Psychology Unit 3

In the 1950s, George Miller estimated the number of items that could be stored in short-term memory to be the magic number _______.

7 plus or minus 2

Thorndike was known for his work with ___________.

A puzzle box

What is the conditioned stimulus in the case of Little Albert?

A white rat

In Pavlov's classic experiments, the repeated presentations of the metronome along with the food formed the ________ step of the classical conditioning process.

Acquisition

Observational learning theory's foremost proponent is _______.

Bandura

A school issues tokens to the children for good behavior. This issue of a token is an example of _______.

Behavior modification

Which of the following is an example of punishment by removal?

Being "grounded" for breaking curfew

Human beings generally have an aversion to bitter and sour foods. Some researchers suggest that this is because foods that are inedible or even poisonous are often bitter or sour. The tendency of human beings to find these potentially harmful foods repulsive is an example of ___________.

Biological preparedness

An important example of conditioned taste aversions might be ________.

Chemotherapy patients losing their appetites for food served around the same time they had their treatments

Learning to make a reflex response to a stimulus other than to the original, natural stimulus is called

Classical conditioning

The learning of phobias is a very good example of which certain type of classical conditioning?

Conditioned emotional response

Pavlov placed food in the mouths of the dogs, and they began to salivate. Pavlov's student noticed that after a few days the dogs began to salivate at the sound of the students footsteps. The salivation to the sound of the footsteps was a _________.

Conditioned response

Imagine that you flinch after seeing lightening because in previous instances that lightening is followed by thunder, which scared you. In this scenario , lightening can be interpreted as being a

Conditioned stimulus

Sue noticed that whenever she opened the door to the pantry, her dog would come into the kitchen and act hungry, by drooling and whining. She thought that because the dog food was stored in the pantry, the sound of the door had become a

Conditioned stimulus

The key to the partial report method of Sperling's study of sensory memory was to _______.

Cue the participants, using a tone, as to which line of the matrix they were to report

A psychologist asks people to recall the name of their kindergarten teacher. Surprisingly, the majority of people correctly do this and comment, "Gee whiz, I haven't thought about that old bat [or cold coot] in years!" Their ability to do so tends to conflict with which theory of forgetting?

Decay or disuse

In the levels-of-processing model of memory, information that gets processed at a _______ level (such as accessing the meaning of a word or phrase) is more likely to be retained longer and form a stronger memory than information that is processed at a _____ level (such as the visual characteristics of a word).

Deeper;shallower

Which of the following statements is true?

Different parts of the brain are specialized for the storage of memories

Secondary reinforcers differ from primary reinforcers in that secondary reinforcers __________.

Do not inherently satisfy physical needs

The term photographic memory is often used, albeit incorrectly, to refer to _______ imagery.

Eidetic

______ rehearsal results in a more lasting memory and promotes the transfer of information to long-term memory, as compared to ______ rehearsal.

Elaborative; maintenance

"The effectiveness of memory retrieval is directly related to the similarity of cues present when the memory was encoded to the cues present when the memory is retrieved." What concept does this statement describe?

Encoding specifically

Jesse still has very vivid memories of his first romantic kiss. This example illustrates a specific form of _________ memory known as a(n) _________ memory.

Episodic;autobiographical

After Pavlov's dogs became conditioned to salivate at the sound of the metronome, he experimented with sounding the metronome and then failing to present the dogs with any food right away. Soon they stopped salivating to the metronome. This represents the process called __________.

Extinction

Alan always turns the aquarium light on before putting fish food into the tank. After a while, he notices that the fish swim to the top to look for food as soon as he turns on the light. In this example, the ________ is the unconditioned stimulus.

Fish food

A monthly paycheck BEST represents a _______ schedule of reinforcement.

Fixed interval

Getting paid for each basket of apples you gather represents which schedule of reinforcement?

Fixed ratio

Which of the following statements about flashbulb memories is TRUE?

Flashbulb memories tend to be about as accurate as other types of memories

Studies have found that the BEST way to overcome the top-of-the-tongue effect is to _____.

Forget about it and let the item just come to you

Which learning theorist is responsible for the discovery of conditioned taste aversions based on his work giving sweetened liquid to rats and then inducing nausea in them?

Garcia

After a CS comes to elicit the CR, the CS now can be paired with a new neutral stimulus and this second neutral stimulus will start to elicit a CR. This process is called ________.

Higher-order conditioning

You are out for a drive with the family and are lucky enough to get a window seat. The rapidly passing scenery you see out the window is first stored in _______ memory.

Iconic

There are two kinds of behavior that all organisms are capable of doing. If Inez blinks her eyes because a gnat flies close to them, that's ________. But if she then seats at the gnat, that's ________.

Involuntary;voluntary

Learning that occurs but is not immediately reflected in a behavior change is called ________.

Latent learning

A researcher places dogs in a cage with metal bars on the floor. The dogs are randomly given electric shocks and can do nothing to prevent them or stop them. Later, the same dogs are placed in a cage where they can escape the shocks by jumping over a low hurdle. When the shocks are given. The dogs do not even try to escape. They just sit and cower. This is an example of _________.

Learned helplessness

The most influential researcher into eyewitness memory has been________.

Loftus

Which strategy will NOT increase the effects of punishment?

Making the punishment occur only on a partial, sporadic schedule

Michael grows up in a home where is father is generally unloving toward his mother. He observes his father yell and degrade his mother, and he notices that his mother never resists this treatment. Based on the work of Bandura, what might we predict about Michaels own relationships when he is older?

Michael May treat women with discourtesy and disrespect, as he repeats the behavior he saw in his father

When Joe thinks about his sorely missed girlfriend, he drinks alcohol, which helps fill his feelings. This BEST illustrates:

Negative reinforcement

Which type of long-term memory is most resistant to loss with Alzheimer's disease?

Nondeclarative

The kind of learning that applies to voluntary behavior is called _________.

Operant conditioning

In the _______ model, memory is seen as a simultaneous process with the creation and storage of memories taking place across a series of networks "stretched" across the brain.

Parallel distributed processing

What kind of reinforcement is used if Sally's parents give her $10 every time she accumulates six A's on her tests?

Partial reinforcement

Which of the following statements is TRUE about operant conditioning?

Partial reinforcement leads to behaviors that will persist longer than behavior learned through continuous reinforcement

Which of the following statements regarding Pavlov is accurate?

Pavlov was studying salivation in dogs as part of a research program on digestion.

Positive reinforcement is to ________ as negative reinforcement is to ________.

Presenting good results; removing aversive stimuli

A _______ reinforcer is any reward that satisfies a basic, biological need, such a hunger, thirst, or touch.

Primary

A discriminative stimulus is a stimulus that _______.

Provides the organism with a cue for making a certain response in order to obtain reinforcement

What has occurred when there is a decrease in the likelihood or rate of a target response?

Punishment

Under most circumstances, when you are intentionally trying to remember an item of information, _________ is an easier task than _________.

Recognition;recall

In operant conditioning, _________ is necessary to create the association between the stimulus and the repetition of a voluntary response.

Reinforcement

A negative reinforcer is a stimulus that is _______ and this _______ the probability of a response.

Removed; increases

maintenance rehearsal

Repeating some bit of information over and over in ones head in order to maintain it in short-term memory

Which of the following distinguished sensory memory (SM) from short-term memory (STM)?

SM holds a larger number of separate pieces of information

A ________ reinforcer, such as money or praise, typically gets its value through an association with a _______.

Secondary; primary

Applied behavior analysis has been used to help children with autistic disorder. The basic principle of this form of behavior modification is ________.

Shaping

You train your dog, milo, to salivate at the sound of a bell. Then you ring the bell every five minutes and don't follow the ringing with food for Milo. He salivates less and less and finally stops salivating at all when the bell rings. But the next morning, when you ring the bell, Milo salivates! What term is used to explain the reappearance of this response?

Spontaneous recovery

The tendency to respond to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus is called ________.

Stimulus generalization

Pavlov's model of classical conditioning was based on the idea that the conditioned stimulus, through its association close in time with the unconditioned stimulus, came to activate the same time place in the animals brain that was originally activated by the unconditioned stimulus. This was known as _________.

Stimulus substitution

Rescorla's modern conceptualization of classical conditioning is based on the idea that ___________.

The CS has to provide information about the coming of the UCS

You decide that you are going to condition your dog to salivate to the sound of a metronome. You sound the metronome and then several minutes later you give the dog a biscuit. You do this several times but no conditioning seems to occur. This is probably because

The biscuit was given to long after the sound of the metronome

Which of the following events most intrigued Pavlov and led to his discoveries?

The dogs started to salivate when they saw Pavlov's assistant and before they got the food

A patients chart indicates he just had surgery to remove his hippocampus as a result of a tumor. What change do you anticipate is the patient after the operation?

The patient will not be able to remember new information

Imagine that you try to condition someone so that a particular sound elicits a literal "knee jerk response". Which of the following is accurate?

The sound is the CS

Bandura conducted a classic study known as the "Bobo" doll study. The term Bobo refers to ________.

The type of inflatable doll that was used in the study

How do retrieval cues help you to remember?

They direct you to relevant information stored in long-term memory

"If a response is followed by a pleasurable consequence, it will tend to be repeated. If a response is followed by an unpleasant consequence, it will tend not to be repeated." This is a statement of ________.

Thorndike's Law of Effect

Operant conditioning is based on the research of _________ and ________.

Thorndike;Skinner

As memories get older, they are most likely __________.

To become changed or altered in some fashion

In the context of classical conditioning, which of the following components "elicits" a response?

UCS

Normally, when food is placed in the mouth of any animal, the salivary glands start releasing saliva to help with chewing and digestion. In terms of Pavlov's analysis of learning, salivation would be referred to as an

Unconditioned response

When Pavlov places food in the mouths of canine subjects, they began to salivate. The salivation was an

Unconditioned response

Pavlov places food in the mouth of dogs, and they began to salivate. The food acted as an

Unconditioned stimulus

flashbulb memories

Usually concern events that are emotionally charged

While watching his older sister dive into a swimming pool, Jackson saw her slip on the end of the diving board, crack her head on the end of the board, and end up bleeding in the pool and crying hysterically. She required 12 stitches to close the cut on the back of her head. As a result, Jackson was highly afraid of both diving boards and the deep end of swimming pools. He did not overcome these fears until he was well into his early adult years. Jackson acquired his phobia as a result of ________ conditioning.

Vicarious

It is even possible to become classically conditioned by simply watching someone else respond to a stimulus in a process called _________.

Vicarious conditioning

Iconic memory is to echoic memory as ________.

Visual is to auditory

Which of the following criteria helps to increase the effectiveness of punishment?

When it immediately follows the undesirable behavior

Which of the following examples represents the shallowest processing as described by the levels of processing model?

attending to the sound of a word

Bits of information are combined into meaningful units so that more information can be held in short-term memory through the process of _________.

chunking

Loni is asked to memorize the letters I K T E A L N in no particular order. She memorizes them by reorganizing them into the words INK and LATE. This tactic is called

chunking

In this view, memories are literally "built" from the pieces stored away at encoding. This view is called _________.

constructive processing

Retrieving information from long-term memory is done by assembling information from various brain locations in a process known as ______.

constructive processing

Memories for both general facts and personal information are called ________.

declarative memories

When people hear a sound, their ears turn the vibrations in the air into neural messages from the auditory nerve, which makes it possible for the brain to interpret the sound. This process is called

encoding

When someone looks at an image, the retina turns the light rays from it into neural messages that go up to the optic nerve so the brain can interpret them. This process is called _________.

encoding

Remembering your first day of college classes is an example of ________ memories.

episodic

False positives occur when a person incorrectly "matches" a stimulus that is merely similar to a real memory to that memory. One major problem with eyewitness testimony is that _________.

false positives can cause eyewitness testimony to be quite inaccurate

Mateo is 70 years old and had a stroke last year. He is now unable to remember how to get to and return from his new doctor's office using a specific route. What brain structure was potentially damaged by Mateo's stroke?

his hippocampus

The processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval are seen as part of _______ model of memory.

information processing

Which model of memory is most similar in conceptualization to the way computers function?

information processing model

Learning is said to be a relatively permanent change in behavior because ________.

it is thought that when learning occurs, some part of the brain physically changes

The portion of memory that is more or less permanent is called _________.

long term memory

Based on the Loftus, et al. (1978) study, subjects viewed a slide presentation of an accident, and some of the subjects were asked a question about a blue car, when the actual slides contained pictures of a green car. When these same subjects were asked about the color of the car at the accident, they were found to be confused. This is an example of the _________.

misinformation effect

Evidence suggests that short-term memories are stored in the ________.

prefrontal lobes of the cortex

Adrianna is trying to memorize the names of the bones in the hand. She had gone through a list of them when her phone rang. After she gets off the phone, she is MOST likely to remember the first few bone names because of the ________.

primacy effect

Memory is defined as an active system that consists of three processes. They are _________.

receiving information from the senses, organizing and storing the information, and retrieving the information from storage

Trying to remember someone's name whom you met long ago is an example of what type of process?

retrieval

Bethany is trying to focus on a conversation across the room during a party she is attending. This is because she thinks she heard her name above the din of the conversation. Her ability to hear her name is due to the mechanism of _________.

selective attention

Information gets from sensory memory to short-term memory through the process of _________.

selective attention

Recalling the definition of long-term memory is an example of _________.

semantic memory

A display of 12 letters is flashed on a screen in front of you followed by a tone. You attempt to recall a portion of the display based on the specific tone you heard. What aspect of your memory is this experiment designed to assess?

sensory memory

Which memory system provides us with a very brief representation of all the stimuli present at a particular moment?

sensory memory

The three parts of the information-processing model of memory are _______.

sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory

Moishe can remember only the first two items and the last two items on the grocery list that his wife just read to him over the phone. The other five items in between are gone. This is an example of the _________.

serial position effect

Suppose Tamika looks up a number in the telephone book. After getting a busy signal, a minute or so later she tries to call again - but has already forgotten the number! This example illustrates the limited duration of ________ memory.

short term

Which memory system is the one that is a working, active system that processes the information within it?

short term memory

The duration of iconic memory is _________ than echoic memory, but iconic's capacity is probably _________.

shorter, larger

________ is the retention of memory for some period of time.

storage

According to primacy and recency effects, when reading the chapters of the textbook, you are most likely to forget _________.

the information in the middle of the chapter

Which of these individuals is most typical person involved in a case in which memories of past childhood abuse are recalled later in life?

thirty-year-old Charlotte, who sought therapy for anxiety, depression, and recent weight gain with a therapist who uses hypnosis

It is thought that long-term memory never can get filled up. The term used to describe the capacity of long-term memory is _______.

unlimited

One problem with relying on eidetic imagery to study for tests is that ______.

you may be able to recall the material but you don't necessarily understand it