Psychology TEST 3 (Chapters 8, 9, 10, and 11)

Erikson's Theory Stage - Autonomy vs. shame and doubt

( 1 to 3 years) - Children learn to express their will and independence, to exercise some controls, and to make choices. If not, they experience shame and doubt.

Erikson's Theory Stage - Trust vs. mistrust

( birth to 1 year) - infants learn to trust or mistrust depending on the degree and regularity of care, love and affection provided by parents or caregivers.

Piaget's Theory Stage 1 - Sensorimotor

(0 to 2 years) Infants experience the world through their senses, actions, and body movements. At the end of this stage, toddlers develop the concept of object permanence and can mentally represent objects in their absence. Ex: In Piaget's stage of cognitive development, which stage is marked by object permanence?

Anal stage

(1 to 3 years)Conflict: Toilet training Fixation can lead to excessive cleanliness and stinginess or messiness and rebelliousness

Piaget's Theory Stage 4 - Formal operational

(12 yrs and beyond) at this stage, adolescents learn to think logically in abstract situations, learn to test hypotheses systematically, and become interested in the world of ideas. Not all people attain full formal operational thinking. Ex: During which of Piaget's stages are children able to understand abstract concepts such as "freedom"?

Piaget's Theory Stage 2 - Preoperational

(2 to 7 years) children are able to represent objects and events mentally with words and images. They can engage in imaginary play (pretend), using one object to represent another. Their thinking is egocentric; that is, they fail to consider the perspective of others.

Phallic stage

(3 to 5 or 6 years)Conflict: Oedipus complex Love for opposite sex parent; must resolve and identify with same sex parent Fixation can lead to flirtatiousness and promiscuity or excessive pride and chastity

Erikson's Theory Stage - Initiative vs. guilt

(3 to 6 years)Children begin to initiate activities , to plan and undertake tasks, and to enjoy developing motor and other abilities. If not allowed to initiate or if made to feel stupid and considered a nuisance, they may develop a sense of guilt.

Latency

(5 or 6 years to puberty) Period of sexual calm; interest in school, hobbies, friends

Erikson's Theory Stage- Industry vs. inferiority

(6 yrs to puberty) - Children develop industriousness and feel pride in accomplishing tasks, making things, and doing things. If not encouraged or if rebuffed by parents and teachers, they may develop a sense of inferiority.

Piaget's Theory Stage 3 -Concrete operational

(7 to 12 years) children at this stage become able to think logically in concrete situations. They acquire the concepts of conservation and reversibility can order objects in a series and can classify them according to multiple dimensions.

Id: (ID)

(ANIMAL)Contains life (sexual) and death (aggression) instincts Primitive, inaccessible, completely unconscious Operates on the pleasure principle - seek pleasure, avoid pain Source of libido - source of energy that fuels personality, but can only demand and fantasize

Oral stage

(Birth to 1 year)Conflict: Weaning; oral gratification Fixation can lead to dependency and passivity or sarcasm and hostility

superego

(MR./MRS. PERFECT) The moral system of the personality, which consists of the conscience and the ego ideal.

Genital stage

(Puberty) on Revival of sexual interests; establishment of mature sexual relationships

Ego

(REFEREE)In Freud's theory, the logical, rational, largely conscious system of personality, which operates according to the reality principle.

Erikson's Theory Stage- Identity versus role confusion

(adolescence) - Adolescents must make the transition from childhood to adulthood, establish an identity, develop a sense of self, and consider a future occupational identity. Otherwise, role confusion can result. Ex: According the Erikson, adolescence is known as the period of ______.

Erikson's Theory Stage- Ego integrity versus. despair

(late adulthood) - Individuals review their lives, and if they are satisfied and feel a sense of accomplishment, they will experience ego integrity. If dissatisfied, they may sink into despair. Ex; Ginny is 82 years old. She often looks back on her life with satisfaction, believing that she accomplished a lot, had a loving family, and contributed to the world. Which of Erikson's stages best fits Ginny?

Erikson's Theory Stage- Generativity vs. stagnation

(middle adulthood) - Middle-aged people must find some way of contributing to the development of the next generation. Failing this, they may become self-absorbed and emotionally impoverished and reach a point of stagnation.

Kohlberg's - Preconventional level - Stage 2

(pre-school 3 to 6) Stage of Self -Interest. What is right is what benefits the individual or gains a favor in return. "you scratch my back and I'll scratch yours"

Erikson's Theory Stage- Intimacy vs. isolation

(young adulthood) - Young adults must develop intimacy 0 the ability to share with, care for, and commit themselves to another person. Avoiding intimacy brings a sense of isolation and loneliness.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs (five levels):

1) physiological needs; 2) safety needs;3) belongingness and love 4) esteem 5) need for self-actualization

Type B behavior pattern

A behavior pattern marked by a relaxed easygoing approach to life, without the time urgency, impatience, and hostility of the Type A pattern. (Note: The relaxed and easygoing nature of the Type B folks does not come at the expense of success. Type B folks are as bright and ambitious as the others and may even be more successful than the Type A or D counterparts.)

Type A behavior pattern

A behavior pattern marked by a sense of time urgency, impatience, excessive competitiveness, hostility, and anger; considered a risk factor in coronary heart disease.

Lazarus' primary appraisal

A cognitive evaluation of a potentially stressful event to determine whether its effect is positive, irrelevant, or negative.

Lazarus' secondary appraisal (think of real-world examples)

A cognitive evaluation of available resources and options prior to deciding how to deal with a stressor.

hardiness

A combination of three psychological qualities - commitment, control, and challenge - shared by people who can handle high levels of stress and remain healthy.

Problem-focused coping

A direct response aimed at reducing, modifying, or eliminating a source of stress.

Defense mechanisms

A means used by the ego to defend against anxiety and to maintain self-esteem.

Personality

A person's characteristic patterns of behaving, thinking and feeling.

Trait theories

A personal quality or characteristic, which is stable across situations, that is used to describe or explain personality.

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD):

A prolonged and severe stress reaction to a catastrophic event or to severe, chronic stress.

emotion-focused coping (think of real-world examples)

A response involving reappraisal of a stressor to reduce its emotional impact.

Psychosexual stages of development

A series of stages through which the sexual instinct develops; each stage is defined by an erogenous zone around which conflict arises.

Arousal

A state of alertness and mental and physical activation. Higher arousal for simple task or boring task lower arousal for difficult task, moderate difficulty task for moderate arousal.

Arousal theory

A theory of motivation suggesting that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of alertness and physical and mental activation. EX: While taking a psychology exam, Millie got up and shut the classroom door because students in the hallway were being noisy. Which theory explains Millie's behavior?

Five-factor model

A trait theory that attempts to explain personality using five broad dimensions, each of which is composed of a constellation of personality traits. Each factor is composed of a constellation of personality traits (OCEAN). Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.

Schachter-Singer Theory

A two factor theory stating that for an emotion to occur, there must be (1) physiological arousal and (2) a cognitive interpretation of explanation of the arousal, allowing it to be labeled as a specific emotion. (physiological and then think and then emotion). Ex: Which two-factor theory of emotion says that physiological arousal is followed by a cognitive interpretation of the situation?

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow- Name of the founder of the humanistic approach to psychology. Maslow's pyramid of human needs; at the base are physiological needs that must be satisfied before higher-level safety needs, and then psychological needs, become active. Ex: Which needs did Maslow believe must be satisfied first? Answer: need for shelter

Proactive coping

Active measures taken in advance of a potentially stressful situation in order to prevent its occurrence or to minimize its consequences.

Bulimia nervosa

An eating disorder in which a person alternates episodes of binge-eating (usually of high-calorie foods) with purging (vomiting, laxative use), fasting or excessive exercise. EX: Tooth decay, sore throats, kidney damage, and hair loss are all symptoms of: Ex: With regard to bulimia, bingeing is characterized by eating an extraordinary amount of food coupled with the feeling of loss of control over one's eating. True

Incentive

An external stimulus that motivates behavior (for example, money or fame).

Reciprocal determinism

Bandura's concept of a mutual influential relationship among behavior, cognitive factors, and environment.

Assimilation

Child fits new information into schemes that already exist. the process by which new objects, events, experiences, or info is incorporated into existing schemes. Ex: cocker spaniel next door is also a dog: 1)Ex: Kirsten, a 2-year-old, called a complete stranger "Daddy." Her error was probably due to________. 2)ex: Wendy is 18 months old and just learning to speak. She meows whenever she sees a cat. One day, while she is watching television, a rabbit appears, and Wendy points and meows. What process has Wendy attempted regarding her existing scheme of cats? Ex: According to Piaget, _________ is the process by which new objects, events, experiences, or information is incorporated into existing schemes.

Conditions of worth

Conditions on which the positive regard of others rests.

Characteristics of self-actualizing individuals

Developing to one's fullest potential.

Coping

Effords through action and thought to deal with demands that are perceived as taxing or overwhelming.

Unconscious

For Freud, the primary motivating force of human behavior, containing repressed memories as well as instincts, wishes, and desires that have never been conscious.

Psychoanalytic theories

Freud's theory of personality and his therapy for treating psychological disorders; focuses on unconscious processes

Kohlberg's level 3 - Postconventional Level

General Good, internal values - Moral conduct is under internal control; this is the highest level and the mark of true morality. Ex; When Meghan says that she opposes capital punishment because it is cruel and interferes with basic human rights, she is thinking at Kohlberg's ___________ level of moral reasoning.

an uplift. (Stressful Job)

Hank has a stressful job, but he always looks forward to coming home to his wife, who never fails to bring a smile to his face and relieve some of his stress. According to Richard Lazarus, Hank's time with his wife would be described as

Personal Unconscious

In Jung's theory, the layer of the unconscious that contains all of the thoughts, perceptions, and experiences accessible to the conscious, as well as repressed memories, wishes, and impulses.

Collective unconscious

In Jung's theory, the most inaccessible layer of the unconscious, which contains the universal experiences of humankind throughout evolution.

Sexually transmitted diseases

Infections that are spread primarily through intimate sexual contact. can treated with antibiotics is syphilis diseases

safety needs

Need for safety and security

Motives

Need or desire that energizes and directs behavior toward a goal. EX: Which motive will Steven likely use in choosing his prom date? A social motive

belongingness and love

Need to love and be loved; need to affiliate with others and be accepted

need for self-actualization

Need to realize one's fullest potential. EX: According to Maslow, Lincoln, Jefferson, Einstein and Eleanor Roosevelt would all be individuals who exemplified: Self-actualization

physiological needs

Need to satisfy the basic biological needs for food, water, oxygen, sleep, and elimination of bodily wastes.

esteem

Needs to achieve, to gain competence, to gain respect and recognition from others

Kohlberg's level 2 - Conventional level

Please others society - The child internalizes the standards of others and judges right and wrong according to those standards.Ex: When 8-year-old Barry was asked why he shouldn't steal a candy sucker from another boy, he answered "Because I might go to jail." Barry is at Kohlberg's _________ level of moral reasoning. Ex: Luis behaves well at school because he wants to please his teacher. Which of Kohlberg's levels of moral development best fits Luis? conventional

Kohlberg's level 1 - Preconventional level

Reward or punishment self interest - Moral reasoning is governed by the physical consequences of behavior; an act is good or bad depending on its physical consequences - whether it is punished or rewarded.: Ex: Which of the following individuals proposed that moral reasoning develops in stages that are based on a person's level of cognitive development?

Locus of control

Rotter's concept of a cognitive factor that explains how people account for what happens in their lives - either seeing themselves as primarily in control of their behavior and its consequences (internal locus of control) or perceiving what happens to them to be in the hands of fate, luck, or chance (external locus of control).

Kohlberg's - Preconventional level - Stage 1

Stage 1 - (obedience and punishment driven) (infancy 0 - 2) No different between doing the right thing and avoiding punishment.

Stress

Stress is the physiological and psychological response to a condition that threatens or challenges a person and requires some form of adaptation or adjustment.

Type D

The Type D behavior pattern is characterized by chronic emotional distress coupled with the tendency to suppress negative emotions.

Extrinsic motivation (think of real-world examples!)Extrinsically

The desire to behave in a certain way in order to gain some external reward or to avoid some undesirable consequence. EX: Many people in society do not steal or commit other crimes because they do not want to deal with the consequences of getting caught. In other words, they are _____ motivated to not engage in criminal behavior. Ex: Keisha wants to make good grades because her parents promised her a new car if she makes the honor roll. Keisha's motivation is Extrinsic Ex: Extrinsic motivation is consistent with Skinner's concept of reinforcement. True

Alarm stage

The first stage of the general adaptation syndrome, in which the person experiences a burst of energy that aids in dealing with the stressful situation.

Kohlberg's - Postconventional Level - Stage 6

The highest stage of the highest social level. The morality of universal ethical principles. The person acts according to internal standards independent of legal restrictions or opinions of others.

Kohlberg's - Postconventional Level - Stage 5

The morality of contract; respect for individual rights and laws that are democratically agreed on. Rational valuing of the wishes of the majority and the general welfare. Belief that society is best served if citizens obey the law.

Kohlberg's - Conventional level - Stage 3

The morality of mutual relationships. The "good boy - nice girl" orientation. Child acts to please and help others.

Kohlberg's - Conventional level - Stage 4

The morality of the social system and conscience. Orientation toward authority. Morality is doing one's duty, respecting authority, and maintaining the social order.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

The optimal level of arousal varies according to the difficulty of the task. Arousal levels should be relatively high for simple tasks, moderate for moderately difficult tasks, and lower for difficult tasks. Ex: Which of the following statements is true according to the Yerkes-Dodson law?Answer: Performance on difficult tasks is better when arousal is low.

General adaptation syndrome (GAS) and its stages (think of real-world examples)

The predictable sequence of reactions (alarm, resistance, and exhaustion stages) that organisms show in response to stressors.

Resistance stage

The second stage of the general adaptation syndrome, when there are intense physiological efforts to either resist or adapt to the stressor.

Lazarus' Theory

The theory that a cognitive appraisal is the first step in an emotional response and all other aspects of an emotion, including physiological arousal, depend on it. (think first and then emotion and physiological arousal follow); EX: A criticism of the Lazarus theory is:Some emotional reactions are instant, occurring too rapidly to pass through cognitive appraisal; Ex: Lazarus developed the triangular theory of love. True Ex: Mary Ann is at a restaurant when she sees someone she thinks she knows. He turns around, and she realizes it is her ex-boyfriend. She decides that this is not a good situation. She becomes nervous, and sweaty palms and an increased heart rates follow. Which theory of motivation best describes this scenario?

Cannon-Bard Theory

The theory that an emotion provoking stimulus is transmitted simultaneously to the cerebral cortex, providing the conscious mental experience of the emotion, and to the sympathetic nervous system, causing the physiological arousal. (physiological and emotion are equal). EX: On realizing that the shadow behind you is a man with a gun, your heart begins to race just as you feel afraid. With which of the following theories of emotion is this scenario most consistent?

James-Lang Theory (see chart on pg. 304 . . . know what happens first, second, simultaneously, etc. for this an all other theories of motivation):

The theory that emotional feelings result when an individual becomes aware of a physiological response to an emotion provoking stimulus (for example, feeling fear because of trembling). (Physiological arousal and then emotion)

Exhaustion stage

The third stage of the general adaptation syndrome, which occurs if the organism fails in its efforts to resist the stressor.

Preconscious

The thoughts, feelings, and memories that a person is not consciously aware of at the moment but that may be easily brought to consciousness.

conscious

The thoughts, feelings, sensations, or memories of which a person is aware at any given moment.

Set-point theory

The weight the body normally maintains when one is trying neither to gain nor to lose weight. Ex: Cherelle has weighed approximately 120 pounds for most of her adult life. She doesn't work hard to lose weight, nor does she try to gain weight. You conclude that 120 pounds represents Cherelle's. Answer: set point.

Vygotsky's sociocultural approach to cognitive development puts more emphasis on the impact of language development than does Piaget's theory.

True

According to Piaget, a 3-year-old child would assume that you can see what she sees.

TrueVygotsky's sociocultural approach to cognitive development puts more emphasis on the impact of language development than does Piaget's theory.

Unconditional positive regard

Unqualified caring and nonjudgmental acceptance of another.

Fetal alcohol syndrome

a condition, caused by maternal alcohol intake during pregnancy, in which the baby is born with mental retardation, with a small head and facial, organ, and behavioral abnormalities Ex; Because of the risk of fetal alcohol syndrome, pregnant women are advised to completely abstain from alcohol during pregnancy

Temperament and the New York Longitudinal Study results

a person's behavioral style or characteristic way of responding to the environment: EX: According to Thomas, Chess, and Birch, these kids make up the 2nd largest group in their study on termperament; Too inconsistent to categorize

Naïve idealism

a type of thought in which adolescents construct ideal solutions for problems

Drive

an aroused, motivated state, that PUSHes us into action, often created by deprivation of a needed substance. (Something you like to do). EX: Cynthia has gone without food for two days in an effort to properly fit into her wedding dress. The tension and hunger she has at the reception is representative of: Ex: Drive-reduction theory is largely based on the concepts of tension and homeostasis. True

Personal fable:

an exaggerated sense of personal uniqueness and indestructibility, which may be the basis for adolescent risk taking Ex: Cassandra is a teenager who hates school. She has developed a plan to have a perfect life that involves quitting school with her boyfriend and getting rich and famous by being on American Idol. Cassandra's plan would best be described by which term?

fluid intelligence

aspects of intelligence involving abstract reasoning and mental flexibility, which peak in the early 20s and decline slowly as people age; Ex: Fluid intelligence peaks in one's twenties, but crystallized intelligence increases throughout the lifespan. True

crystallized intelligence

aspects of intelligence, including verbal ability and accumulated knowledge, that tend to inrease over the life span; EX: The knowledge of at which temperature water boils is an example of ___________. Ex: ________ intelligence is to verbal ability as fluid intelligence is to abstract reasoning.

Male hormones

called androgens. Ex: Based on the research with males, which factor seems most highly correlated with bulimia? sexual orientation

Agreeableness

easygoing and friendly versus unfriendly and cold

Female hormones

estrogen and progesterone.

Teratogens

harmful agents in the prenatal environment, which can have a negative impact on prenatal development or even cause birth defects Ex: Substances that can have a negative impact on prenatal development, causing birth defects and other problems. Ex; Harmful agents in the environment that can have a negative effect on prenatal development are called

Approach-approach conflict

is a conflict arising from having to choose between equally desirable alternatives (e.g., deciding where to go on vacation).

Approach-avoidance conflict

is a conflict arising when a choice has both desirable and undesirable features (e.g., working out to get in shape).

Avoidance-avoidance conflict

is a conflict arising when a choice involves two equally unattractive alternatives (e.g., going to the dentist versus continuing to have a toothache).

Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)

is a measure of stress, which ranks 43 life events from most to least stressful and assigns a point value to each. Holmes and Rahe claim that scores on the scale predict health, but other researchers do not agree.

fight-or-flight response

is a response to stress in which the sympathetic nervous system triggers the release of hormones that prepare the body to fight or flee.

Motivation

is a very broad term that encompasses all the processes that initiate, direct, and sustain behavior. EX: His theory claims that we are motivated by the lowest unmet need. Abraham Maslow. Ex: According to psychologists, motivation is thought to have three basic components: activation, persistence, and intensity. True

stressor

is any stimulus or event capable of producing physical or emotional stress.

Anorexia nervosa

is characterized by an overwhelming, irrational fear of gaining weight or becoming fat, compulsive dieting to the point of self-starvation, and excessive weight loss. Lose as 20 to 25% of their original body weight. (female); EX: Many anorexics also have this disorder. Obsessive-compulsive disorder

Conflict

is the stress that arises from knowing that choosing one options requires one to forego others.

Openness

open to new experiences, curious, and broadminded versus having narrow interests and preferring the familiar

Extraversion

outgoing, prefer to be around other people versus shy, prefer to be alone

authoritarian parents

parents who make arbitrary rules, expect unquestioned obedience from their children, punish transgressions, and value obedience to authority

permissive parents

parents who make few rules or demands and allow children to make their own decisions and control their own behavior : Ex: Jordan is very familiar with the local juvenile authorities, couldn't care less about school, but is very popular with the young girls. However, their parents do not approve of his style of attention. Jordan's parents are probably the _________ type. Ex: Which parenting style is associated with the highest incidence of drug use among adolescents?

authoritative parents

parents who set high but realistic standards, reasons with the child, enforce limits, and encourage open communication and independence. Ex: Which parenting style generally appears to be the most effective in the United States?

Optimism

people who are generally optimistic tend to cope more effectively with stress, which in turn may reduce their risk of illness. EX: Elderly individuals who have a sense of ___________ in their lives appear to be among the most satisfied. Ex: Optimists generally expect good outcomes, and these positive expectations make them more stress-resistant than pessimists, who generally expect bad outcomes.

Neuroticism

pessimistic and irritable versus optimistic, take things in stride

Conscientiousness

reliable, orderly, and industrious versus undependable and lazy

Piaget's cognitive stages in chronological order are

sensorimotor, preoperations, concrete operations, formal operations.

Intrinsic motivation (think of real-world examples!)

the desire to behave in a certain way because it is enjoyable or satisfying in and of itself. Ex: The notion that human behavior is motivated by certain innate, unlearned tendencies that are shared by all individuals. ans: Instinct theory

Adolescence

the developmental stage that begins at pubery and encompasses the period from the end of childhood to the beginning of adulthood; Ex: Which of the following concepts has been suggested as a possible explanation for the excessive risk taking behavior engaged in by some adolescents? The personal fable : Ex: The concept of adolescence was developed by G. Stanley Hall

Need for Achievement (n Ach)

the need to accomplish something difficult and to perform at a high standard of excellence. Ex: Inez devotes all of her energy to school. She sets high standards of performance for herself in an effort to accomplish all she can. According to research on motivation, Inez could be said to have a high need for ________Answer: achievement.

socialization

the process of learning socially acceptable behaviors, attitudes, and values

Attachment

the strong affectionate bond a child forms with the mother or primary caregiver

Developmental psychology

the study of how humans grow, develop, and change throughout the life span such stages of life as infancy, adolescence, and old age.