convulsions - Disordered thinking - Hallucinations
What effects do opiates exert on the body?
- "tingling" orgasmic feeling at the beginning - Tranquil drowsiness - Nausea and vomiting in first time users, then tolerance develops - Depressed respiration - Dilation of peripheral blood vessels, flushing - Constricted pupils - Constipation results from the drug induced increase in the tension of muscles in the GI tract - Effective cough suppressants - Relief of pain, analgesia
The first piece of drug legislation in Canada was the 1908 Opium Act, what was the next legislation to follow?
- 1911 Opium and Drug Act - Made possession of opium a crime - Expanded police powers to search and seizure - Made cocaine an illegal substance
What are the four categories of hallucinogens?
- 3 being based on neurotransmitter characterizations - 1 being a miscellaneous group - Cholinergic hallucinogens: atropine and scopolamine (cholinergic agonists), arecoline, ibotenic acid (cholinergic antagonist) - Serotenergic or 5-HT: LSD, psilocybin mushrooms, DMT, lysergic acid amide, bufotenine - Methylated amphetamines, also termed noradrenergic hallucinogens: mescaline from the peyote cactus, MDMA (ecstasy) - Other hallucinogens: the dissociative anaesthetics PCP and ketamine, salvinorin
Describe the impact of barbiturates on GABA.
- Barbiturates enhance the inhibitory actions of GABA. - Barbiturates bind to specific sites on the GABA subunit, increasing the affinity of GABA for its receptor and prolonging the time that the ion channel remains open.
Describe the impact of MDMA on neurotransmitters.
- MDMA causes release of serotonin and dopamine, and is particularly effective in causing the release of serotonin. - MDMA and MDA also seem to block the reuptake of serotonin thereby causing a prolonged and intense period of serotonergic activation. - There is evidence that drugs that cause a concomitant excess activation of dopamine and serotonin can cause permanent damage to these neurotransmitter systems.
What is the reported percentage of lifetime use and past year use of barbiturates?
- Lifetime use: 4% - Past year use: 2%
Describe the actions of vanoxerine.
- Like cocaine, this drug blocks the reuptake of dopamine, in fact it is a more potent reuptake blocker than cocaine, but it also inhibits the release of dopamine. - Vanoxerine blocks stimulant self-administration in rats and monkeys.
Describe ultra short-acting barbiturates.
- Little street use - Most commons ones are hexobarbital and thiopental (pentothal)
In brain areas involving learning and memory damaged nerve endings do not regrow resulting in...
...a permanent lowering of serotonergic functioning.
Heavy users of absinthe were reported to...
...act strangely and report hearing voices and seeing things, sometimes experience convulsions.
Many drugs classified as hallucinogens do not...
...actually produce hallucinations.
It is estimated that from 2-4% of the general population has at some point had a disorder classifiable as...
...an anxiety disorder.
Opiates have been used as...
...analgesics.
Describe the self-administration and conditioned place preference of stimulants.
- A large number of studies have consistently demonstrated the rewarding properties of stimulants in both the self-administration and conditioned place preference procedures in rats, monkeys and other infrahumans. - Self-administration patterns are very rapid, over a few days, where the infusions are increased and dose to the point of behavioural disruption. - Found that stimulants produce some of the highest break points, with cocaine being the highest among all stimulants
Describe paraldehyde.
- A sedative hypnotic - Has been used to control alcohol withdrawal - Tastes bad - A large percentage is expired via the lungs producing an unpleasant smell
Describe potassium bromide.
- A sedative hypnotic - Use has been largely discontinued due to toxicity - Bromide toxicity occurs because bromides are slowly excreted by the kidneys. - Half life is about 12 days - Symptoms of bromide intoxication include impaired thought and memory, delirium, hallucinations, mania, and coma.
Describe chloral hydrate.
- A sedative hypnotic - Was combined with alcohol to produce what was known as "knock out drops" or "Micke Finn" - Sometimes used as a date rape drug
What is hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD)?
- A term used for more long lasting, distressing, recurrent, and only slowly reversible psychedelic experiences occurring well after the last drug use. - Again it is difficult to estimate the prevalence but an estimate of around 4% of users has been published.
Describe 5-MeO-DIPT.
- A tryptamine type hallucinogen - Also known as foxy - Often sold as ecstasy at raves and parties, "fake ecstasy"
Describe French Wine Cola.
- A wine containing cocaine produced by John Pemberton in 1885 as an imitation drink - A few years later he produced another cocaine containing beverage that had soda water and extract of the kola nut instead of wine, now known as Coca Cola. - Cocaine was removed from the coca leaves and used in the manufacture of Coca Cola in 1906 - The decocainized coca leaves are still used in the production of Coca Cola
Describe Vin Mariani.
- A wine with cocaine in it - Developed by Angelo Mariani in 1863 - Marketed as using the finest French wine to extract cocaine from the coca leaves - Advertised primarily as a ladies' tonic - Endorsed by MANY important people (including popes)
What is the naturally occurring opiate? Describe it.
- Alkaloids of the poppy plant - Flowers coloured red, pink, white, purple - Poppy seeds come from the same plant - Garden varieties of the poppy plant do not contain psychoactive substances
Describe the effects of stimulants on the neurotransmitter system.
- Alterations in dopaminergic activity are thought to be involved in virtually all of the most important effects of stimulants. - Some drugs prevent GABA from controlling the amount of dopamine released, resulting in more dopamine being released into the system - Other drugs of abuse act primary on the dopamine projections to the nucleus accumbens, either by blocking the reuptake of released dopamine or by causing the release of dopamine from presynaptic terminals. - Other actions: release of norepinephrine and serotonin
What is the name of the sleep aid developed in order to produce a more specific sedative effect without any anxiolytic action?
- Ambien - Specifically binds to GABA receptors
According to the World Health Organization how many individuals abuse amphetamine/methamphetamine and how many individuals abuse cocaine?
- Amphetamine/methamphetamine: 35 million - Cocaine: 15 million
What is Dexedrine?
- Another trade name for Ephedrine but it is in pill form - It was recommended for the treatment of narcolepsy, weight reduction, and attention deficit disorder
What was MDA investigated for?
- Appetite suppressant - Antidepressant - In the treatment for Parkinson's disease
Describe the psychoactive effects mandragora officinarum produces at various doses.
- At low doses it acts as a depressant and has been used as a sedative hypnotic type of drug. - At higher doses it produces hallucinations and delirium.
What cholinergic blockers are present in datura stramonium?
- Atropine - Scopolamine - Hyoscyamine
What psychoactive substances does mandragora officinarum contain?
- Atropine - Scopolamine - Hyoscyamine
Release of dopamine and serotonin together results in a potential euro-toxic effect, specifically with amphetamine use. This results in...
...brain damage. MDMA is the most likely to produce these issues, and is the most recreationally used.
How many pounds of coca leaves does it take to produce one pound of cocaine?
400 pounds of coca leaves
What is the past year use of MDMA?
5%, not differing between males and females
How many types of plants contain substances capable of producing hallucinogenic or deliriant effects?
6000 different plants
Describe an indication of cocaine addiction.
It takes several days for the nerve cells to replenish the dopamine levels - some people can ride this out but others need to take another hit (this is an addiction)
What is the most common street name for MDA?
EVE
MDA is a metabolite of...
...MDMA (ecstasy) and may account for many of MDMA's effects.
Describe the self-administration and conditioned place preference of barbiturates.
- Barbiturates reinforce behaviours in rats, mice, dogs, non-human primates and a variety of other species - The reinforcing power of barbiturates is related to the speed of onset, with the intermediate and particularly the short acting drugs being the most reinforcing. - Barbiturates have been found to produce high break points, often similar to those of cocaine, and generally seem to possess some of the greatest reinforcing effects of all drugs. - Conflicting results have been reported for the effects of barbiturates in the conditioned place preference procedure. Most studies have reported no evidence of a conditioned place preference and often find a conditioned place aversion with barbiturates.
What did Dr. Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert do?
- Began research on psilocybin and LSD at Harvard - These "researchers" eventually started freely distributing the drug and told young people to "turn on" to acid.
Describe the use of atropa belladonna in a beauty regiments.
- Belladonna (meaning "beautiful woman") comes from an ancient use in which women would install the juice of nightshade berries in their eyes to cause pupil dilation. - Women with large pupils were considered to be more beautiful.
What are the three other over the counter medications commonly used for the hallucinogenic effect?
- Benadryl - Gravol - Expectorant in cough medications
Describe the effects of benzodiazepine on learning and memory.
- Benzodiazepines interfere with learning and memory which is consistent with the observation that they suppress long term potentiation (LTP), a brain process involved in the storage of new information. - Benzodiazepines are very effective in producing anterograde amnesia (a failure of memory for events occurring from the point of drug administration to when the blood level returns to near zero levels)
Describe the self-administration and conditioning place preference of PCP and ketamine.
- Both PCP and ketamine will be self-administered by rats, monkeys, and dogs. - Both PCP and ketamine do not seem to readily support a conditioned place preference.
What does methcathinone do to the neurotransmitter system?
- Causes release of dopamine in the VTA thereby producing a euphoric effect - Consistent with this finding, animals will self-administer methcathinone - Similar effects to methamphetamine
Describe stimulant psychosis.
- Characterized by unpredictable swings between intense emotion and blunted affect, hallucinatory phenomena, paranoid ideation in a setting of clear consciousness - More commonly seen in individuals who have been taking repeated doses over a short period of time (a binge) or who take regular does over longer periods - Sufferers often report feeling small insects crawling on or under their skin and will pick and claw at these insects. This is referred to as the *formication syndrome*, but users call them "speed bugs" or "crank bugs". - Stimulant psychosis produces obsessive compulsive behaviours in humans. These behaviours are analogous to the stereotypies discussed in the behavioural rating for stimulant effects in rats.
Describe amanita muscaria.
- Cholinergic agonist hallucinogen - "flying agaric mushroom", called this because of the practice of putting slices of the mushroom in milk in order to attract and kill flies - Found widely distributed in temperate zones of the Northern hemisphere - Physical description: bright red cap, speckled with white dots
Describe ibogaine.
- Cholinergic agonist hallucinogen - Often used by native Gabonese hunters who chew the yellowish root of the plant. This results in only low doses and at these levels it acts mainly as a stimulant allowing the hunters to endure long treks and search for food.
Describe datura stramonium.
- Cholinergic antagonist hallucinogen - Also known as jimsonweed, Jamestown weed, thorn apple, loco weed, devil's weed, and stinkweed
Describe atropa belladonna.
- Cholinergic antagonist hallucinogen - Atropine is an alkaloid of atropa belladonna, known as deadly nightshade or apples, the latter because it was thought to be an aphrodisiac. - The plant is a member of the tomato/potato family. - Physical description: produces bell-shaped purplish flowers tinged with green and has soft, bluish-black berries
Describe henbane.
- Cholinergic antagonist hallucinogen - Strong smelling herb - Physical description: purple veined, yellowish flowers and hairy leaves
Describe mandragora officinarum.
- Cholinergic antagonist hallucinogen - The mandrake (meaning "potent male") - A member of the tomato/potato family
Describe the physical dependence developed for opiates.
- Clear that physical dependence develops - Some users use the drug only occasionally, being able to exert some type of control over their use, and these users are known as "chippers". - Opiate withdrawal symptoms are not life threatening and mainly resemble flu-like symptoms. - Withdrawal symptoms: craving, widely dilated pupils, intestinal spasms and diarrhea, chills, gooseflesh, profuse sweating, weight loss, twitching of the extremities, pain throughout the body
How is crack produced?
- Coca leaves are placed in a chemical solvent which extracts the cocaine from the coca leaves. - The leaves are removed, and acid, water and kerosene are added to the remaining liquid. - The cocaine is trapped by the kerosene and floats to the top of the liquid since kerosene floats on water. - The kerosene with the cocaine is skimmed off and when it dries it is about 60% pure cocaine. This is called *coca paste*. - The coca paste may be smoked or further processed. - The coca paste is treated with oxidizing agents and acids to produce a white powder, cocaine hydrochloride which is about 99% pure. This product may be injected or snorted. - Crack is derived from cocaine hydrochloride by treating it with an alkaline solution like water and baking soda. This "frees the base" from the salt. - The free-base alkaloid cocaine volatizes at lower temperatures and thus may be smoked.
What are the names of some other well known cocaine containing drinks produced during this time era?
- Cola-Bola - AZ-MA-SYDE - Dr. Tercher's - Ryno Hay Fever Remedy (supposedly 90% pure cocaine powder)
Describe peyote intoxication.
- Coloured visions in kaleidoscopic movement - Often accompanied by auditory, taste, olfactory, and tactile hallucinations - Sensations of weightlessness - Depersonalization - Alterations in time perception - Nausea - Vomiting - Headaches - Hangover - Sympathetic arousal: dilated pupils, along with increased heart rate, blood pressure, and body temperature
Describe the effects of benzodiazepine on sleep.
- Decreased latency to fall asleep - Decrease wakings during the night - Increase total sleeping time - Reduce REM sleep --> resulting in REM rebound upon withdrawal - Tolerance develops to these sleep effects!
Describe how benzodiazepines interact with GABA.
- Do not act directly on GABA receptors - Exert effects only in the presence of endogenous GABA - Evidence suggests that benzodiazepines increase or enhance the affinity of GABA for its receptors. This appears to be effected through specific benzodiazepine receptors that exist as a "satellite receptor" on the GABA receptor itself. - If the satellite receptor is occupied by an endogenous inhibitor, termed GABA-modulin, the GABA receptor will be in a low affinity binding state and GABA-mediated effects will be attenuated. - Benzodiazepines compete with GABA-modulin for occupation of the satellite receptor. When benzodiazepines occupy the satellite receptor, the GABA receptor switches to a high affinity binding state, and GABA activity is enhanced. - GABA is thought to open ion channels in all membranes allowing chloride ions to enter making it difficult to generate APs.
How does LSD produce its hallucinogenic effects? Describe the two theories associated with this question.
- Early research suggested that LSD suppressed firing of serotonin neurons in the raphe nuclei by acting as an agonist at presynaptic 5-HT1 receptors which serve a negative feedback regulatory function on serotonergic activity. The raphe nuclei are part of what is called the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) which is involved in the filtering of sensory information, and thus the hypothesis was that LSD interfered with this filtering leading to sensory distortions. - Some subsequent research however seemed to contradict this explanation, and a consensus grew that LSD produced its effects mainly via an agonistic action at post-synaptic 5-HT2 receptors. The evidence in favour of this hypothesis includes the findings that the magnitude of a drug's hallucinogenic effects correlates strongly with the drug's potency of 5-HT2 binding, and blocking 5-HT2 receptors antagonizes the hallucinogenic effects of LSD. - Although it is believed that agonism at 5-HT2 receptors is critically involved in LSD's hallucinogenic effects there is new evidence that the original mechanism of agonism at 5-HT1 receptors suppressing raphe activity is relevant.
What three artists created paintings of absinthe?
- Edgar Degas - Picasso - Viktor Oliver
Describe gamma-hydroxybutyrate or gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB).
- Effects: relaxataion, mild euphoria, drowsiness, loss of consciousness, amnesia - GHB is called liquid ecstasy, easy lay, and nature's quaalude - Can be used as a "date rape" drug - Odourless and colourless liquid with a slight salty taste - GHB can be synthesized from the proper combination of degreasing solvent, floor strippers, and drain cleaner. - GHB has an anxiolytic action like the benzodiazepines as evidenced by an increase in time spent on the open arms in the elevated plus maze task and this effect is antagonized by flumazenil suggesting a mechanism of action similar to that of the benzodiazepine. - There is evidence of tolerance and physical dependence with withdrawal symptoms. - There is evidence that GHB may activate the central dopamine reward system. - Initial conclusion GHB was not particularly reinforcing in infrahumans there seems to be a growing consensus that the drug can display reinforcing properties.
What is Benzedrine?
- Ephedrines' trade name - Available as an inhaler for the treatment of asthma and nasal congestion resulting from colds and allergies - Available without prescription
What effects does PCP have on the body?
- Euphoria - Numbness - Loss of motor coordination - Catatonia - Initial nystagmus, eventually a fixed stare - Distortion of body image with the perception that parts of the body are particularly large or small - Paranoia - Auditory hallucinations - Extreme mood changes going from almost no emotional affect to outbursts - Agressive hostility - Stereotypies
List the effects of stimulants on the body.
- Euphoria and initial feeling of well-being - Increased energy, power, superiority, alertness, visor, and attentional focus - Reduced fatigue and appetite - Heightened sexuality (resulting unsafe sex practices among most genders and sexualities) Activate the sympathetic nervous system: "fight or flight" reaction --> - Increased heart rate - Increased body temperature - Increased blood pressure - Increased respiratory rate - Sweating - Vasoconstriction - Bronchodilation - Pupil dilation
What are the effects of DMT on the body?
- Excitability - "other worldly experience" - Numbness of the limbs - Twitching of the facial muscles - Nausea - Hallucinations
Describe Rohypnol.
- Known as "roofies" - Often used as a "date rape" drug - Victims cannot recall what occurred
Describe the "flashbacks" associated with LSD.
- Flashbacks are unexpected psychedelic experiences long after the most recent use of LSD. - The causes of said flashbacks are uncertain. - One generally acknowledged explanation is that the user is simply responding to some cue related to a previous drug experience that evokes a particularly vivid memory.
Describe bufotenine.
- Found in a variety of plants, as well as certain fish and toads - Used by indigenous peoples as snuff known as yopa and cohoba - Supposedly people have tried to ingest bufotenine from toads by licking the animal or by drying the secretions and then smoking them.
Describe dimethyltryptamine (DMT).
- Found in several species of plant - The reddish bark is used as a snuff, known by many names such as yoga, choose, or yakee. - Easily synthesized
Describe Freud's involvement with cocaine.
- Freud would often include small packets of cocaine in letters singing the praises of cocaine he sent to his finance and friends. - Freud eventually turned against cocaine and considered it one of the scourges of mankind.
Describe methaqualone.
- Gives a heroin-like high - Street names: "ludes" and "disco biscuits" - Sometimes called "the love drug" because some female users report that it enhances sex at lower doses - A common form of recreational use as to take a few ludes and consume a large quantity of alcohol. This very dangerous practice is called *"luding out"*. - No longer legally manufactured (schedule 1 drug) - The drug produces physical dependence with severe withdrawal symptoms similar to those of barbiturate withdrawal.
What are the names of the opium containing tonics produced?
- Godfrey's Cordial - A Pennysworth of Peace - Mrs. Winslow's Soothing Syrup (received a lot of attention)
Describe Dr. Ernst Von Fleisch Marsow's involvement with cocaine.
- He was addicted to morphine - Freud suggested that he could get off this addiction by using cocaine which he then became addicted to. - He said that he could feel snakes under his skin, Freud called these "white snakes"
Describe the historical use of ibogaine.
- Ibogaine was sold in the 1960s in France as an over the counter medication for fatigue. - Some people found that if enough pills were taken they could experience a type of mystical or meditative effect during which what they identified as repressed childhood memories were unlocked.
What are the psychoactive substances found in amanita muscaria?
- Ibotenic acid - Muscimole
Describe laudanum.
- In 1520 a physician named Paracelsus created it - It is a medical drink containing opium, wine and other spices
When was the first modification of barbituric acid accomplished? Describe this compound.
- In 1903 by Fischer and von Mering - Compound was called diethylbarbituric acid - Generic name: barbital - Trade name: Veronal
When was LSD first synthesized? Describe what occurred.
- In 1983 by the Swiss chemist Albert Hoffman who was studying derivatives of the ergot fungus for their vasoconstrictive action and ability to give muscle tone to the uterus (which would control bleeding during childbirth). - Hoffman was not attempting to produce a hallucinogenic drug, but it did turn out that the 25th derivative he produced had strong hallucinogenic properties.
Describe the use of stimulants in treating ADD.
- In an investigation of children with symptoms like those associated with the current diagnosis of ADD were given spinal taps and afterwards they complained of headaches. - Charles Bradley suggested that Benzedrine given to these children to relieve the headaches, which actually seemed to control the original behavioural symptoms. - Stimulants are shown to improve symptoms in about 80% of cases - Stimulants produce a focusing of attention in the individuals with ADD
Animosity grew in western Canada against Chinese immigrants in the late 1800s and early 1900s, and this often resulted in violence. List some of the things that occurred as a result of the violence.
- In many cases, violence would occur following visits by anti-Chinese crusaders from the western US. This was the case in 1907 when a visit by such a crusader from San Francisco set off a full-scale riot in Vancouver. - Deputy Minister of Labour, Mackenzie King, was dispatched by the federal government to investigate. - King was approached by several Chinese businessmen during his investigation seeking compensation for damage to their opium importing and manufacturing business. - King suggested that opium trade be banned with three main reasons: the trade violated Christian ideals, the Chinese were making huge profits in the trade, use was increasing among Caucasian men and women - King's report lead to the first drug legislation in Canada, the 1908 Opium Act. This act made it illegal to import, manufacture, or sell opium for non-medical purposes, while possession or use were not made illegal.
Describe administration of opiates.
- Intravenous administrations is the method most people associate with opiate use, but it is actually the least common method of administration of opiates other than heroin. - Heroin may be snorted, but it is not a very effective method - Most opiates may be smoked - Oral administration is the most common method of use - Poppy tea is a an old method
When was mescaline first isolated and first synthesized?
- Isolated in 1896 by Arthur Heffter - Synthesized in 1918 by Ernst Spath
Describe the use of methadone maintenance as a treatment for opiate addiction.
- It is equal in potency to morphine as an analgesic but it is a weaker euphoriant (produces physical dependence) --> This can be done on an outpatient basis and therefore is much less costly than residential treatment. - Methadone maintenance is part of the "harm reduction" philosophy in treatment. - Patients must be drug free before beginning the program - Patients are given methadone in orange juice and after some period of time the patients are allowed "carrying privileges" to take some of their dose to use at home - Counseling is also a common combination with this treatment - Patients must test negative for heroin use and other drugs in order to remain in the program
Describe the tolerance to stimulants.
- Many of the effects of stimulants actually increase over the course of repeated administrations, but there are some effects that diminish - The bulk of the evidence seems to favour the conclusion that the rewarding effects of stimulants intensify with chronic administration. - BUT, in real life use doses are taken with varying intervals, sometimes resulting in chronic use which can cause acute depletion of dopamine which causes a reduction in the rewarding effects of the drug ^ THIS IS NOT CHRONIC TOLERANCE
What are the two historical myths associated with mandragora officinarum?
- Medieval lore has it that the plant grew wherever a hanged man's semen fell to the ground. - A hanged man would have an erection and ejaculation caused by the sudden snapping of the neck sending an impulse down the spinal cord. - Myth also has it that the plant shrieks when uprooted, driving mad anyone who hears it.
Describe salvia divinorum.
- Member of the mint family - Not an illegal substance - Similar potency to shrooms
What were some the drugs produced to try and reduce the undesired side effects of barbiturates used as medication?
- Methyprylon - Ethchlorvynol - Methaqualone (Quaalude or Mandrax)
What effects does khat have on the body?
- Mild mental stimulation - Feelings of contentment - Mild psychomotor excitation - Suppression of fatigue and the need for sleep - Anorexia
What is another name for benzodiazepines? Describe the reason for this other name.
- Minor tranquilizers - Used in order to distinguish benzodiazepines from the antipsychotics, which are called major tranquilizers because they produce a much more profound tranquillizing
What are the most important alkaloids present in opium?
- Morpine (10%) - Codeine (0.5%) - Thebaine (0.2%)
Describe long-acting benzodiazepines.
- Most are metabolized into long lasting, active metabolites - Most common: diazepam (Valium), chlorodiazepoxide (Librium) - Chlorodiazepoxide is metabolized into diazepam
What are the most common intermediate-acting benzodiazepines?
- Most common: lorazepam (Ativan), clonazepam (Klonopin), flunitrazepam (Rohypnol)
Describe short-acting benzodiazepines.
- Most common: midazolam (Versed), oxazepam (Serax), alprazolam (Xanax), triazolam (Halcion) - Often used as sleep inducing agents - Halcion become one of the most widely prescribed sleeping pill in the world (individuals may exhibit aggressive loss of control called "rage reaction", resulting in some homocides)
Describe the self-administration and conditioned place preference exhibited by benzodiazepines.
- Most do not reliably maintain responding in the self-administration paradigm and thus as a class the benzodiazepines are clearly less reinforcing than barbiturates. - The few benzodiazepines that do produce more reliable self-administration are generally some of the shorter-acting ones. - Evidence of conditioned place preference, not place preference (in all benzodiazepines)
Describe the self-administration and conditioned place preference of opiates.
- Most opiates are self-administered by rats, monkeys, and mice - Studies have shown that the rewarding effects of opiates seen in the self-administration paradigm are largely due to the ability of opiates to cause an increase in dopamine release in the VTA. - Most opiates support the development of conditioned place preferences - Opiates provide evidence of positively reinforcing effects in the two most commonly used paradigms for assessing the abuse liability of drugs - Opiates, as a group, have fairly high break points
What are two of the main opiate antagonists? Describe them.
- Naloxone and naltrexone - Naloxone is often used in emergency rooms to reverse opiate overdoses. It has an onset in minutes and an effective duration of about 30mins. - Up to 98% of naloxone is metabolized to an inactive form during first pass metabolism, and for this reason suboxone may be taken orally
Describe mescaline.
- Naturally occurring norepinephrine type hallucinogen - The active alkaloid in the peyote cactus - When used in the natural condition the cactus is sliced and often dried to form hard brownish discs. In this form the active ingredients remain potent indefinitely.
Describe thujone.
- Naturally occurring substance - Found in a variety of plants including sage, and most notably in wormwood - Wormwood was used in the production of absinthe - Thujone has a menthol odour which was a characteristic of the absinthe.
Describe psiocybin.
- Naturally occurring substance in a variety of mushrooms - Related to LSD - Taken by eating mushrooms or drinking a brew containing them
Describe heroin.
- Not a naturally occurring opiate in opium - Synthesized by C.R. Alder Wright in 1874 by adding two acetyl groups to the morphine molecule - Much more liquid soluble and less ionized than morphine and gains access to the CNS more readily - Heroin was introduced, in the form of Bayer Heroin, in 1898 as a non-addictive analgesic good for coughs and chest pains.
Describe myristicin and elemicin.
- Nutmeg and maces are spices derived from the dried seed and seed coat of the myristica flagons tree - Weak hallucinogens even at high doses - Because of the availability these drugs are often used by young drug experimenters - Typically taken in the form of a "tea" made from one to two teaspoons of the spice
Describe tolerance to barbiturates.
- Occurs to almost every barbiturate induced effect including the behaviourally impairing, sleep inducing, reinforcing, and lethal effects - Tolerance seems to occur more rapidly to the reinforcing effects than to the lethal effects thereby increasing the chance of overdose. - The tolerance that occurs with barbiturates has been shown to involve Pavlovian conditioning as demonstrated by tests of situational specificity, placebo CR testing, and loss by extinction.
Provide a physical description of LSD.
- Odourless - Tasteless - Colourless
Describe a barbiturate overdose.
- Overdoses often involve the combination of a barbiturate with another depressant drug, alcohol being the most common. - Barbiturates and alcohol have similar neurochemical actions and they act synergistically meaning that the combined effect is not simply additive but more like multiplicative (multiplied).
What were the most important drugs created in attempt to decrease that addictive properties of morphine and heroin but still have the desired analgesic effects?
- Oxycodone - Oxymorphine (Opana) - Hydrocodone - Methadone (Dolorphine) - Buprenorphine (Subutex without naloxone, Suboxone with naloxone) - Fentanyl (Sublimaze) - Hydromorphone (Dilaudid)
Describe the use of oxycodone to produce other drugs.
- Oxycodone, when combined with aspirin, is called Percodan - Oxycodone, when combined with acetaminophen, is called Percocet - Oxycodone, in time release form, is known as Oxycontin
What are the most common street names for phencyclidine?
- PCP (may be taken orally in the form of a powder or a liquid) - Angel dust - Horse tranks
What are the symptoms of cholinergic activation induced by amanita muscaria?
- Period of good humour and light euphoria - Giving way to feeling of detachment and unreality - Feelings of increased power - Agitated raving - Twitching and trembling of the limbs - Visions of the supernatural and illusions of grandeur - Marking lacrimation - Salivation and sweating - Pinpoint pupils - Severe abdominal pains and painful diarrhea - Coma - Convulsions - Potentially death
Minor changes were made to the 1911 act in 1920 Opium and Narcotic Drug Act, a major new drug law, consolidating all the amendments made during the 1920s, was passed as the 1929 Opium and Narcotic Drug Act. What are some of the important aspects the act included?
- Physicians were required to keep detailed records of all opiates dispensed and failure to do so resulted in criminal prosecution - Maintenance doses were no longer considered medical practice - Cannabis was included - Writ assistance was introduced --> This is an open ended search warrant given to a police officer for life. It could not be refused by a judge. It was only abolished in 1985.
List the effects of MDMA on the body.
- Positive mood changes - Increased energy - Hallucinations at higher doses - Sweating - Blurred vision - Tension in the jaw - Teeth grinding (users often use pacifiers to alleviate this effect) - Dry mouth and thirst - Restless leg - Nausea - Produces very high body temperatures and dehydration! This combination has produced some deaths.
What are the hallucinogenic effects of LSD?
- Primarily visual - Often experienced with eyes closed - Object trails, in which there is a perceptual residue of an object moving across the visual area - Form constants, strange "psychedelic" patterns - Synasethesia, the perception of one sense in another sense modality - There are distortions in time perception, often reported as small periods of time seeming to be very long. - Ego disintegration, where the user finds it hard to distinguish self from the surroundings...This effect may partially be due to the analgesic effects of the drug. One user describe the effects as if their whole body had been injected with novocaine (numbing), and it was like touching your jaw at the dentist. - "bad trips" or panic attacks, most common in novice users or people who have unknowingly been given the drug --> a typical component of a bad trip is fear that the effect is permanent
How do anxiolytics effect the Geller-Seifter procedure?
- Produce "release from punishment", meaning that when an animal is given a drug that has anxiolytic properties it will now lever press even when the FR schedule is in effect - One reason for this may be that there is some sort of analgesia --> if this were the case true analgesics should also produce release from punishment, but they do not - No other drugs produce release of punishment
Describe the psychoactive effects of datura stramonium produced by various doses.
- Produce a feeling of weightlessness and a sensation of flying - Can produce amnesia - Low doses produce drowsiness and a dream-like state with euphoria - Higher doses produce more unpleasant hallucinations, delirium and mental confusion
What are three other key terms used when discussing hallucinogens?
- Psychotogenics (causing psychosis) - Psychedelics - Deliriants
What are the acute effects of barbiturates?
- Relaxation - Reduced anxiety - Sedation - Anaesthesia - Coma at higher doses - Death induced by respiratory depression at higher doses
Describe the physical dependence developed for benzodiazepine.
- Reports of it in both animals and humans - Withdrawal symptoms in humans is fairly severe - Symptoms: increased neuronal excitation ranging from tremors to seizures, agitation and potential aggressive outbursts, insomnia, the return of anxiety at a more intense level than at the start of treatment, memory impairment, numbness and tingling in feet and hands, diarrhea and upset stomach, muscle cramps, headache
Describe the self-administration and conditioned place preference of mescaline and LSD.
- Was not self-administered by monkeys - Little evidence of conditioned place preference
Describe propanediols.
- Researchers were attempting to modify a disinfectant to produce a compound that would kill bacteria resistant to penicillin. - Although it did not have the sought after antibacterial effect it produced muscle relaxation and a sleep-like condition from which animals could be easily aroused. - Subsequent modifications lead to the development of meprobamate.
Who was Emily Murphy?
- She lead Canada in legalizing various drugs - Wrote the first anti-drug book in Canada which was titled "The Black Candle"
What do small and large doses of DOM do?
- Small: produce a more stimulating effect - Large: produce a more hallucinogenic effect
What are the two mechanisms by which stimulants cause or prolong a period of dopaminergic neural activation?
- Some cause the release of more dopamine per AP or actually cause the leakage of dopamine in the absence of APs - Some block the reuptake of released dopamine - Most stimulants do a little of each, but one action seems to predominate for each type of stimulant.
Describe lysergic acid amide.
- Sometimes called cockspur (which is something on the back of a roosters foot) because of its appearance - Less potent, but naturally occurring form of hallucinogen related to LSD - Found in ergot, a fungus present on molly grains, morning glory seeds, seeds of the Hawaiian baby woodrose and sleepy grass, which are infected with the acremonium fungus.
DMT may be taken as a drink, although this is largely ineffective because it is rapidly metabolized by monoamine oxidase. What can be done to prevent this?
- Sometimes other plants containing harmaline alkaloids, which block the action of monoamine oxidase, are drank at the same time thereby allowing DMT to produce an effect when taken orally. - One of the most common said drinks used by indigenous peoples is *ayahuasca*.
Describe the tolerance developed for opiates.
- Substantial tolerance occurs to most of the effects of opiates, including euphoria, analgesia, and respiratory depression. - Research has demonstrated that Pavlovian conditioning plays a crucial role in the display of tolerance to opiates. - Studies have demonstrated the situational specificity of tolerance to the analgesic effects of morphine. - Evidence of a CR of increased sensitivity to pain has shown in placebo CR tests. - The loss of tolerance to morphine analgesia has been shown to be largely dependent on the use of extinction trials as compared to simply not administering morphine for a period of time.
Describe the physical dependence to barbiturates.
- Symptoms are similar to those seen with alcohol, and in fact withdrawal symptoms of either drug may be diminished by administration of the other drug - Withdrawal symptoms begin within 24-36hrs following drug termination - Symptoms include: hypotension and fainting, tremulousness and musclar fasiculations, anorexia and vomiting, weight loss, confusion, delusions, auditory and visual hallucinations, convulsions - Without medical supervision it is estimated that there is about a 5% death rate from barbiturate withdrawal.
What did Leo H. Sternbach do?
- Synthesized several compounds - When initial testing of some of the compounds did not produce any promising results, the remaining compounds were shelved without testing. - In 1957, during a cleanup of Sternbach's lab the previously untested compounds were tested and one gave some interesting results in terms of ability to calm or soothe animals. This compound was called chlordiazepoxide and was the first marketed benzodiazepine. - Shortly after the marketing of chlordiazepoxide, diazepam, the second, and what was to become the most well known, benzodiazepine was marketed as Valium.
Describe the use of a "vaccine" in the treatment of cocaine addiction.
- The "vaccine" would reduce the effects of administered cocaine. - The "vaccine" is a cocaine analog that results in the production of cocaine antibodies. - When cocaine is administered after vaccination the cocaine molecules bind to the antibody and cannot cross the blood brain barrier.
Describe the abuse of ADD medications.
- The 2015 OSDUHS reported past year non-medical use of ADD medication was about 2%. - Risk factors: white, member of a fraternity or sorority, having a lower GPA, showing higher rates of substance use and other risky behaviours, attending a more competitive university or being in a more competitive program in university
How were the hallucinogenic effects of LSD discovered?
- The actual recognition of the hallucinogenic effects of LSD occurred by accident. - Hoffman accidentally dosed himself with some LSD by getting a sample on his hands. - The next day Hoffman intentionally ingested LSD to study the drugs' effects. - Hoffman was unaware of the potency of LSD and although he chose a dose he thought would be very small this dose was actually about 5x's larger than the minimal psychoactive dose.
Describe the combined use of cocaine and alcohol.
- The breakdown of cocaine when alcohol is also present produces a metabolite called cocaethylene. - Cocaethylene not only has its own very potent effects on increasing blood pressure and heart rate, it also increases the elimination half life of cocaine and thus prolonging the same actions of cocaine. - This combined action of cocaethylene may be partly responsible for the approx. 20 fold increase in the risk of immediate death from simultaneous consumption of alcohol and cocaine. - Cocaine can prevent the individual from feeling the full effects of alcohol
Describe the historical uses of cholinergic hallucinogens.
- The cholinergic hallucinogens in plants were sought after to be used to get the delirium effect but also as poison, because when a large dosage is taken it can be lethal. - Drugs acting as agonists and antagonists in the cholinergic nervous system produce psychoactive effects that have been sought after by humans at various times in history.
What does modern research say about the impacts of cocaine on a fetus?
- The effects are not nearly as catastrophic as originally depicted and surely less severe than seen with alcohol. - There is some consensus that children born to cocaine using mothers have low birth weight and length, tend to have some subtle cognitive impairments and difficulty in language learning, and tend to show externalizing behaviour.
Subsequent research has not supported an LSD model of schizophrenia, describe why.
- The effects of LSD do not actually closely resemble those of schizophrenia. - In schizophrenia there are true hallucinations that are predominantly auditory and experienced with the eyes open. LSD produces perceptual distortions that are largely visual in nature and most often with the eyes closed. - Individuals taking LSD are highly suggestible and communicative whereas schizophrenics are more likely to be resistant to suggestion and withdrawn.
What are the the non-medical use of prescription opiates stats?
- The non-medical use of prescription opiates is so great that the leading cause of accidental death in the US is no longer car accidents, but is now accidental death from prescription opiate abuse. - The most recent survey of Canadian university students found past year and lifetime non-medical use of opiates to be 5% and 14% respectively, and similar data have been reported of the US. - The 2015 OSDUHS reported past year use at around 10% among students in grades 7-12 in Ontario, and this reflects a trend of decreasing non-medical use of opiates in this group. The first year data was collected the usage was 20%.
Describe the paper produced by Chasnoff et al. discussing the petrological effects of crack.
- The study examined offspring of four groups of mothers matched on several relevant demographic variables. - Summary of paper: "...infants exposed to cocaine had significant depression of interactive behaviour and a poor organizational response to environmental stimuli...These preliminary observations suggest that cocaine influences the outcome of pregnancy as well as the neurologic behaviour of a newborn, but a full assessment will require a larger number of pregnancies and longer follow-up."
Describe meprobamate.
- The term tranquilizer was first extensively used in connection with meprobamate. - Induces a tranquil state without suppression of general CNS excitation - Subject to abuse and produces physical dependence with severe withdrawal symptoms - One advantage that meprobamate did have over the barbiturates was that while overdoses could occur, the lethal dose was large compared to the therapeutic dose.
Describe the sensitization to stimulants.
- There is a shift to the left in the dose response curve. - The clearest example of sensitization is to the behavioural activating effects of stimulants. - If a drug effect sensitizes it might be the case that pre-drug cues elicit a drug-like response that may then combine with the actual drug effect to produce the sensitized response. There is substantial evidence to prove that this is the case with stimulants. - Animals tested with usual drug cues demonstrate a "sensitized" behavioural response while animals tested with non-drug cues behave similarly to control animals receiving the drug for the first time. - A placebo CR test procedure reveals that animals expecting a stimulant but are getting a placebo exhibited the hypothesized behavioural activation conditioned response.
Describe the physical dependence of stimulants.
- There is clearly a mental or medical condition that can be called stimulant abuse or dependence, that stimulant abuse or dependence produces a host of harmful health, family, and social consequences, and that suffers are in need of treatment. - It is easy to find conflicting views on whether stimulants produce physical dependence and withdrawal - One effect that is clear is REM rebound, but since virtually any drug interferes with REM sleep and produces REM rebound when the drug is stopped it is not clear that this is particularly significant. - The main point should be that regardless of whether stimulants produce physical dependence they are used by some people at levels that cause problems and that it is difficult for these people to stop using them. - A substantial body of research has shown that drug cravings may be triggered by stimuli which have in the past been associated with taking the drug and experiencing the drug effects. - Numerous studies have demonstrated that an abstinent drug user shown his/her trigger stimuli will report experiencing cravings, perhaps withdrawal-like symptoms, and a strong desire to obtain and take the drug. - Studies involving stimulant abusers have found changes in brain functioning when users are exposed to slides showing stimulant related stimuli compared to non-drug related stimuli.
Describe the historical uses of amanita muscaria.
- There is evidence that Vikings would consume the mushroom when they were preparing to raid a village. - Ingestion of the mushroom would produce a state of "agitated raving" and feelings of invincibility, which lead to attacking Vikings being called "beserkers".
Describe the teratological effects of barbiturates.
- There is substantial evidence from studies with rats that exposure to barbiturates during early gestational periods results in abnormal neural and biochemical differentiation of the CNS, deficits in learning, retarded attainment of developmental milestones, and alteration of behavioural and physiological sex differences. - The behaviour of male rodents prenatally exposed to barbiturates has been described as "feminized". - Mothers given barbiturates as part of a medical regime, have shown that human males exposed to barbiturates during gestation have a heightened likelihood of showing later puberty, undescended testes, and cross gender identities. - Both exposed males and females show lowered IQs and have a greater likelihood of having a learning disability in comparison to non-exposed children.
What effect of stimulants does show tolerance? Describe this.
- There is tolerance to the drugs' anoretic effect (reduction in appetite) but only under certain conditions. - The study of tolerance to the anoretic effects of stimulants provides insight into the nature of tolerance as a form of adaption and has applicability to tolerance in general. - Evidence that this tolerance requires the contingent presentation of both the stimulant and the availability of food to food deprived animals. - All of the three conditions (drug, food availability, hungry animal) must be present and for this reason this is called the *contingent tolerance procedure*. - Point: The animal never actually experiences anorexia if it is fully fed or if there is no food available to eat and thus adaption does not occur.
Give a physical description of datura stramonium.
- White or purple trumpet-like flowers (why it is called devil's trumpet) - Large, jagged leaves - Thorny fruit pods that produce 50 to 100 seeds each fall
Describe the tolerance and physical dependence developed for PCP.
- Tolerance and physical dependence ave been reported to develop in lab animals. - Withdrawal symptoms in rhesus monkeys include tremors, oculomotor hyperactivity, bruxism, fearfulness, vocalizations, diarrhea, vomiting and convulsions. - Tolerance and physical dependence have rarely been noted in human users, perhaps because of the infrequency with which humans subject themselves to sufficient dosing.
Describe the tolerance to benzodiazapines.
- Tolerance develops fairly quickly to the muscle relaxing, sedating, sleep inducing, and anticonultant effects of benzodiazapines. - There is less certainty about the development of tolerance to the anxiolytic effects. - Tolerance to the anxiolytic effects has been shown to develop in the elevated plus maze but only after an extended dosing period.
Describe the tolerance developed to LSD.
- Tolerance occurs to most of the hallucinogenic effects of LSD in as little as 3 to 4 days of one daily exposure. - There is cross tolerances across these hallucinogens, meaning that if tolerance has developed to LSD there will be tolerance to psilocybin or mescaline. - There is evidence that Pavlovian conditioning contributes to the development of tolerance to LSD. - No evidence of physical dependence since there are no withdrawal symptoms
Describe delta receptors.
- Type of opiate receptor - May be the main backup opiate receptor and seems to cooperate with Mu receptors in producing most opiate effects
Describe Mu receptors.
- Type of opiate receptor - Seem to be involved in most opiate effects - Opiate occupation of Mu receptors leads to inhibition of GABA neurons - The inhibition of GABA by opiates leads to disinhibition of dopamine neurons in the nucleus accumbens and the resulting increase in dopamine underlies the rewarding effects of opiates.
Describe sigma receptors.
- Type of opiate receptor - These receptors may mediate dysphoria and hallucinations.
Describe short-acting barbiturates.
- Typical onset in about 15mins and a duration of 1-4hrs - Examples: pentobarbital (nembutal) and secobarbital (seconal)
Describe long-acting barbiturates.
- Typically have an onset in about 1hr and a duration of at least 6hrs - The prototypical compound in this class is phenobarbital, also known as luminal (available in tablets, capsules and liquid).
Describe intermediate-acting barbiturates.
- Typically have an onset in about 30mins and a duration of 4-6hrs - The prototypical compound in this class is amobarbital, also known as amytal. - Amytal has been used as a "truth serum"...Although someone given these drugs may be very talkative while under the influence there is no guarantee that the information given is the truth.
Describe what occurs to LSD in the body.
- Typically taken orally as a tablet, gelatine capsule (commonly called window pane), on a sugar cube, or on absorbent paper decorated with figures (commonly called blotter acid) - Street doses are generally estimated to be 50 micrograms, which is smaller than typical doses in the period of peak use (200 micrograms) - Readily absorbed from the GI tract - Fairly easily crosses both the blood brain barrier and the placental barrier
Describe the elevated plus maze.
- Used for testing anxiolytics - An apparatus in the form of a "+" that is on legs and thus elevated off the floor - Two of the arms of the plus maze are walled and two of the arms have no walls. - The plus maze is located in an illuminated room. - When placed in the plus maze undrugged rats will spend most of the time in the walled arms, avoiding the unwalled arms. This reflects the natural tendency of rats to avoid open spaces which are assumed to evoke anxiety since in the rat's natural habitat open spaces often lead to predation. - Drugs which have anxiolytic potential alter rats' preference for the arms, leading to a substantial increase in the amount of time spent in the open arms. - If a drug does not produce this increase in time spent in the open arms it is unlikely to have anxiolytic effects.
Describe the Geller-Seifter procedure.
- Used for testing anxiolytics - Involves a multiple schedule reinforcement - A schedule of reinforcement specifies what an animal must do in order to receive a reinforcer. - The test takes place in a Skinner box, which is simply a rectangular cube which has two levers on one wall. - The typical Geller-Seifter multiple schedule is a VI 2 minute/FR1 with shock. The VI 2 minute schedule dictates that on average a reinforcer becomes available every 2 minutes and if the animal presses the lever after the interval it will get a reinforcer. This type of schedule produces a very stable, moderate level of lever pressing. The FR1 with shock schedule dictates that every bar press will result in food, but also produce a shock. - The two schedules are never in effect at the same time and which schedule is currently in effect is signalled by a differently coloured light. - Undrugged animals very quickly learn to press whenever the VI schedule is in effect and to suppress responding when the FR schedule is in effect.
Describe the LD50 of cocaine.
- Varies considerably - Estimates place the amount somewhere between 1-2 grams if ingested (such as accidental breaking of stomach condoms) and 700-800mg by injection. - The usual effective dose via inhalation is estimated at about 80mg.
Khat became illegal under the...
...Controlled Drugs and Substances Act in Canada in 1997.
Describe the historical use of datura stramonium.
- Woman who claimed to be witches would rub ointments made from datura stramonium on sticks and then straddle the sticks. - Atropine and scopolamine would have been absorbed through the vaginal membranes producing the claim that they were flying.
Opium "sublimes" when heated, the user pursues the ascending smoke which is called...
..."chasing the dragon".
Absinthe is sometimes called the...
..."la fee verte", the green fairy.
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual-IV of the American Psychiatric Association defines a hallucination as a...
..."sensory perception that has the compelling sense of reality of a true perception but that occurs without external stimulation of the relevant sensory organ."
Phenmetrazine had a brief period of popularity in the early 1970s, but it was the return of the...
..."white goddess", cocaine, that filled the void left by disfavour with the amphetamines.
From 1967 to 1971 the percentage of college students reporting at least one lifetime use of LSD rose from...
...1% to 18%.
LSD was legal in the US until...
...1966.
LSD can be fatal but the LD50, estimated at 14,000 micrograms, is approximately...
...300 times the minimal psychoactive dose estimated at 50 micrograms. Therefore, death from LSD usually occurs by accident.
The DSDUHS 2015 edition reported past year use of DM among grades 11-12 students to be about...
...4%.
The use of ma huang has been documented as far back as...
...5100 years ago.
Opium use in China was mainly the result of...
...British influence.
Although coca leaves were taken to Europe by the Spanish explorers at the beginning of the 1600s the leaves attracted little attention, perhaps because Europeans disliked to use the method of chewing. The situation changed with the isolation of...
...cocaine as the active alkaloid in the coca leaf in 1859 by Albert Niemann.
Modifications of the drug amphetamine, which has a resemblance to norepinephrine, results in...
...compounds which have a combination of stimulant and hallucinogenic properties.
There is substantial evidence that long-term use of certain stimulants, particularly those that cause the release and block the reuptake of dopamine and serotonin, result in...
...decreased functioning and even neuron death in both serotonergic and dopaminergic pathways.
The main effect of the barbiturates on the nervous system is to...
...depress neuronal activity.
There is some evidence that chronic use of methcathinone, like chronic use of methamphetamine, results in...
...destruction of dompaminergic neurons.
Phencyclidine and ketamine are called...
...dissociative anesthetics.
Numerous studies have shown that the rewarding effects of some stimulants are reduced if...
...dopaminergic receptor blockers are given when the animal is either self-administering a stimulant or receiving conditioned place preference training.
Interestingly the root of the sassafras tree, formerly used in the production of root beer but now banned because of carcinogenic properties, contains a substance, saffron or shikimo, that can...
...easily be converted to MDA.
In general there is little evidence that the serotonergic hallucinogens produce self-administration in...
...either rodents or non-human primates.
The existence of specific opiate receptors suggests that there is an...
...endogenous receptor ligand since it is unlikely that specific receptors would exist to interact solely with exogenously administered opiates.
Endogenous peptides that act as agonists at opiate receptors sites are called...
...endorphins, from "end" signifying endogenous and "orphin" from a common suffix in the names of opiates.
In brain areas involving sleep and appetite there is excess regeneration resulting in...
...excess serotonin release.
While phencyclidine has many desirable effects as an anesthetic (not producing low blood pressure) it produces the undesirable side effects of...
...hallucinations and seizures.
As more restrictions were placed on amphetamine, the distribution of the drug became increasingly associated with...
...hard core criminal elements, particularly motorcycle gangs.
The D1 receptor, involved in the effects of dopamine, is thought to be the most...
...important receptor involved in the rewarding effects of stimulants.
Despite the lack of evidence for the usefulness of ibogaine there are drug treatment centers in several countries, including Canada, which...
...incorporate ibogaine in the treatment plan.
There is very clear evidence that stimulant reward, assessed either by self-administration or conditioned place preference, involves...
...increasing dopaminergic activation in the VTA-nucleus accumbens neural pathway.
In double-blind studies appropriate doses of mescaline, psilocybin, and LSD are...
...indistinguishable.
Opium use was also widespread in the US and Canada in the 1800s mainly in the form of...
...laudanum or other patent medicines.
Among the earliest recognized and used of the naturally occurring plant psychostimulants is...
...ma huang.
Datura stramonium has been, and continues to be, used to fortify...
...marijuana.
Some hallucinogens primarily cause...
...mental confusion or delirium.
Since the modification to amphetamine most often involves the addition of methyl groups these drugs are called...
...methylated amphetamines.
One way to determine if endorphins may be involved in some phenomena is to see if the behaviour is affected by the administration of...
...naloxone.
The compound that LSD is derived from occurs...
...naturally in nature.
Cocaine was not included in the first drug legislation passed in Canada in 1908, but it was included in the...
...next legislation passed on 1911.
Some chemical modifications of the morphine molecule have produced the...
...opiate antagonist.
The reduced activity in the nucleus accumbens could underlie the...
...persistence of amotivation and anhedonia in detoxified methamphetamine abusers.
Cocaine, amphetamine, and methamphetamine are called...
...psychomotor stimulants in part because they increase motor behaviour.
The incidence of bad reactions with LSD is estimated to be...
...relatively low, around 3%.
Recreational use of DM is referred to as...
...robo-copping, roboing, robo-tripping, chug-a-tussin, primarily because robitussin is one of the main sources of abuse.
In 1966 LSD was made a...
...schedule I drug in the US (schedule I drugs are those deemed to have no medical use and high abuse potential).
Screening tests were originally developed by taking a drug that is currently used in the treatment of a condition and...
...seeing what effect it has in the potential test.
Many of the methylated amphetamine type hallucinogens, notably MDMA and MDA, are...
...self-administered and produce conditioned place preferences.
What is the main psychoactive substance in ibogaine?
Ibotenic acid
Although mescaline resembles the neurotransmitter norepinephrine it seems that it produces hallucinogenic effects in essentially the same manner as the...
...serotonergic hallucinogens, that being an agonist action at 5-HT2 receptors.
There is much evidence that serotonergic hallucinogens produce hallucinogenic effects by an action on...
...serotonergic neurons.
It has been said that PCP and ketamine bind to...
...sigma opiate receptors and block NMDA receptors.
Use of pure salvinorin A is reported to produce very strong effects and most users...
...state no desire to use it a second time in the pure form.
Amphetamine is a phenethylamine type drug and modifications of amphetamine have produced a plethora of drugs with...
...stimulant and varying degrees of hallucinogenic properties. The tendency of these drugs to produce hallucinogenic properties is related to the degree of agonist activity at 5-HT2 receptors.
Students were mostly taking amphetamine while...
...studying for exams or actually taking exams, but there was no evidence that proved this helped the students do any better.
Street names for specific barbiturates most often refer to...
...the colour of the tablet or capsule.
Barbiturates were made illegal without a prescription, which resulted in...
...the development of an illegal market of the drugs. Because of this, by the 1950s barbiturates had become one of the most widely abused drugs.
A better understanding of the neurochemical basis of stimulant reinforcement may lead to pharmacological interventions useful in treatment. One example of this possibility is...
...the drug vanoxerine, originally produced in the 1970s for the treatment of depression.
DOM is associated with bad trips more than most other hallucinogens, partly due to...
...the long duration of action and the difficulty convincing the panicked users that the effects will eventually wear off.
Benzodiazepines reduce neuronal excitability making them useful in...
...the management of alcohol withdrawal and epilepsy.
Barbiturates are classified based on...
...the speed of onset and duration of action, which are influenced by lipid solubility.
All of the barbiturates exert similar effects, with the main difference between the drugs being...
...time of onset and duration of effects.
The neurotoxic effects of methamphetamine can be produced in animals at doses that are comparable to...
...typical human recreational doses.
The major serotonin metabolite was lower in persons who had...
...used MDMA.
What was the reported past year use of LSD?
1%
What was the reported past year use of all hallucinogens among Ontario high school students?
15%
In what years did the admission of cocaine abuse increase more than any other drug?
1975 to 1980
What percent of opiate addicts released from treatment use within the first 6 months?
81%
Describe methcathinone.
A slightly modified version of the active ingredient in khat
What are the first effects of LSD?
Activation of the sympathetic nervous system... - Tachycardia - Increased body temperature - Increased blood pressure - Dilated pupils (extent is a good indicator of intoxication) - Sweating - Chills - Slight tremor - Increased salivation - Analgesia
What is the trade name for amphetamine (treatment for ADD)?
Adderall
Who was Atropos? And, what is her relation to atropa belladonna?
Atropos was the eldest of the three fates in Greek mythology and it was her duty to cut the thread of life at the time appointed for a person's death. Thus, aorta belladonna reflects the use of atropine as a poison.
What do barbiturates do to glutamate transmission?
Barbiturates reduce glutamate transmission
Why is there a heightened use of benzodiazepines in alcohol and opiate addicts?
Because it helps in self-management of withdrawal symptoms and also because benzodiazepines tend to enhance the effects of alcohol and opiates
Why does thujone sometimes produce convulsions?
Because it is a GABA anatgonist, and since GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter blocking its action increases neural activity which may produce convulsions
Why is alcohol not a good anxiolytic?
Because of its negative side effects... - Physical dependence - Liver disease - Brain damage
Most early use of amphetamine was via the oral or inhalation routes, although there had been some injection use. In the 1960s there was a huge increase in intravenous injection of amphetamine, why?
Because some physicians started prescribing methamphetamine as a treatment for heroin addiction
Why did the use of morphine as an analgesic improve in 1856?
Because the syringe and hollow needle were developed
Describe cholinergic antagonist hallucinogens.
Block muscarinic cholinergic receptors and in doing so produce a set of effects that justify their classification as deliriant or hallucinogens.
What is the active ingredient in khat?
Cathinone
Who was the typical abuser of barbiturates during its peak use?
Caucasian female, aged 30-50 years, member of middle or upper economic classes
Describe ma huang.
Chinese herb that comes from a leafless, desert shrub known as *horsetail plant*
How is coca leaf taken in order for administration to occur?
Coca leaf chewing involves placing a wad of leaves in the cheek and adding some alkaline substance, like crushed sea shells, to increase buccal pH and facilitate absorption of the cocaine base. This method of administration results in only mild mental and physical stimulation.
Describe cocaethylenes' effect on the neurotransmitter system.
Cocaethylene blocks the reuptake of dopamine as potently as cocaine but it does not activate serotonin very strongly.
Describe cocaines' effect on the neurotransmitter system.
Cocaine both blocks the reuptake of dopamine, producing euphoria, and activates serotonin, which tends to actually reduce dopamine release and thus dampen euphoria.
What happens to cocaine hydrochloride when it is smoked?
Cocaine hydrochloride does not volatize at low temperatures and thus trying to smoke it destroys most of the drug.
What is the side effect unique to bufotenine?
Cyanosis, in which the skin turns purplish-blue
What is detromethorphan (DM)?
DM is a common cough suppressant which stimulates sigma opiate receptors and blocks NMDA receptors, the same two actions of PCP and ketamine but much less potent.
What are the two compounds related to DOM?
DOI and DOB
Who coined the term "psychedelic"?
Dr. Humphrey Osmond, a British psychiatrist working in Canada
Define: Entheogen
Drugs used by indigenous people for spiritual or religious ceremonies
What is the cause of anhedonia?
Due to an almost total depletion of dopamine as a result of the stimulant causing dopamine to continuously leak from the presynaptic terminal, not be taken back up for reuse, and consequently to be subjected to breakdown in the synaptic cleft
What is the main active ingredient in ma huang?
Ephedrine
What are the main ingredients in methamphetamine that can be purchased in over the counter nasal decongestants?
Ephedrine or pseudo-ephedrine, for this reason the sale of nasal decongestants are closely monitored
Describe the LD50 of methamphetamine.
Estimates for methamphetamine are as low as 150mg for a lethal effect, with a typical effective dose of around 15mg.
What was the earliest substance used as an anxiolytic?
Ethanol
What is the oldest type of cholinergic hallucinogen?
Ibotenic acid which is also naturally occurring
What is the most common example of a benzodiazepine antagonist?
Flumazenil, it binds to the benzodiazepine receptor on the GABA receptor complex but does not exert any action
How did crack get its name?
From the popping noise it makes when smoked
Who convinced the courts that opiate addiction was not a medical condition?
Harry Anslinger, this began the criminalization of opiates
What did the German chemist Serturner do?
He isolated the principal active ingredient in opium in 1803 and named it morpheme after the Greek god of dreams, Morpheus.
What two drugs are in "speedball"?
Heroin and amphetamine (or methamphetamine or cocaine)
What is anhedonia?
If someone goes on a stimulant binge, using a stimulant at short intervals the rewarding effects of the stimulant will diminish, almost to the point of being absent. Even if the person stops taking the stimulant they will often be depressed and unable to experience pleasure from normally pleasurable life events, this is known as anhedonia.
Describe how vigabatrin affects the body.
Impedes the catabolism of GABA by preventing the action of GABA-transminare and this leads to greater GABA inhibition of dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens
When was amphetamine first synthesized?
In 1887
When was MDA first synthesized?
In 1910
When was MDMA first synthesized?
In 1914 by Merck as a potential appetite suppressant
When was methamphetamine first synthesized?
In 1919
When was phencyclidine developed?
In 1926
When was DMT first synthesized?
In 1931
When was the hallucinogenic effect of DMT first discovered?
In 1956
When was psilocybin isolated?
In 1958 by Hoffman
When was DOM first synthesized?
In 1964 by Dow Chemical as a potential appetite suppressant
In what year did amphetamine get listed in the controlled substances act?
In 1971
When was ketamine developed?
In the early 1960s
When did the use of LSD peak?
In the late 60s to early 70s
When did crack come into the cocaine picture?
In the mid 1980s
Where does the term hallucinogen come from?
It comes form the Latin word alucinere meaning to wander in mind, talk idly, to prate
What is a sedative-hypnotic?
It is a drug that depresses the activity of the CNS and typically has medical uses of relieving anxiety and inducing sleep
What is the "k-hole"?
It is a term used by ketamine users to state that they are experiencing the effects of the ketamine
What is lysergic acid amide?
It is an alkaloid obtained from ergot, a parasitic fungus found on a variety of grains
What occurs to psilocybin once it enters the body?
It is converted to psilocin which is more lipid soluble and is thought to be the actual active agent
What is "soldiers disease"?
It is opiate addiction that occurred during the American Civil War
What is crack-cocaine?
It is the same as cocaine but in a smoking form
What is thebaine?
It is the source of the opiate derivative oxycodone found in Percodan, Percocet, and Oxycontin
How is ketamine administered?
It may be a powder or liquid and may be snorted, smoked, taken orally or injected
Why was the drinking of opium "patent medicines" accepted among women in the 19th century?
It was only accepted by women who were forbidden to drink alcohol...These mothers sometimes would also give their child a dose to quiet them.
What would the ideal anxiolytic do?
It would alleviate feelings of anxiety without unwanted side effects, however most anxiolytics depress the CNS
Lesions to what portions of the brain impairs the ability of stimulants to support self-administration or produce conditioned place preference?
Lesions to the VTA or nucleus accumbens
Describe the potency of lysergic acid amide in relation to LSD.
Lysergic acid amide is about 1/10 the potency of LSD.
What was the parent compound of barbiturates produced by Adolph von Baeyer called?
Malonylurea, more commonly known as barbituric acid
In modern times who is most likely to abuse barbiturates?
Medical personnel because it is readily accessible
What is the clearest evidence for neurotoxic effects produced by stimulants?
Methamphetamine in both serotonergic and dopaminergic pathways...MDMA (a hallucinogen), a form of methamphetamine, also has this effect.
Describe how the medical production of ma huang is related to the illegal production of methamphetamine.
Methamphetamine producers will often buy large quantities of nasal decongestant pills in order to have the ephedrine, which is extracted and used
Describe the use of methamphetamine within the male homosexual community.
Methamphetamine use is particularly high in the male homosexual community where it is referred to as "Tina" and is associated with unsafe sex practices (because of increased libido) and needle sharing.
Who are common abusers of benzodiazepines?
Middle aged women
Do all stimulants produce the same effects?
Most of them yes, with one exception being that cocaine has local anaesthetic effects and produces profound vasoconstriction (for this reason it is used for its medical purposes and is still considered a medical drug)
Is ephedrine used in medical products produced in Canada or the US?
No
Why was there an increase in popularity for amphetamine in the 1990s?
One reason was ease of supply, it could (can) be produced with readily available chemicals
What is the principle form of opiates?
Opium
How is opium prepared?
Opium is prepared by drying and powdering the thick, gummy, bitter tasting, brown substance that smells like newly mown hay formed from the milky juice taken from the seed capsules of the poppy just prior to ripening.
What is another name for Oxycontin?
Poor man's heroin or hillbilly heroin
What are DODA?
Poppy seed capsules that can be made into a tea after being crushed and the opiate effects can then be experienced
What is cocaine wash-out syndrome?
Post-intoxication state where the individual may sleep for up to 72hrs
What is the most common method for taking absinthe?
Pour the green liquid into a small, tulip-shaped glass, then place a special slotted spoon on the glass and put a sugar cube that has been soaked in absinthe on it. The sugar cube is ignited, let burn for a while and then allowed to drop into the absinthe igniting it, and finally water is poured in to douse the flames. The water clouds the absinthe turning it an opaque greenish white.
What is the active ingredient in salvia divinorum? Describe it.
Salvinorin A, which has been shown to exert an agonistic action at kappa opioid receptors
What psychoactive substances does henbane contain?
Scopolamine and hyoscyamine
How are PCP and ketamine similar?
Similar effects but ketamines' effects are shorter in duration
What is the street name for ketamine?
Special K
What type of drug is sometimes called "uppers"?
Stimulants
What are the "stimulant blues"?
The acute depletion of dopamine results in the inability to experience pleasure
In WWII amphetamine was commonly used by many soldiers and at the time there was a surplus of it available. What appeared as a result of this epidemic?
The earliest reports of amphetamine psychosis (schizophrenic-like symptoms) began to appear
Define: "speed freak"
The term "speed freak" was coined to describe individuals that exhibited this type of psychotic and aggressive behaviour.
How did the term "crack baby" come about?
The term was coined by the media to describe the offspring of mothers who used crack during pregnancy, with the clear suggestion that these children suffered substantial and irreversible damage.
Describe the historical medical use of opium.
There is evidence of the medical use of opium in Sumerian and Assyrian/Babylonian cultures as long as 4,000 years ago.
Describe Adolf Hitler's involvement with methamphetamine.
There is evidence that Adolf Hitler received as many as 8 daily injections of methamphetamine near the end of WWII and that would surely have produced some of the bizarre and paranoid behaviours he exhibited at the time.
Why does stimulant use increase libido?
There is evidence that it is due to the dopamine produced by the drugs, but long term use causes reduced functioning of dopamine and a loss of interest in sex.
Why did DMT become known as businessman's psychedelic?
There was a period of time when people would take it over the lunch hour.
Describe cholinergic agonist hallucinogens.
These drugs primarily stimulate muscarinic cholinergic receptors, producing greater than normal neural activity in the cholinergic nervous system.
Describe the digestion of the psychoactive substances found in amanita muscaria.
These psychoactive substances are excreted in urine largely unchanged and an active dose may be had by ingesting the urine of someone who has previously ingested the mushrooms.
There was a resurgence of cocaine in the 50s, what was this a result of?
This was partly a result of cocaine growers and traffickers becoming better organized, basically better business people.
Describe "asthma cigarettes".
Today, cigarettes are made from leaves of datura stramonium and atropa belladonna are smoked to produce an intoxicating effect. Until the 1970s such cigarettes were sold in pharmacies for the treatment of asthma because of the bronchodilating effects of atropine and scopolamine.
How is opium smoked?
When smoking opium the flame is not placed directly on the opium, rather the opium is placed on a piece of foil and then a flame is passed over the bottom of the foil in order to heat up the opium. This produces smoke.
Who was the typical user of the opium containing tonics?
White, middle to upper class female, 30-50 years old
Which benzodiazepine accounts for 1/3 of emergency visits related to benzodiazepine issues?
Xanax, which is the most commonly used
Have outbreaks of ergotism occurred in modern times?
Yes
Is MDMA well absorbed in the GI tract?
Yes
Can tolerance to psilocybin develop?
Yes, and there is a cross tolerance amongst other hallucinogens
Can mescaline be smoked?
Yes, but it is unusual