Psychology of Eating

Nudge

"Any small feature in the environment that alters people's behavior in a predictable way without forbidding any options or significantly changing their economic incentives"

Impact of container size

The container size influences food intake (for high-energy food) even when the portion size is kept constant --- People eat more in a larger container

anabolic resistance

The elderly body use the amino acids available less efficiently for protein synthesis, which results in a decrease in muscles mass

Mere Exposure

People tend to like things more/eat more of something if they have been exposed to it once before --- Not always enough

Anorexia Nervosa (AN)

-- 10-15% of cases -- Eat minimal amounts of food -- Significantly underweight; may develop adverse effects as a result -- Intense fear of gaining weight -- Distorted perception of weight -- Typically starts in mid-teenage years

Bulimia Nervosa (BN)

-- 30% of cases -- Self-maintaining binge-purge cycle -- Use of radical weight control techniques, like vomiting and laxatives -- Typically starts in late adolescence/early adulthood -- Body weight is usually unremarkable -- Study: Eating small meals was associated with less binge eating among patients with this

How people's weight affect their brain activity while eating

-- A greater activation of multiple brain regions thought to mediate motivational and emotional responses to foods and food cues, was seen in obese people -- Overweight women exhibit a greater response in reward-related regions -- Obese individuals are hyper-responsive to food cues, making them less able to control food intake

External Cues

-- Acquired through learning and experience (many people repeatedly eat their meals and snacks in the same physical and social contexts) -- Involved in the initiation, maintenance and termination of eating, even when satiated

Stop signal test

-- Arrow will appear: either pointing to the left or to the right -- There will be a button on the left side and a button on the right side -- When the arrow points right you are supposed to press the button on the right -- A sound will also sometimes be heard, when this is heard, you're not supposed to press any button (you're supposed to inhibit the impulse to press a button)

Common in many Eating Disorders

-- Demanding and highly specific dietary rules -- Difficulty socializing -- Difficulty undressing in front of others -- Afraid of weight gain and fatness -- Concerned about weight and look -- Strongly value the sense of self-control -- Constant preoccupation with food and eating -- Difficulty eating at home -- Excessive exercising -- Depression and anxiety -- Self-injury and substance abuse

Types of External Cues

-- Distal cues: like context cues, for example the room where usually is eaten, time of eating, etc. -- Proximal cues: the sight, smell, and taste of the food, intake rituals such as the preparation of food -- Interoceptive cues: affective states or typical palatable food-related cognitions

Attention affect food intake

-- Distracted eating impairs memory for how much food has been eaten that meals, leading to increased intake immediately and in subsequent meal -- Distracted participants reported greater hunger and less fullness after meal -- True in both men & women and for all screen-time behaviours -- Solutions: slow eating and habituation strategies

Moving between eating disorders

-- Eating disorders tend to start with dietary restriction, then as the patients' control over eating breaks down binge eating develops -- About 1/2 the cases of anorexia develop Bulimia, and some develop other eating disorders -- The great majority migrate between the eating disorders diagnoses -- Not common to go from Bulimia to Anorexia

How the perception of food affects brain activity

-- Experienced pleasantness depends on non-intrinsic properties of products, such as price -- Culturally known brands will activate more parts of your brain -- Hedonic value and health value determine the neural response to food stimuli -- Attentional focus dominates neural response to visual food stimuli

How our social and cultural environment affect portion sizes

-- Food portions are 2-5 times larger than 20 years ago -- Immersed in an obesogenic food environment that promotes overeating -- Food intake depends on what is "normal" in a consumer's food environment -- Serving method -- Frequency of eating out -- Desire to reduce food waste

The effects of hunger on impulses

-- Hunger motivates food seeking behaviour and food consumption; people choose energy dense food more frequently and find it more rewarding -- Hunger moderates response inhibition on food intake and food purchase -- The effect of impulsivity on eating behaviour is state dependent (hungry vs. satiated) -- Impulsive people are more susceptible to the effects of hunger

Diagnostic criteria for anorexia

-- Judging self-worth based on shape and weight and the ability to control them -- Active maintenance of an unduly low body weight (BMI<17.5) -- Often: loss of menstruation

Diagnostic criteria for bulimia

-- Judging self-worth based on shape and weight and the ability to control them -- Recurrent binge eating -- Extreme weight control behaviour (ie. self-induced vomiting)

Memories affect food intake

-- Main determinant of meal onset and cessation is memory of when a last meal was eaten -- Thinking about foods eaten the same day significantly decreased food intake -- Triggers beliefs about the satiating effects of that food

How to influence the brain to make healthier food choices

-- Marketing can successfully influence experienced pleasantness -- People think about various aspects of an option (e.g., taste, healthfulness, costs, social circumstances, etc.) before determining a choice -- Can trick the brain into thinking a smaller portion size is enough by serving it on a smaller plate

(Self-reported) Dietary Restraint Scale

-- Not valid measures of dietary restriction -- Findings from studies using these should be reinterpreted -- Assess relative dietary restriction rather than absolute dietary restriction

What strategies can we use to prevent eating bigger portion sizes?

-- Offer to-go containers for leftovers -- Use smaller containers/plates/bowls/cups (downsize the default option) -- Educate people (not effective) -- Eat slower, while sitting down and wo/ distractions -- Buy/order smaller amounts -- Label portion size (not effective)

Why people tend to choose the bigger portion size

-- Perceived healthiness -- Expected satiety -- People perceive a "normal"-sized portion of that food to be larger -- Value for money -- Estimation Bias

Playing Computer Game During Lunch Experiment

-- Served 9 lunch items around lunch time either while distracted playing a computer game or with no distractions -- 30 min later there was a cookie taste test and they were asked to recall what they had for lunch and in which order -- Result: playing a computer game during lunch resulted in poorer memory for the lunch and a relatively greater intake of a snack food in a subsequent taste test. Participants in the distraction condition felt significantly less full and consumed significantly more biscuits in the taste test

Door opening task

-- Test to measure reward-sensitivity in children -- Either lose points or gain points when opening a door -- Winning chance gradually decreases -- Measure how long you keep trying to open doors after you start losing points

How our perception of satiety influences our feelings of satiated

-- Watching a palatable food video increased hunger -- Thinking about recent eating changes ratings of hunger and satiety -- Use experiences about the satiating effects of foods to predict the consequences of further eating -- Won't feel satiated if we don't remember our last meal

Malnutrition in elderly people

--- Can result in reduced quality of life, increased risk of illness and hospitalization, longer hospital stays, and considerable healthcare costs --- Reasons for it: reduced appetite, chronic disease, poor dentition, poverty, social isolation and depression --- 5-10% of older people suffer from it

The effect of weight status on eating behaviour

--- Emphasis on dieting/slimness in Western cultures promotes norms of what and when one should eat, and what one should look like --- People with weight concerns are more likely to make judgments of others based on their food intake --- Dieters judged women who ate smaller meals as being thinner and weighing less --- Dieters and individuals at risk for eating disorders are more likely to be influenced by food-intake information --- Obese people eat less in the presence of a normal-weight partner --- Women eat less in the presence of a dieter

Why elderly people refuse to try novel foods

--- Out of fear of getting sick --- Due to eating difficulties --- More prone to habitual eating --- Experience less boredom --- By product of the generation --- They're older, live alone and/or has less education

How the relationship to people affect eating behaviour

--- People ate 44% more with friends than with strangers --- Restrained eaters feel more comfortable eating w/ friends --- More important to appear socially appealing to the opposite-sex --- people are more eager to make a positive impression on strangers than on friends --- With friends people ate larger meals mostly because the meal lasted longer --- The more friends, the merrier; but not the more strangers, the merrier. --- People who eat with friends select and eat more food

The effect of stereotypes on eating behaviour

--- People attribute traits to others based on their food intake; Gender roles, social appeal, morality, and intelligence --- Stereotypes reflect generalized beliefs and drive behavior --- In many cultures food and eating play a role in identity expression, communication, social interactions, status and gender roles --- Food can be used as an impression-management tactic --- May contribute to the development or maintenance of eating disorders

How to counteract protein deficiencies in elderly people

--- Protein Enriched Foods --- Oral nutritional supplements (ONS) --- Advising them to eat more foods high in protein, especially softer sources: pre-cut or minced meat, slow-cooked meat, pâtes, eggs, etc.

How to counteract food neophobia

--- Social facilitation --- Successful and continuous positive experiences with the food item --- Providing positive information about the health benefits of a novel food --- Using flavour enhancers or flavoursome foods, like sauces and spices

Relationship between dieting and eating disorders

--- The dietary restraint model asserts that a reliance on cognitive control over eating, rather than physiological cues, leaves dieters vulnerable to uncontrolled eating when these cognitive processes are disrupted or when dietary rules are violated. --- But dieting does not promote bulimic pathology; rather, effective decreases in caloric intake appear to reduce bulimic symptoms --- Low-calorie diets result in decreased binge eating --- The dimension of restraint (not weight) is the best predictor of eating behavior

Results from sauces and seasoning experiment

---Increased amounts of energy, protein and fat being consumed, daily feelings of hunger, and body weight --- Sauces may be more beneficial as they facilitate chewing, swallowing and movement of foods --- Sauces may be more valuable to underweight older adults --- Seasonings may be more valuable to overweight older adults --- Meals with sauce were preferred over meals with seasoning

Spontaneous Recovery

An extinguished craving may recover as time passes, as it's now presented in a new "temporal context" EX: half a year later Netflix makes Amanda crave chocolate again

Dual process theories (2 systems) are used to explain decision‐making

1: A slow, effortful, rule‐based, deliberate, and conscious thought process 2: A fast, effortless, automatic, affective, and unconscious thought process

Amnesic Food Experiment

2 amnesic patient were offered 2 or 3 meals with little time in between, and consumed most of them as they could not remember the previous meal(s) -- susceptible to over-consumption and fail to show normal decreases in hunger after multiple meals

Classical conditioning of craving

A conditioned food cue develops when: A neutral stimuli (conditioned stimuli; CS) is associated with food intake (unconditioned stimulus; US) during repeated pairings. Over time, just the confrontation of a CS elicit cue reactivity (CRs), including an increased desire to eat and bodily responses to prepare for food intake (e.g. increased salivation)

Craving

A cue-elicited eating desire for high-calorie foods which can even occur when your satiated, and only takes a few pairings to develop

Flavour-Nutrient Learning (FNL)

A flavour becomes liked and accepted because it is associated with high nutrient content. --- Add high-energy, flavourless ingredients such as maltodextrin or oil can achieve this --- Not effective at increasing kids' veggie intake

Relapse

A full-blown return to a pattern of behavior that one has been trying to moderate or quit altogether

Instrumental Feeding/Incentives

A promise that if you eat x, you can have y Limitations: Child may like the rewarded food less in the long term, and may reduce intrinsic motivation Benefits: rewarding children with eating-related problems (eg. food refusal) shows immediate increases in food intake ---- Non-food rewards were shown to be more effective than food-rewards

Counterconditioning

A signal that was originally associated with one event (eg. food) is later associated with a different event (e.g. healthier food/behaviour). - Craving is replaced

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

A technique using a radioactive tracer to see which brain areas are being activated while performing tasks -- More time consuming than fMRI

DSM-5

A widely used system for classifying psychological disorders

How food restriction affects eating behaviour in a clinical population

Adults with Anorexia and Bulimia: -- Reported more dietary restriction behaviors. -- Those who restricted food intake by eating fewer meals had more frequent binge eating episodes --- Those with Bulimia who restricted food intake by eating small and low calorie meals had less frequent binge eating episodes -- Eating more meals per day is associated with lower frequencies of binge eating among these patients

The Transdiagnostic View

An approach that assumes that most psychological disorders are actually different manifestations of a few core, underlying dimensions/mechanisms. Treatments will be effective for all eating disorders if these are addressed.

Learned Safety

An association between the taste of the food (conditioned stimulus) and the absence of illness (unconditioned stimulus) is formed after repeated exposure

Implicit Attitude Test (IAT)

An indirect attitudinal assessment method that focuses on the respondent's automatic associations to specific target concepts and the time it takes to make those associations

What an impulse/impulsivity is

An urge to act on the temptation at hand The tendency to think, control and plan insufficiently, resulting in an inaccurate or maladaptive response

Food Cue Reactivity

Anticipatory bodily reactions that prepare for food intake, such as saliva production and insulin rise, as well as psychological reactions such as a strong desire to eat

Learned Food Aversions

Associate a certain food with a unpleasant internal symptom like nausea --- Develop in children and adults who undergo cancer treatment

Electrical aversion to treat alcoholics

Associate alcohol (or something else) with an electrical shock Limitations: not ethical and less effective than chemical aversion, as electric shock is not related to alcohol consumption Benefits: reliable and accurate administration

Color vs. Edibility Focus

C: High neural activity in the visual cortex and insula. E: High neural activity in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC).

Food Cues

Can be the smell, taste, and sight of food, but also place, time, or emotions and thoughts, and they are predictive of food intake.

cue exposure therapy

Can be used to eliminate a craving. The subject is repeatedly exposed to the craving-eliciting food cues and prevented from eating it, leading to reduced reactivity, which makes it easier to resist foods in the long-term

4 Nudging Techniques

Changing standard options Changing the physical environment Providing the possibility to correct impulsive choices Providing feedback on choices

Extinction

Context specific inhibitory learning --- CS-US relation is temporarily inhibited --- Must repeatedly be exposed to US wo/ CS ---Fragile: changes in context trigger return/relapse --- Extinction is not unlearning, your brain still remembers past stimulus

Oral nutritional supplements

Commercial foods/drinks to supplement energy, protein, carbohydrate, fiber, and/or fat intake. Often disliked and not finished by elderly people, which resulted in a lot of it going to waste and money being wasted.

Pistachio Shell Experiment

Condition 1: bowls with pistachio shells were not emptied Condition 2: bowls were emptied every 2 hours Results: The participants who lacked a visual cue ate an additional 48 calories of pistachios during the day compared to those who had the shell visual cue

Renewal Effect

Craving returns when you return to the original context/environment (after extinction in another context) EX: Amanda's chocolate craving returned when she returned to Venlo and watched Netflix

Chemotherapy Study

Created an association between a novel taste and toxic drug treatment, which interfered with the development of aversions to a target food/taste. --- Simple and effective way to reduce the impact of chemotherapy on preference for normal menu items. --- Measured intake and liking of the food

Night Eating Syndrome (NES)

Eating disorder characterized by a habitual pattern of interrupting sleep to eat

Orthorexia Nervosa (ON)

Eating disorder characterized by an obsession with proper or 'healthful' eating

Binge Eating Disorder (BED)

Eating disorder characterized by recurrent episodes of consuming large amounts of food during which the person feels a lack of control over eating, but in the absence of the extreme weight-control behavior seen in bulimia nervosa -- Most patients are middle-age and a third or more are male -- Extreme dieting, purging and excessive exercising are not present

Purging Disorder (PD)

Eating disorder characterized by recurrent purging behavior to influence weight or shape, such as self-induced vomiting and misuse of laxatives, in the absence of binge eating

Effect of Food Cues

Elicit almost reflex-like irresistible food cravings that stimulate over-eating even when we're not hungry and elicit food cue reactivity (eg. increased salivation).

Anorexia of Ageing

Energy intake decreases by 25% between 40-70 years old (at the same time the requirement of certain nutrients increases)

Ethics of Nudging

Ethical because it was well-accepted/generally approved by consumers and doesn't limit people's freedom of choice. Unethical because it's subtle, violates autonomy, and research is still ongoing

Memory of recent eating experiments

Experiment 1: Served pizza for lunch and cookie taste test after. Conditions: "no cue" or "lunch cue." Results: being reminded of food eaten for lunch decreases intake in an afternoon taste test. Experiment 2: 3 conditions during taste test: "no cue," "lunch today cue" or "lunch yesterday cue." Result: thinking about food eaten the previous day had no effect on intake whereas thinking about food eaten the same day did decrease intake.

How does our environment influence cravings?

External/environmental/Location cues form when food is repeatedly eaten in the same place, the place will then start to act as conditioned stimuli that trigger cue reactivity and create a craving.

Why do someone relapse?

Extinction/counterconditioning doesn't destroy original learning, but result in new behavior that is strongly dependent on the current context (external cues, internal state, recent events, or time). Hence, a change in context may result in a relapse.

Ineffective ways to learn to like certain foods

Food Adaptations (including FFL and FNL): making adaptations to veggies to increase children's consumption of them, not really effective Meal Time Adaptations: for example serving vegetables first, providing a choice, serving a selection of vegetables, or serving larger portions of vegetables, some were effective others not, but they were also time consuming, so overall not an effective method Modelling: parents/teachers/peers leading by example. Parental modelling was ineffective on its own, while peer models were more effective. Should be compared with other methods.

Optimal protein intake for elderly people

For optimal protein synthesis and to overcome anabolic resistance, 25-30 grams of high-quality protein and intake should be spread evenly across the day

"Feast" hypothesis

Group eating is more likely to resemble a feast --- A greater food intake may be a conscious, planned choice --- Social Precilitation of eating: the anticipation of increased intake in groups --- People in groups select more food and proceed to eat it

Benefits of adequate protein intake

Important for functional abilities, risk of incidence frailty and falls, proper healing, bone mineral density, maintenance of bone and muscle mass, blood pressure, recovery, maintenance of the immune system, transport molecules and speed up biochemical reactions

Dual Process mdel

Impulsive system: fast and uncontrolled processes that guide behaviour according to short-term gratification Reflective system: slow, and controlled processes that guides behavior in accordance with long-term goals and standards A tug-of-war between the systems results in feelings of temptation and internal conflict: settles on a winner-takes-all process.

Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS)

Impulsivness test that measures some of the ways in which people think and act

How nudging affects food choices

Increase healthy food choices Impulsive food choices are more prone to nudging Obesogenic environment nudges us to pick the unhealthier option, making healthy choices hard

Reappraisal (thinking about the negative health consequences of food)

Increases neural activity in control-related regions of the brain and decreases activity in reward-related regions

Modelling

Individuals eat more or less in the presence of others, depending on the amount eaten by the model(s) --- use the amount eaten by others as an indication of how much can be consumed without appearing to eat excessively

Social Facilitation

Individuals tend to eat more in the presence of others than they do when they are alone (on average 44% more) -- Audience effects: people usually eat dramatically less in front of a non-eating audience, as they become highly self-conscious which may suppress eating -- Co-action effects: people usually increase food intake when eating with others who are also eating

Why do we like and dislike certain foods?

Innate preferences: sweet = energy and bitter = toxic Children prefer foods with high energy density Tend to like something more if people around us really like it Ads make certain foods appeal to us

Triggers an impulse to eat

Internal cues: hunger, thirst, emotions, low self-control, mental fatigue, impulsivness Environmental cues: palatable food, alcohol consumption, others eating

Internal Cues

Internal, physiological, depletion-based cues that are unlearned

'Time-extension' hypothesis

Meal length increases as the number of eaters increases, which increases the amount eaten --- the longer they are in the presence of food, the more they will eat --- the longer meals may simply reflects more time spent talking

Flavour-flavour learning (FFL)

Method of learning to like a food by trying it repeatedly when paired with another food/flavour which is already liked --- May be as useful in the promotion of vegetable liking and intake as exposure

The effect of gender roles on eating behaviour

More feminine: "healthy" foods and smaller meals More masculine: "unhealthy" foods and larger meals Males: regular consumption of high-fat foods Female: regular consumption of low-fat foods Pizza/cookie/water study: males ate more than females

Effectiveness of Nudging

Only been studied in the short-term Doesn't seem to depend on time pressure Doesn't depend on the individuals' mode of thinking Effective when aligned with personal preferences Equally effective for people who noticed and didn't notice it, may even be beneficial to disclose it

The 'unit bias' mechanism

People think one serving (one sandwich, one can of food, one biscuit) is the appropriate amount to consume at once, regardless of its size

Hippocampus

Part of incentive motivation and has been associated with food and drug craving and with viewing of reward-predicting pictures

The bite size mechanism

People increase their bite size when food portions are larger

The 'previous experience/expectation' mechanism

People select their portion size based on previous experience of the 'degree of fullness produced by a food'

The effect of social appeal on eating behaviour

People who ate "good" foods: more physically attractive, more likeable, and more moral High-fat/fast-food consumers: less physically attractive, less warm, less intelligent, and less studious, and more likely to attend parties, drink alcohol, and be more easygoing Consumers of low-fat diets: attractive, intelligent, and middle-class, but also as serious, high-strung, unhappy, and antisocial. Consumers of high-fat diets: unattractive, unintelligent, and working class, but fun-loving, happy, and sociable.

How the # of people you eat with affect your eating behaviour

People's food intake increases as the number of co-eaters increases (up to a certain point) --- the best predictor of" an individual's food intake " in all scenarios --- harder to monitor food intake of others in bigger groups --- The appropriate amount of food to order/arrange for larger groups is more difficult to estimate, and those who order are then likely to over-order

Artichoke Study in Kids

Plain artichoke puree, puree with sugar, puree with oil compared to carrot puree -- One was different in energy density and same in taste -- One was different in the taste and same in energy density --- Result: All artichoke purées were equally effective

The 'visual cue' mechanism

Portion sizes appear larger when served on a small plate than on a large plate; makes people judge portions differently

Control-related areas of the brain

Prefrontal cortex

Heuristics

Quick and simple decision rules that are assumed to save self-control resources, by excluding part of the information -- Reciprocity: the felt need to return a favor -- Scarcity: the need to acquire what is less available -- Social proof: the tendency to adopt the option preferred by others

Implicit/automatic attitudes:

Quick evaluative reactions triggered automatically and unintentionally upon encounter of environmental stimuli

Protein Enriched Foods

Specialized, nutrient-dense foods provide large amounts of nutrients in relatively small amounts of food. --- Preferred carriers: dairy, bread and cheese (things already in their diet) --- Main barriers: confusion, distrust and perceived lack of personal relevance --- Main facilitator: medical advise and sensory appeal

Electroencephalography (EEG)

Records when electrical activity in the brain occur via electrodes on the scalp -- Fast, non-invasive and inexpensive

3 Types of Relapse

Renewal effect, reinstatement, and spontaneous recovery

Effective ways to learn to like certain foods

Repeated exposure is by far the most effective for promoting vegetable intake in children, but only works if the kids take a bite. Tangible and intangible rewards were also highly effective (excludes food rewards) Nutritional Education is also effective, but does applicable for the youngest kids

Types of impulsivity

Reward related impulsivity: sensitivity to reward/inability to delay reward Insufficient prepotent response inhibition: the possibility to overrule eautomatic intentions to respond to stimuli

Affectively Oriented Interventions

Seek to influence how consumers feel without changing what they know about the product. "Hedonic Enhancements:" attractive photos/containers "Healthy Eating Calls:" written or oral encouragement

Behaviorally Oriented Interventions

Seek to influence what consumers do without changing what they know or how they feel. "Convenience Enhancement:" healthy options is the easiest "Size Enhancement:" modifies the size of the portion/container

Cognitively Oriented Interventions

Seek to influence what consumers know. "Descriptive Nutritional Labeling:" calorie count "Evaluative Nutritional Labeling:" color-coding/symbols "Visibility Enhancement:" make option more visible

Learning Theory

States that appetitive responses decrease and extinguish when exposure to the food remains systematically unreinforced in the normal overeating context

Key reward-related areas in the brain

Striatum, midbrain, orbitofrontal cortex, (vetro)medial prefrontal cortex, amygdala, anterior insula, frontal operculum, hippocampus, and parahippocampal gyrus

ego depletion theory

Suggests that self-control is a limited resource; and just like a muscle, it gets tired over time, making it more difficult for us to keep exerting self-control

Psychological process of nudging

Takes advantage of the fact that most decisions are based on the so‐called System 1 way of reasoning: fast and automatic --- 200+ daily food‐related decisions are made unconsciously --- People do not have the time, motivation, or cognitive resources to carefully and consciously think through all of their decisions every day

Functional MRI (fMRI)

Technique that uses magnetic fields to detect changes in blood flow to identify regions of the brain that are active during a given task

2 Criteria for Nudging to be Ethical

Tell people about an intervention directly Ensure that a perceptive person can discern that an intervention

Lapse

Temporary slip or return to a previous behavior that one is trying to control or quit (usually a one time occurrence)

Treatments for Eating Disorders

The Cognitive Behavioral Therapy -- For treatment to have a lasting impact on binge eating and purging it needs to address their extreme dieting, their over-evaluation of shape and weight, and any tendency for their eating to change in response to adverse events and negative moods. -- The trans-diagnostic cognitive-behavioral treatment model: a decrease in dietary restriction is critical for a successful reduction of binge eating behaviors across eating disorder diagnoses.

Self control and its disruptions

The ability to override/inhibit an impulse and regulate thoughts and behavior -- Emotional distress, particularly anxiety, depression, and ego threat, appear to disrupt it

Repeated Exposure (RE)

The increase in liking for a taste as a result of repeated exposure (5-12 times) --- Most effective method for increasing liking --- Learned safety is acquired

Primary taste areas

The insula cortex, the ventroposterior medial nucleus of the thalamus, and the parabrachial nuclei of the pons

Cues that can eventually signal eating and cause carvings

The place where the food is eaten, the people with whom it is eaten, the food preparing rituals, the smell, sight and taste of the food --- When these become good predictors of eating, they elicit physiological responses that prepare the body for food intake

The appropriateness mechanism

The portion size served suggests a "normal" amount to eat/how much we should consume The size of containers/packages activates implicit consumption norms against which consumers calculate their food intake

Food neophobia

The reluctance to eat and/or avoid novel foods

impression management theory

The ways by which individuals attempt to control the impressions others have of them --- Controls the type of food --- Controls the meal size --- People try to project a positive image of themselves

Aversion Theraphy

Type of therapy that tries to create an association between a stimulus that previously led to a positive experience, but now you associate it with something negative

Reinstatement

US triggers you to reinstate the craving after extinction EX: when Amanda eats chocolate in Venlo she get the urge to watch Netflix

Chemical Aversion to treat alcoholics

Using a drug to develop an association between alcohol and unpleasant symptoms like nausea Limitations: difficult to administer, it's expensive, and mainly beneficial for well-motivated, relatively well-educated, largely intact alcoholics. Benefits: alcoholics are more likely to develop and maintain an association between alcohol and nausea than between alcohol and shock.

The usefulness of visual cues to regulate food intake

Visual cue of the 'leftovers' (ie. bones, wrappers or nut shells) helps people remember how many or how much they have already eaten. -- Decreases food intake

Sweetened Water Rat Study

When rats drank sweetened water, lights would flash and x-rays and electric shock would be conducted --- 4 reinforcement: toxins, x-rays, and immediate and delayed electric shock --- When it makes sense biologically the association is stronger, hence nausea-inducing drugs are more effective to treat alcoholism

Portion Size Effect

the tendency to eat more when a larger portion of food is received than a smaller portion