Psych/Soc II - Motivation, Psychological Theories, Conformity & Obedience, Socialization, C&O Conditioning, Social Development, The Self and Social Perception, Attraction & Aggression, Society & Culture

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A trial-and-error approach where testing behaviours until a reward is yielded is: (A) Predisposition (B) Latent learning (C) Problem solving (D) Instinctive drive

Correctly order *Erikson's 8 stages of psychosocial development* and give approximate age ranges for each: (1) Autonomy vs. Doubt (2) Industry vs Inferiority (3) Trust vs Mistrust (4) Initiative vs Guilt (5) Integrity vs Despair (6) Identity vs Role Confusion (7) Intimacy vs Isolation (8) Generativity vs Stagnation

(0 - 1) Trust vs. Mistrust (virtue is hope) (1 - 2) Autonomy vs. Doubt (virtue is will) (3 - 5) Initiative vs. Guilt (virtue is purpose) (6 - 12) Industry vs. Inferiority (virtue is competence/pride) (12 - 18) Identity vs. Role Confusion (virtue is identity) (18 - 40) Intimacy vs. Isolation (virtue is love) (40 - 65) Generativity vs. Stagnation (65+) Integrity vs. Despair

Jackson is very good at starting new things and makes his own plans for what he is going to do each day. How old is Jackson? (A) 5 years (B) 21 years (C) 48 years (D) 68 years

(A) 5 years Jackson is overcoming Initiative vs. Guilt, which occurs between the ages of 3 and 6.

Freddie's needs are not being met fully, leading him to develop a sense of skepticism toward the world around him. How old is Freddie? (A) 8 months (B) 2 years (C) 7 years (D) 13 years

(A) 8 months Freddie is struggling with Trust vs. Mistrust, which occurs between the ages of 0 and 1.

The fastest growing *age cohort* in the US is: (A) 85+ (B) 65+ (C) 18-24 (D) 35-65

(A) 85+ >40% of adult patients in hospital beds are 65 or older - profound effects of the age cohorts.

Which of the following refers to the prejudice and discrimination on basis of a person's age? It views older individuals as frail vulnerable, less intelligent, less respect (A) Ageism (B) Lookism (C) Age cohort (D) Dependency

(A) Ageism *Ageism* is prejudice or discrimination on basis of a person's age.

Match each Generational Cohort with the years of birth for that Cohort: (A) Baby Boomers (B) Silent Generation (C) GI Generation (D) Generation Z (E) Generation X (F) Millennials (1) 1901 to 1924 (2) 1925 to 1942 (3) 1943 to 1964 (4) 1965 to 1973 (5) 1974 to 2000 (6) 2001 to Present

(A) Baby Boomers -> (3) 1943 to 1964 (B) Silent Generation -> (2) 1925 to 1942 (C) GI Generation -> (1) 1901 to 1924 (D) Generation Z -> (6) 2001 to Present (E) Generation X -> (4) 1965 to 1973 (F) Millennials -> (5) 1974 to 2000

Jimmy joined the army in order to serve his country. He and his fellow soldiers love protecting their country's freedoms. The soldiers are not allowed to quit the military but instead must be formally discharged. Which type of Organization does Jimmy belong to? (A) Coercive Organization (B) Normative Organization (C) Bureaucratic Organization (D) Utilitarian Organization

(A) Coercive Organization Coercive Organizations are those that you are either forced to join or those that you can't leave without permission, as is the case with the army.

When large numbers of individuals rapidly and randomly behave in ways that don't reflect societal norms, this phenomenon is known as: (A) Collective behaviour (B) Group behaviour (C) Groupthink (D) Group polarization

(A) Collective behaviour Collective behaviour is a phenomenon when large numbers of people rapidly and randomly behave in ways that don't reflect norms in society. Three types are fads, mass hysteria, and riots.

Which of the following typically unites an organization? (A) Common Goal (B) Seeking out adversity (C) Paying membership dues (D) Difficult initiation rituals

(A) Common Goal A common goal is typically the uniting factor of an organization.

In America, the Baby Boomer Population is aging quickly and living longer than ever before. What type of population pyramid would you expect to see in this situation? (A) Constrictive Population Pyramid (B) Retroactive Population Pyramid (C) Expansive Population Pyramid (D) Stationary Population Pyramid

(A) Constrictive Population Pyramid

In Zimbardo's experiment, the guards lost their identity as college students as they became guards. This is an example of what? (A) Deindividuation (B) Cognitive Dissonance (C) Fundamental Attribution Error (D) Confirmation Bias

(A) Deindividuation Deindividuation is when you feel less identifiable and so you engage in worse behavior. This is what happened with the guards.

Because the participants in the Zimbardo study knew this was an experiment, they acted the way that they thought Zimbardo wanted them to. This refers to which experimental error? (A) Demand Characteristics (B) Sampling Error (C) Ecological Validity (D) Double-blind Bias

(A) Demand Characteristics Demand Characteristics refers to participants trying to act in the way that they are expected to act in a study.

What is Trained Incapacity? Which characteristic of a Bureaucracy may cause Trained Incapacity? (A) Division of Labor (B) Hierarchy of Organizations (C) Written Rules and Regulations (D) Employment based on Technical Qualifications

(A) Division of Labor Trained Incapacity is the idea that workers who only have a specific task to complete do not see the big picture, which may undermine the overall goal of the organization. This is caused by Division of Labor.

Google gives all of its workers segways so that workers can get from one meeting to another in less time. Which of the four aspects of McDonaldization does this situation best exemplify? (A) Efficiency (B) Calculability (C) Predictability (D) Control

(A) Efficiency Efficiency is any aspect of an organization that is geared toward minimizing time loss.

Match the following theories with their respective theorist: (A) Emile Durkheim (B) George Herbert Mead (C) Karl Marx (1) Functionalism (2) Conflict Theory (3) Symbolic Interactionism

(A) Emile Durkheim -> (1) Functionalism (B) George Herbert Mead -> (3) Symbolic Interactionism (C) Karl Marx -> (2) Conflict Theory

Freud stated that in each of his theory's 5 stages, children are faced with a conflict between societal demands and the desire to reduce libidinal tension associated with different erogenous zones of the body. ____________ occurs when a child is overindulged/overly frustrated during a stage of development. (A) Fixation (B) Libido (C) Instinctual drift (D) Neurosis

(A) Fixation Freud stated that in each of his theory's 5 stages, children are faced with a conflict between societal demands and the desire to reduce libidinal tension associated with different erogenous zones of the body. *Fixation* occurs when a child is overindulged/overly frustrated during a stage of development. In response to anxiety caused by fixation - children form personality patterns based on that stage, which persists into adulthood as a functional mental disorder called *neurosis*

You give your dog a treat after every time it goes potty outside. This example is most illustrative of which partial reinforcement schedule? (A) Fixed-ratio (B) Variable-ratio (C) Fixed-interval (D) Variable-interval

(A) Fixed-ratio *Fixed ratio (FR) schedules* reinforce a behaviour after a specific number of performances of that behaviour. Continuous reinforcement is an example of FR schedule. Giving your dog a treat after each successful attempt is an example of a fixed-ratio schedule. The ratio does not have to be 1:1, as in this scenario, to be a fixed-ratio.

Which of the following situations best exemplifies Outsourcing? (A) Ford hires employees in Mexico to help build its cars and in turn closes down a United States-based factory. (B) Nike conducts a survey of Chinese citizens in order to discern which shoe products appeal to them the most. (C) Microsoft starts selling its products abroad in Sudan. (D) Apple pays another company for the use of Trademarked information, which becomes the property of Apple.

(A) Ford hires employees in Mexico to help build its cars and in turn closes down a United States-based factory. Outsourcing refers to the practice of producing inexpensive products by building factories and hiring workers abroad as is the case in this example.

Match each of the following psychologists with their theory of development: (A) Freud (B) Vygotsky (C) Erikson (D) Kohlberg (1) Psychosexual Development (2) Moral Development (3) Sociocultural Development (4) Psychosocial Development

(A) Freud --> (1) Psychosexual Development (B) Vygotsky -> (3) Sociocultural Development (C) Erikson -> (4) Psychosocial Development (D) Kohlberg -> (2) Moral Development

The leadership team at Apple meets to discuss the new Apple Watch. Some members come to the meeting thinking that perhaps pink would be an awesome color for the new wrist band. By the end of the meeting, every team member strongly agrees that pink is the way to go. Which term best describes the leadership team's behavior? (A) Group Polarization (B) Conformity (C) Groupthink (D) Confirmation Bias

(A) Group Polarization The team members left the meeting with a stronger conviction than before in the direction of the average group member's original opinion. This is in line with Group Polarization.

During the Salem Witch Trials, the majority of the population believed that witches should be hunted and killed. Which type of Collective Behavior is best exhibited by this example? (A) Mass Hysteria (B) Fad (C) Riot (D) Rebellion

(A) Mass Hysteria Mass Hysteria occurs when there is a widespread delusion amongst a large group of people as was the case with the Salem Witch Trials.

You are working on your homework and although you originally noticed the clock ticking in the background, you've stopped noticing it for the past hour. This example is most closely aligned with which Learned Behavior? (A) Habituation (B) Classical Conditioning (C) Operant Conditioning (D) Insight Learning

(A) Habituation *Habituation* is the process of diminishing an innate response to a frequently repeated stimulus. You no longer noticing the clock is a form of habituation.

Who of the following can be considered Gestalt Psychologists? I. Solomon Asch II. Carl Jung III. Stanley Milgram (A) I Only (B) I and II Only (C) I and III Only (D) II and III Only

(A) I Only Solomon Asch was a Gestalt Psychologist.

Put the following stages of a society in order according to Karl Marx's Conflict Theory: I. Capitalism II. Socialism III. Feudalism (A) III > I > II (B) III > II > I (C) I > II > III (D) II > I > III

(A) III > I > II Marxist conflict theory was based on the idea of class struggle, and how the ideas portrayed in society were the ideas of the ruling class. Began with feudalism, then capitalism, and finally socialism. The ruling class were the minority rich group known as the *bourgeoisie* and the majority poor class were the *proletariat* class.

Jack always wears black to look like his favorite Green Day band members. He is demonstrated which of the following? (A) Identification (B) Compliance (C) Conformity (D) Internalization

(A) Identification Jack is doing what he is doing because he respects and looks up to Green Day. This is what is seen in Identification.

When you fail a test and blame it on yourself, this is an example of exhibiting ______________________, whereas blaming the teacher or system would be exhibiting __________________. (A) Internal locus of control, external locus of control (B) External locus of control, internal locus of control (C) Internal locus of control, learned helplessness (D) External locus of control, reciprocal determinism

(A) Internal locus of control, external locus of control

Which of the following individuals best exemplifies the Authoritarian Personality Type? (A) Jack is obedient to his superiors. (B) Jill sees her supervisors as jerks. (C) Mark never listens to his dad, but he will readily listen to his friends. (D) Mary refuses to do anything anyone says.

(A) Jack is obedient to his superiors. The Authoritarian Personality Type is characterized by being obedient to one's superiors yet being oppressive to those beneath them. They are also rigid and inflexible in their thoughts and ways. It is thought that these people had a harsh and very disciplined childhood. Use prejudice as a coping mechanism.

Jimmy sees an old lady walking down the street and says to him mom, "Look at that old fart." His mom reprimands him and says, "Jimmy! You are aging too. We all are. It is something that happens throughout our entire lives. You and that nice old lady have more in common than you think! She was once a young child like yourself." Jimmy's Mom's remarks are most similar to which theory?

(A) Life Course Theory Life Course Theory looks at aging as a process that takes place over a long period of time. It looks at events as resulting from one's past history and examines their entire life instead of just the current situation as is the case with Jimmy's Mom.

Hannah writes an essay on Social Movements. In her essay she paints a dark picture of Social Movements, seeing them as dangerous and only useful as a refuge for those who felt they didn't belong elsewhere. Hannah's Essay lends support to which theory of Social Movements? (A) Mass Society Theory (B) Resource Mobilization Theory (C) Relative Deprivation Theory (D) Rational Choice Theory

(A) Mass Society Theory Mass Society Theory has a similar view to the one taken by Hannah in her essay, seeing them as dark, dangerous, and irrational.

Which type of neurons are hypothesized to be responsible for our ability to imitate? (A) Mirror Neurons (B) Efferent Neurons (C) Afferent Neurons (D) Interneurons

(A) Mirror Neurons Mirror Neurons are hypothesized to be responsible for our ability to imitate because they cause us to have similar brain activity to when we watch someone do something to when we actually do that same thing ourselves.

Unlike in past years, today, women's cricket has evolved and become much more prevalent. We have the Womens World Cup, Women's t20 WC, and many more forms of the game that includes women in a sport previously only played by men. What describes this situation best? (A) Norms evolving over time to promote women's cricket (B) Sanctions being lifted on women's cricket (C) A previously known taboo is no longer so (D) Laws prohibiting womens cricket were lifted

(A) Norms evolving over time to promote women's cricket

Zach is extremely obese and loves to eat, at which stage did Zach become fixated? (A) Oral (B) Anal (C) Phallic (D) Genital

(A) Oral Fixation at the Oral stage is characterized by things related to the mouth such as smoking, biting one's nails, or overeating.

Jack sees himself as a pretty agreeable person. He rarely gets upset or starts fights with others. He gets a new boss at work one day, and feels like his boss is pushing him around and treating him like a slave. Instead of confronting his boss, Jack underperforms on key projects in order to frustrate his boss. Which defense mechanism is Jack most likely implementing? (A) Passive Aggression (B) Displacement (C) Projection (D) Altruism

(A) Passive Aggression Jack is getting back at his boss without direct confrontation as is seen in Passive Agression. It is often carried out by failing to do something. It is an indirect or passive way of expressing one's feelings.

Every time you play your drumset really loud, your neighbor comes and knocks on the door to tell you to stop playing so loud. Which of the following Operant Conditioning terms is this an example of? (A) Positive Punishment (B) Negative Punishment (C) Positive Reinforcement (D) Negative Reinforcement

(A) Positive Punishment Your neighbor telling you to stop is an example of Positive Punishment because your neighbor is an unpleasant stimulus being added to the situation.

Jimmy wants some candy. When his teacher is handing it out, he asks the teacher if he can have a piece to bring home to his sister who has the flu. He eats the candy on his way home. Which stage of moral development is Jimmy currently in? (A) Pre-conventional (B) Conventional (C) Post-conventional - Social Contract (D) Post-conventional - Universal Principles

(A) Pre-conventional Jimmy is demonstrating Self-interest which is the second level of the Pre-conventional Stage.

Sarah says that you should never ever ever hurt someone else because you might get put in time out. Which stage of moral development is Sarah currently in? (A) Pre-conventional (B) Conventional (C) Post-conventional - Social Contract (D) Post-conventional - Universal Principles

(A) Pre-conventional Sarah sees doing the right thing as right because it allows you to avoid punishment. This is in line with the first level of the Pre-conventional Stage.

In an experiment, researchers found that they were unable to train racoons to put coins into a piggy bank via operant conditioning because they would take coins back out and rub them together. This seemed to be due conflicting with their natural behaviour, or _____________________. This difficulty in overcoming instinctual behaviour is known as _________________. (A) Preparedness, instinctual drift (B) Latent learning, Problem solving (C) Preparedness, Problem solving (D) Preparedness, instinctive drive

(A) Preparedness, instinctual drift In an experiment, researchers found that they were unable to train racoons to put coins into a piggy bank via operant conditioning because they would take coins back out and rub them together. This seemed to be due conflicting with their natural behaviour, or *preparedness (predisposition)*. This difficulty in overcoming instinctual behaviour is known as *instinctual drift*.

Prejudice can form in response to dissimilarities amongst groups, races, ethnicities, even environments. They may be kept internally or shared with the larger community. _______________ is a common way large organizations/political groups attempt to create prejudices in others, for example, view of Americans in North Korea and vice versa. (A) Propaganda (B) Racial discrimination (C) Institutional discrimination (D) Ethnocentrism

(A) Propaganda *Propaganda* is a common way large organizations/political groups attempt to create prejudices in others, for example, view of Americans in North Korea and vice versa.

Christy sees her father die before her very eyes. Whenever she talks about the problem with a therapist, she starts sucking her thumb as a way to comfort herself. Which defense mechanism is Christy most likely implementing? (A) Regression (B) Suppression (C) Repression (D) Denial

(A) Regression Christy is resorting to behavior that is characteristic of an earlier stage of development as is seen in Regression.

Which example best illustrates the difference between Front Stage and Back Stage Self? (A) Sarah loves to sing in the shower, but not in front of others. (B) Jim is better at sports he has practiced than those he hasn't in front of others. (C) Gary feels anxious about meeting new people but he is very comfortable around friends. (D) Elizabeth doesn't like people to be around her in the mornings because she isn't ready for the day.

(A) Sarah loves to sing in the shower, but not in front of others. Front Stage Self is how we act when others are around as Sarah does not sing with others around. Back Stage Self is how we act when others are not around as Sarah does when she sings in the shower. This ideology is known as impression management.

Match each of the following: (A) Stereotyping (B) Prejudice (C) Discrimination (1) Behavioral (2) Affective (3) Cognition

(A) Stereotyping -> (3) Cognition (B) Prejudice -> (2) Affective (C) Discrimination -> (1) Behavioral

Lexy has strong violent urges to hurt other people. Instead of hurting others, though, she lets out her feelings through art. Which defense mechanism is Lexy most likely implementing? (A) Subilimation (B) Humor (C) Rationalization (D) Intellectualization

(A) Subilimation Lexy is channeling her negative feelings into a more positive activity, which is what happens in Sublimation.

Software companies bought up land in Silicon Valley, and as they did so many people began to move away from the city to this new area, creating organized neighborhoods. This is an example of which of the following? (A) Suburbanization (B) Urban Sprawl (C) Urban Decline (D) Urban Renewal

(A) Suburbanization Suburbanization refers to the movement away from a city into a nearby smaller neighborhood as is the case here.

Oedipus Rex kills his father and marries his mother. People are outraged at Oedipus because he committed incest. Which type of Norm does this example exemplify? (A) Taboo (B) More (C) Folkway (D) Law

(A) Taboo Taboos are based upon the most highly-cherished values in a society such as chastity as is the case with this example.

Margot Robbie is one of the most attractive actresses in Hollywood today. People often see her as perfect and exaggerate any action or small thing she does. Similar is seen with Emilia Clarke from Game of Thrones, who is also considered very attractive. This is an example of ____________________. (A) The halo effect (B) Attribution theory (C) Implicit personality theory (D) Reliance on central traits

(A) The halo effect Margot Robbie is one of the most attractive actresses in Hollywood today. People often see her as perfect and exaggerate any action or small thing she does. Similar is seen with Emilia Clarke from Game of Thrones, who is also considered very attractive. This is an example of *the halo effect*.

Robert writes in his dissertation that countries can be broken down into different types that are hierarchical in nature. Robert's Dissertation lends support to which Globalization Theory? (A) World Systems Theory (B) Modernization Theory (C) Dependency Theory (D) Butterfly Effect Theory

(A) World Systems Theory World Systems Theory divides the world into three types of countries.

Use the following information to calculate the Population Growth Rate: Birth Rate = 5.2 Fertility Rate = 3.1 Mortality Rate = 9.8 Emmigration Rate = 4.1 Immigration Rate = 6.3 (A) -4.5 (B) -2.4 (C) 2.4 (D) 4.5

(B) -2.4 Population Growth Rate = (Birth Rate + Immigration Rate) - (Mortality Rate + Emmigration Rate) Population Growth Rate = (5.2 + 6.3) - (9.8 + 4.1) Population Growth Rate = (11.5) - (13.9) Population Growth Rate = -2.4

In a given community, there are people of only 7 different ages. Calculate the Dependency Ratio given the population of each age: 5 year olds: 132,869 11 year olds: 342,987 15 year olds: 1,496,932 25 year olds: 9,864,234 54 year olds: 2,435,312 67 year olds: 4,897,013 78 year olds: 734,896 (A) .23 (B) .44 (C) .61 (D) .74

(B) .44 Dependency Ratio = (population that is 14 and under + 65 and older)/(population that is 15 to 64 years of age) Dependency Ratio = (132,869 + 342,987 + 4,897,013 + 734,896)/(1,496,932 + 9,864,234 + 2,435,312) Dependency Ratio = approx. 6,000,000 / 14,000,000 (actual: 6,107,765 / 13,796,478) Dependency Ratio = approx. a little less than .5 (actual: 0.44)

Phil hasn't had a girlfriend in a few years, and is starting to feel extremely lonely. How old is Phil? (A) 5 years (B) 21 years (C) 48 years (D) 68 years

(B) 21 years Phil is struggling with Intimacy vs. Isolation, which occurs between the ages of 18 and 40.

Thompson was quite rowdy as a young man. Now that he is older and has taken on more responsibility as a superior in his community he has settled down and is contributing more to society. Thompson's situation is most similar to which theory? (A) Life Course Theory (B) Age Stratification Theory (C) Activity Theory (D) Disengagement Theory

(B) Age Stratification Theory The Age Stratification Theory looks at age as a way of hierarchically organizing a society. There is a sense of role and prestige associated with one's age. It can be detrimental though when age is a source of inequality such as with Ageism. In this case, Thompson is experiencing a change in his role due to his age.

Sarah is extremely orderly and can't stand her email inbox to be unorganized, at which stage did Sarah become fixated? (A) Oral (B) Anal (C) Phallic (D) Genital

(B) Anal Fixation at the Anal stage is characterized by being overly neat or overly messy.

A child shows little or no preference between the caregiver and stranger, and barely any emotions (distress/relief) when the caregiver leaves and returns. This is due to the caregiver having little to no response to a distressed child. What sort of attachment is this describing? (A) Secure attachment (B) Avoidant attachment (C) Ambivalent attachment (D) Disorganized attachment

(B) Avoidant attachment *Avoidant attachment* results when a caregiver has little to no response to a distressed child. These children seem to have no preference between the caregiver and a stranger - little emotions (distress and relief) shown when caregiver leaves and returns.

Which of the following is not one of Carl Rogers' three components of self-concept? (A) Self-Esteem (B) Awareness of self (C) Self-Image (D) Ideal Self

(B) Awareness of self

This article details the stabbing of two men that tried to stand up to a man that was yelling hateful remarks on a train: http://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2017/05/27/530351468/2-dead-1-injured-after-stabbing-in-portland-ore The two men that got stabbed for standing up to the man stand in stark contrast to which sociological phenomenon? (A) Social Loafing (B) Bystander Effect (C) Diffusion of Responsibility (D) Deindividuation

(B) Bystander Effect Instead of just standing by and watching like the other people, these two men stood up to the hateful man. This stands in stark contrast to the Bystander Effect in which people do nothing but stand by and watch when they are in a big group/crowd.

In Zimbardo's experiment, the guards told themselves that the prisoners deserved what they got. This allowed them to feel better about their brutal actions. This is an example of what? (A) Deindividuation (B) Cognitive Dissonance (C) Fundamental Attribution Error (D) Confirmation Bias

(B) Cognitive Dissonance Cognitive Dissonance is when you change the way you think about a situation in order to avoid dissonance between your behavior and your beliefs. This is what the guards did to feel better about their actions.

Psychological and situational factors can influence aggression. Which of the following states that we are more likely to respond to others aggressively when feeling negative emotions, such as pain, fatigue, sickness, frustration? (A) Anxious-ambivalent model (B) Cognitive neoassociation model (C) Self-disclosure model (D) Cognitive dissonance model

(B) Cognitive neoassociation model The *cognitive neoassociation model* states that we are more likely to respond to others aggressively when feeling negative emotions, such as pain, fatigue, sickness, frustration. The others are made up.

Jakob spends a lot of time with gangsters. Soon his parents start to notice that Jakob is dressing differently, doing drugs, and engaging in new illicit behaviors. Which term best describes Jakob's behavior? (A) Group Polarization (B) Conformity (C) Group think (D) Confirmation Bias

(B) Conformity Conformity is known colloquially as "peer pressure" and is the tendency for individuals to bring their behavior in line with group norms. Jakob is conforming to be like his new group of friends.

When making an attribution concerning his professor, Jack notices that Dr. Marks wears a red shirt every Tuesday without fail, representing a _____________ cue. He also notices that Dr. Marks doesn't wear a red shirt on any other day of the week, representing a _____________ cue. Lastly, he realizes that Dr. Marks is the only professor on campus who acts this way, representing a _______________ cue. (A) Consensus, Consistency, Distinctiveness (B) Consistency, Distinctiveness, Consensus (C) Distinctiveness, Consistency, Consensus (D) Consensus, Distinctiveness, Consistency

(B) Consistency, Distinctiveness, Consensus When making an attribution concerning his professor, Jack notices that Dr. Marks wears a red shirt every Tuesday without fail, representing a Consistency cue. He also notices that Dr. Marks doesn't wear a red shirt on any other day of the week, representing a Distinctiveness cue. Lastly, he realizes that Dr. Marks is the only professor on campus who acts this way, representing a Consensus cue.

When Phil's Wife dies at the age of 65, he decides to start dating again and ends up remarrying. He finds this relationship to be satisfying as it fills the need in his life for companionship. This most closely relates to which theory? (A) Life Course Theory (B) Continuity Theory (C) Activity Theory (D) Disengagement Theory

(B) Continuity Theory Continuity Theory suggests that we try to maintain the same foundational structure throughout our lives in order to maintain consistency and to meet our needs. In this case, Phil is meeting his need for companionship.

John says that you should never use potty language in public because to do so would result in other people laughing at you. He wants to fit in. Which stage of moral development is John currently in? (A) Pre-conventional (B) Conventional (C) Post-conventional - Social Contract (D) Post-conventional - Universal Principles

(B) Conventional John is concerned about securing the approval of others, which is characteristic of the first level of the Conventional Stage.

Mark believes that you should never steal because if everyone stole then society would no longer be a stable place to live. Which stage of moral development is Mark currently in? (A) Pre-conventional (B) Conventional (C) Post-conventional - Social Contract (D) Post-conventional - Universal Principles

(B) Conventional Mark is focused on maintaining social order, which is the focus of the second level of the Conventional Stage.

Which theory takes the concept of cues one step further by taking into account intentions of peoples' behaviours? (A) Fundamental attribution theory (B) Correspondent inference theory (C) James functionalist theory of attribution (D) Attribution intention theory

(B) Correspondent inference theory The *correspondent inference theory* takes the concept of cues one step further by taking into account intentions of peoples' behaviours. The other three are made up.

In almost every country in the world, there is a ceremony that is associated with marriage/partnership. Which concept does this example best relate to? (A) Gate Keeping (B) Cultural Universals (C) Tokenism (D) Agent of Socialization

(B) Cultural Universals Cultural Universals are elements, patterns, traits, or institutions that are common among ALL human cultures as in the case here with marriage/partnership ceremonies.

Violent behaviour in crowds and riots is considered *antinormative behaviour* explainable by the social phenomenon of ________________. (A) Bystander effect (B) Deindividuation (C) Social facilitation (D) Social loafing

(B) Deindividuation *Deindividuation* is a social phenomenon that occurs in group settings - it leads to a loss of identity and anonymity when in presence of a large group, causing dramatically different behaviour. In crowds and riots, this is antinormative behaviour (behaviour against the norm).

Sarah is in an abusive relationship with her husband. Instead of confronting him, however, she takes her frustration out on her children by bossing them around. Which defense mechanism is Sarah most likely implementing? (A) Passive Aggression (B) Displacement (C) Projection (D) Altruism

(B) Displacement Sarah is taking out her frustration on her husband on an easier target, her children. This is commonly seen in Displacement.

After some time, your mom stops giving you Amazon gift cards all the time, resulting in you no longer getting happy when she calls. This is an example of which of the following Conditioning terms? (A) Spontaneous Recovery (B) Extinction (C) Generalization (D) Discrimination

(B) Extinction Extinction refers to a loss of the Conditioned Response in response to the Conditioned Stimulus. This is what happened when your mom stopped giving you Amazon gift cards.

A conditioned response is not permanent. If the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus enough times, the organism can lose the conditioned response to it - this is called _______________. This is not permanent either, as after some time if appropriately presented, a weak conditioned response can be sometimes exhibited to the conditioned stimulus - this process is known as ________________. (A) Spontaneous recovery, extinction (B) Extinction, spontaneous recovery (C) Generalization, extinction (D) Generalization, discrimination

(B) Extinction, spontaneous recovery A conditioned response is not permanent. If the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus enough times, the organism can lose the conditioned response to it - this is called *extinction*. This is not permanent either, as after some time if appropriately presented, a weak conditioned response can be sometimes exhibited to the conditioned stimulus - this process is known as *spontaneous recovery*.

Fidget Spinners are all the rage among middle schoolers at the moment. They will most likely face a steep decline in popularity. Which type of Collective Behavior is best exhibited by this example? (A) Mass Hysteria (B) Fad (C) Riot (D) Rebellion

(B) Fad Fads are widespread, popular actions that often rise and decrease in popularity extremely quickly.

Little Timmy feels like most of the girls at his school think he is cute. The girls at his school are most likely part of what concept in Timmy's life? (A) Vague Other (B) Generalized Other (C) Significant Other (D) Attractive Other

(B) Generalized Other They likely play into how Timmy thinks other people in general view him, which is most in line with the idea of the Generalized Other. A Significant Other would be someone like Timmy's best friend or his parents. Vague and Attractive Other are not sociological terms.

Jeremy's father recently passed away. Jeremy was extremely close to his father, but instead of getting upset or feeling bitter, he talks with his family about the good times he had with his dad, telling jokes and lightening the mood. Which defense mechanism is Jeremy most likely implementing? (A) Subilimation (B) Humor (C) Rationalization (D) Intellectualization

(B) Humor

Parenting Style is shown to make a big difference on a child's attachment to their parents. A healthy attachment to one's parents as a child will tend to influence which of the following down the road? I. Relationship with one's spouse II. Attachment Style of one's children III. Relationship with one's peers (A) I Only (B) I and II Only (C) I and III Only (D) I, II, and III

(B) I and II Only A healthy attachment to one's parents as a child will tend to influence one's relationship with their spouse and their children. Relationship with one's peers is not necessarily heavily influenced by one's attachment style.

Innate behaviours are broken down into simple and complex types. Which of the following are examples of Simple Innate Behaviors? I. Reflexes II. Kinesis III. Migration (A) I Only (B) I and II Only (C) II and III Only (D) I, II, and III

(B) I and II Only Reflexes, Kinesis (random movement in response to stimulus), and Taxis (purposeful moving towards or away from stimuli) are examples of Innate Behaviors. Complex Behaviors include Fixed Action Patterns, Migration, and Circadian Rhythm.

_____________ refers to a social group with which you identify with/have a sense of belonging; ________________ refers to a social group with which you don't identify. (A) Out-group, in-group (B) In-group, out-group (C) Individualistic group; institutional group (D) Relative group; ethnocentric group

(B) In-group, out-group *In-group* refers to a social group with which you identify with/have a sense of belonging; *Out-group* refers to a social group with which you don't identify. Negative feelings about an out group usually stems from favouritism of the in-group.

You have no idea whether or not jumping off a 30-story bridge is dangerous or not, but your friend group assures you that it is not dangerous at all. You believe your friends and jump off the bridge. This is an example of ____________ Influence. If you had known that it was dangerous, but went ahead and jumped as to not look like a wimp, that would be an example of ______________ Influence. (A) Normative, Informative (B) Informative, Normative (C) Public, Private (D) Private, Public

(B) Informative, Normative You have no idea whether or not jumping off a 30-story bridge is dangerous or not, but your friend group assures you that it is not dangerous at all. You believe your friends and jump off the bridge. This is an example of Informative Influence as you are looking to the group for guidance. If you had known that it was dangerous, but went ahead and jumped as to not look like a wimp, that would be an example of Normative Influence as you are letting yourself be influenced by social norms.

Racial segregation prior to the time of Dr King is a prime example of _____________________ in the United States. (A) Individual discrimination (B) Institutional discrimination (C) Propaganda (D) Ethnocentrism

(B) Institutional discrimination Racial segregation prior to the time of Dr King is a prime example of *institutional discrimination* in the United States. Individual discrimination refers to one person's discrimination against a particular person or group (e.g. a sexist CEO). Institutional discrimination is discrimination against a person/group by an entire institution (Apartheid)

Racial and ethnic identity may be pronounced in first generation immigrants, and the same biases against race/ethnic minorities may be compounded by the immigrant status of an individual - this interplay is known as: (A) Immigrant discrimination (B) Intersectionality (C) Ethno-racial immigrant prejudice (D) Immigrant opposition

(B) Intersectionality *Intersectionality* is the interplay between multiple demographic factors, especially when leading to oppression and discrimination

Jim joins a gang at a young age. Although he wasn't originally a very deviant boy, as soon as the people in his neighborhood started associating Jim with the gang he belonged too, Jim started to act the way his neighbors would expect a gang member to act. Which theory would best explain the Deviance in this example.

(B) Labeling Theory Jim is labelled by his neighbors and begins to act accordingly. This would best be explained by Labeling Theory.

Learning that occurs without a reward but that is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced - this is an example of: (A) Predisposition (B) Latent learning (C) Problem solving (D) Instinctive drive

(B) Latent learning *Latent learning* is learning that occurs w/o rewards but is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced. Experiment with rats in a maze - rats who were simply carried through the maze and then incentivized with food reward performed just as well if not better than rats operantly conditioned through the maze.

Joseph writes in his dissertation that any country can become industrialized. He believes that all countries take a similar path to get there. Joseph's Dissertation lends support to which Globalization Theory? (A) World Systems Theory (B) Modernization Theory (C) Dependency Theory (D) Global Positivity Theory

(B) Modernization Theory Modernization Theory states that any country can become modernized and industrialized through a similar process.

Imagine that in Taiwan, lifting up your middle finger is a sign of respect (not actually true), but in America it is very disrespectful and is akin to swearing at someone. Frank is from Taiwan and flips off another driver as a sign of respect. The driver gives him an angry face. Which type of Norm does this example exemplify?

(B) More A More is a norm that is based on the moral values of society. Flipping someone off is seen as morally wrong but is not punishable by law.

Freddy belongs to his town's Rotary Club, which is a group of individuals that try to serve the community. Members are not reimbursed for their membership. Which type of Organization does Freddy belong to? (A) Coercive Organization (B) Normative Organization (C) Bureaucratic Organization (D) Utilitarian Organization

(B) Normative Organization Because members are united by a sense of purpose as opposed to economic reasons, this would be an example of a Normative Organization.

Women are shown naked in movies 3 times more often than men are. This most closely illustrates which term of interest to Feminists? (A) Discrimination (B) Objectification (C) Oppression (D) Stereotyping

(B) Objectification Objectification is the treating of someone like an object to be looked rather than respected as is the case with pornography or pornographic media, which in this example illustrates that women are more commonly the victim of objectification.

Migration contributes to population growth, and can be influenced by _________________ (positive attributes attracting migration) and ________________ (negative attributes encouraging immigrants to leave). (A) Push factors, pull factors (B) Pull factors, push factors (C) Demographic transition, Malthusian theory (D) Malthusian theory, Demographic shift

(B) Pull factors, push factors Migration contributes to population growth, and can be influenced by *pull factors* (positive attributes attracting migration) and *push factors* (negative attributes encouraging immigrants to leave). Pull factor example can be "American dream" ideology. Push factor example can be Islamization of Pakistan causing foreigners to leave.

Marge writes an article for her school newspaper entitled, "10 Things You Need to Start a Social Movement." Marge's Essay most likely lends support to which theory of Social Movements? (A) Mass Society Theory (B) Resource Mobilization Theory (C) Relative Deprivation Theory (D) Rational Choice Theory

(B) Resource Mobilization Theory Resource Mobilization Theory suggests that starting a Social Movement requires various resources such as time, money, and a charismatic leader. Perhaps Marge will mention these things in her article.

Before taking an math exam, girls are informed that typically girls will perform worse on math-related exams. Will the girls perform better or worse than if they had not been informed of this? This is an example of: (A) Minority Challenge (B) Stereotype Threat (C) Self-concept (D) Front-stage Self

(B) Stereotype Threat This is an example of Stereotype threat, and the girls will perform worse once they are aware of the stereotype.

____________________ refers to the concept of people being anxious or concerned about confirming a negative stereotype about one's social group, which can cause reduced performance and lower one's personal investment in an activity. An example could be women driving or white males in sports such as Olympic sprinting. (A) Stereotype (B) Stereotype threat (C) Self-fulfilling prophecy (D) Prejudice

(B) Stereotype threat *Stereotype threat* refers to the concept of people being anxious or concerned about confirming a negative stereotype about one's social group, which can cause reduced performance and lower one's personal investment in an activity. An example could be women driving or white males in sports such as Olympic sprinting.

Self-concept can be broken down into what two parts? (A) The Existential and Rhetorical Self (B) The Existential and Categorical Self (C) The Rhetorical Self and Categorical Self (D) The Rhetorical Self and Reflective Self

(B) The Existential and Categorical Self Self-concept can be broken down into The Existential and Categorical Self.

Just outside of Denver, city dwellers began buying the land surrounding the city randomly, which resulting in a sprawling urban area that was totally disorganized. This is an example of which of the following? (A) Suburbanization (B) Urban Sprawl (C) Urban Decline (D) Urban Renewal

(B) Urban Sprawl Urban Sprawl is what happens when a city expands in a disorganized fashion. This is the case here in Denver.

In some forms of gambling, the user is rewarded at random. This example is most illustrative of which partial reinforcement schedule? (A) Fixed-ratio (B) Variable-ratio (C) Fixed-interval (D) Variable-interval

(B) Variable-ratio *Variable-ratio (VR) schedules* reinforce a behaviour after a varying number of performances, such that the _average number of performances_ to receive the reward is _relatively constant_ (e.g. rewarding a rat with food after 2 button presses, then 8, then 4, then 6) Gambling utilizes variable-ratio conditioning at it rewards after a random number of actions.

Hannah feels like she is making a great contribution to the world through what she does each day. "Make a difference," is her mantra. How old is Hannah? (A) 5 years (B) 21 years (C) 48 years (D) 68 years

Gary loves working on things. In his spare time, he likes to paint and play sports. He feels productive. How old is Gary? (A) 8 months (B) 2 years (C) 7 years (D) 13 years

Classical conditioning is the process of taking advantage of reflexive, unconditioned stimulus to turn a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus. This process is known as: (A) Spontaneous recovery (B) Generalization (C) Acquisition (D) Reinforcement

(C) Acquisition Classical conditioning is the process of taking advantage of reflexive, unconditioned stimulus to turn a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus. This process is known as *acquisition*

Bill recently retired and is finding less meaning in his day-to-day life. He misses going to work each day and feeling like a contributing member of society. His wife Jenny suggests that he pick up a new hobby to fill the void. Jenny's advice is most similar to which theory? (A) Life Course Theory (B) Age Stratification Theory (C) Activity Theory (D) Disengagement Theory

(C) Activity Theory Activity Theory suggests that when you stop one activity, you should replace it with another to maintain morale and well-being. This is in line with Jenny's recommendation.

A caregiver shows inconsistent responses to a distressed child (sometimes appropriate, sometimes neglectful) which disables the child from forming a secure base. The child becomes distressed when the caregiver leaves, but shows mixed response upon their return - the child is always anxious about the caregiver's reliability. What sort of attachment is this describing? (A) Secure attachment (B) Avoidant attachment (C) Ambivalent attachment (D) Disorganized attachment

(C) Ambivalent attachment *Ambivalent attachment* is sometimes known as *anxious-ambivalent attachment*. The child becomes distressed when the caregiver leaves, but shows mixed response upon their return - the child is always anxious about the caregiver's reliability, and unable to form a secure base.

Which of the following is the best example of Demographic Transition? (A) As Africa becomes more industrialized its population increases more rapidly. (B) As Africa becomes more industrialized its population declines more rapidly. (C) As Africa becomes more industrialized its population stabilizes. (D) As Africa becomes more industrialized its population declines more slowly.

(C) As Africa becomes more industrialized its population stabilizes. This is the basic premise of Demographic Transition, namely that as a country industrializes its birth and death rates will decrease, resulting in a more stable population.

___________________ is the process by which an individuals or groups behaviour and culture begin to resemble that of another group. This can also mean that groups with different cultures begin to merge into one. (A) Culture shock (B) Culture merge (C) Assimilation (D) Multiculturalism

(C) Assimilation *Assimilation* is the process by which an individuals or groups behaviour and culture begin to resemble that of another group. This can also mean that groups with different cultures begin to merge into one.

What personality type is more predisposed to engage in prejudice? (A) Submissive (B) Neurotic (C) Authoritarian (D) Oppressed

Mark belongs to a community in which everyone shares property and profits. His community most closely resembles which type of government? (A) Democracy (B) Dictatorship (C) Communism (D) Monarchy

Billy thinks that hospitals are great as they help take care of sick people. He sees big hospitals as the natural outgrowth of small family doctor offices. Which perspective does he have on Social Institutions? (A) Progressive (B) Democratic (C) Conservative (D) Optimistic

(C) Conservative The Conservative view sees Social Institutions as naturally springing up to fill a need in society. The Progressive view sees Social Institutions as man-made organizations that need to be controlled if they are to do their job right. There is no such thing as a Democratic or Optimistic view of Social Institutions.

The conclusion of Jessie's Dissertation is that South America is trapped in never ending subordination to countries such as the United States. Jessie's Dissertation lends support to which Globalization Theory? (A) World Systems Theory (B) Modernization Theory (C) Dependency Theory (D) Butterfly Effect Theory

(C) Dependency Theory Dependency Theory states that some countries are dependent upon other countries in ways that may be hard to disrupt. It states that these countries cannot follow the same path to industrialization as countries like the US and Canada did.

Some people argue that Solomon Asch's experiment is not generalizable to everyday situations in which there are incentives to conform with a group. This refers to which experimental error? (A) Demand Characteristics (B) Sampling Error (C) Ecological Validity (D) Double-blind Bias

(C) Ecological Validity These people are questioning the Ecological Validity of the study, the degree to which it applies to the real world. Sampling Error refers to the unrepresentativeness of the sample, in this case the sample being mostly college students and not diverse at all. Demand characteristics refers to how participants may change behaviour in order to match with expectations of the experimenter

In Africa, the Fertility Rate is close to 6, and due to high levels of disease people die at a relatively young age. What type of population pyramid would you expect to see in this situation? (A) Constrictive Population Pyramid (B) Retroactive Population Pyramid (C) Expansive Population Pyramid (D) Stationary Population Pyramid

You give your sister some licorice at the end of each hour that she avoids annoying you. This example is most illustrative of which partial reinforcement schedule? (A) Fixed-ratio (B) Variable-ratio (C) Fixed-interval (D) Variable-interval

(C) Fixed-interval *Fixed-interval (FI) schedules* reinforce the first instance of a behaviour after a specified time period, e.g. every 60s. You are rewarding your sister according to a timetable that is fixed, thus it is FI schedule.

Zach is at dinner with his girlfriend's parents. He eats with his elbows on the table, which his girlfriend's parents frown upon. Which type of Norm does this example exemplify? (A) Taboo (B) More (C) Folkway (D) Law

(C) Folkway Folkways are long-held traditions and are often seen as courtesies as is the case with not eating with your elbows on the table. They are not often punished.

Mark's Professor reads Mark's research article. His professor states that the paper does not account for the individual people that make up the society examined and that it does not take into account wide-scale changes that may occur. Mark most likely used which perspective in writing his paper? (A) Conflict Theory (B) Symbolic Interactionism (C) Functionalism (D) Social Constructionism

(C) Functionalism Mark looked at society as a whole and failed to account for wide-scale changes that might come from conflict. This implies that Mark was relying on the Functionalist perspective.

NASA met to discuss whether they should move forward with the Challenger launch. Those in opposition to the launch keep quiet. When those with a different opinion do speak up, they are censored. The group feels they are invincible and move forward with the launch. The launch fails, killing the astronauts involved. Which term best describes the leadership team's behavior? (A) Group Polarization (B) Conformity (C) Groupthink (D) Confirmation Bias

Referring to the previous example, which of the following cues would lead Jack to assume that Dr. Marks' behavior is resulting from the situation (i.e. That is is a Tuesday)? I. Consistency II. Distinctiveness III. Consensus (A) I Only (B) II Only (C) I and II Only (D) I, II, and III

(C) I and II Only Consistency is high in this case; which would lead Jack to assume that Dr. Marks is wearing the red shirt because it is a Tuesday and not because it is related to Dr. Mark's innate characteristics.

You are teaching a classroom full of students about psychology. At the beginning of the lecture, you teach the students about Freud, in the middle about Erikson, and at the end about Piaget. Which theorist(s) will the students remember the best? I. Freud II. Erikson III. Piaget (A) I Only (B) I and II Only (C) I and III Only (D) II and III Only

(C) I and III Only We tend to remember information at the beginning (Primacy Bias) and information presented at the end (Recency Bias).

_________________________________ refers to the category we place others in during impression formation. This theory that states that there are sets of assumptions people make about how different types of people, their traits and their behaviours are related. (A) The halo effect (B) Attribution theory (C) Implicit personality theory (D) Reliance on central traits

(C) Implicit personality theory *Implicit personality theory* refers to the category we place others in during impression formation. This theory that states that there are sets of assumptions people make about how different types of people, their traits and their behaviours are related.

African Americans Adam and Sarah Smith are trying to rent a new apartment. They don't get approved by the landlord. Then a white couple, Jack and Jill Jones, with the same income and credit history as the Smiths, apply for the apartment and get approved. This is an example of which type of Discrimination? (A) Unintentional Discrimination (B) Side-effect Discrimination (C) Individual Discrimination (D) Institutional Discrimination

(C) Individual Discrimination This is an example of Individual Discrimination because a single individual, the landlord is doing the discriminating. If this was a widespread problem within a real estate company, at that point we would refer to it as Institutional Discrimination. This is actually a common problem across apartment complexes. Very sad.

In the Solomon Asch conformity study, some participants observed that cohorts gave an answer that seemed incorrect, but convinced themselves the group must be right and gave the group's answer, believing it is right. Which of the following is this an example of? (A) Normative Social Influence (B) Societal influence (C) Informational Social Influence (D) Perceptual Error

(C) Informational Social Influence Because the participant correctly perceived the right answer but was convinced before answering the group was right and _doubted themselves_, this exemplifies Informational Social Influence. In normative social influence, the participant believes the group is wrong, but provides that same wrong answer _to avoid ridicule_. In perceptual error, the participant actually concludes a wrong answer from the information provided, not due to group influence. Societal Influence is a fictitious answer.

Jessica took a math test and got a terrible grade. She says, "I just didn't study hard enough." She has what kind of Locus of Control? (A) Positive (B) Negative (C) Internal (D) External

(C) Internal Jessica is attributing her failure to internal issues, which is characteristic of an Internal Locus of Control.

Which of the following would be most intriguing to a sociologist that specializes in Feminism? (A) Jill asks Jack to trade sandwiches at lunch time. (B) Sam tells Alyssa that he likes her. (C) Jenny receives a smaller allowance than her twin brother Dewey. (D) At recess, Mary taunts Harold, saying, "men go to Jupiter to get more Stupider."

(C) Jenny receives a smaller allowance than her twin brother Dewey. Feminists are interested in Gender inequalities. This example shows a distinct inequality in which a girl is treated differently than a boy in a way that would be seen as unfair.

Sarah is in an abusive relationship with her boyfriend. She tries to tell him to stop at first, but this just makes him even worse. She feels trapped in the relationship and gives up on trying to make things better, ending up extremely depressed. Which term best describes Sarah's situation? (A) External Locus of Control (B) Internal Locus of Control (C) Learned Helplessness (D) Tyranny of Choice

(C) Learned Helplessness Learned helplessness occurs when one feels helpless in She has learned that her actions are fruitless; thus, she has learned to feel and act helpless.

Jimmy suffers from Sexual Dysfunction, at which stage did Jimmy become fixated? (A) Oral (B) Anal (C) Phallic (D) Genital

You are trying to teach your parakeet to say your name. Every time she says something close to your name, you give her a treat. Which of the following Operant Conditioning terms is this an example of? (A) Positive Punishment (B) Negative Punishment (C) Positive Reinforcement (D) Negative Reinforcement

(C) Positive Reinforcement Giving your parakeet a treat is an example of Positive Reinforcement because you are adding a pleasant stimulus.

Lexie believes that it is okay to kill someone if it would result in saving a greater number of lives. She believes that what is legal is not always what is moral. Her mantra is, "The greatest good for the greatest number." Which stage of moral development is Lexy currently in? (A) Pre-conventional (B) Conventional (C) Post-conventional - Social Contract (D) Post-conventional - Universal Principles

(C) Post-conventional - Social Contract This stage is focused on making life better for the majority. It is also focused on the morally right over the legally right.

Zane was drunk driving and ended up killing two young girls and their mother. Instead of feeling guilty about his actions, Zane is convinced that it wasn't his fault because he wasn't actually very drunk (even though he was). Which defense mechanism is Zane most likely implementing? (A) Subilimation (B) Humor (C) Rationalization (D) Intellectualization

(C) Rationalization Zane is convincing himself that it wasn't his fault using false logic, which is characteristic of Rationalization.

Mary has a subconscious wish of kissing Brad Pitt's knee. Instead of acknowledging her strange desire, she unconsciously pushes it down into her unconscious. Which defense mechanism is Mary most likely implementing? (A) Regression (B) Suppression (C) Repression (D) Denial

(C) Repression Mary is pushing an undesirable wish down into her unconscious, which is exactly what happens in Repression.

After Donald Trump was elected, large groups of people gathered together in various cities to show their disapproval. In some cases, behavior turned violent and buildings and property were damaged. Which type of Collective Behavior is best exhibited by this example? (A) Mass Hysteria (B) Fad (C) Riot (D) Rebellion

Which of the following best exemplifies Class Consciousness? (A) Jim is in school learning about social class. He realizes for the first time in his life that he is part of the middle class. (B) Mary is playing with her friend Sarah. Sarah says she won't play with Mary because she is fat, increasing Mary's sensitivity to her weight. (C) Sam works at the only lemonade stand in the town. After talking to his buddy from a neighboring town, he realizes that he and his fellow citizens are being ripped off, so he incites his fellow citizens to demand change. (D) Thomas is applying to college when he realizes that he is unable to afford enrolling in all the needed classes. He feels jealous of wealthier students.

(C) Sam works at the only lemonade stand in the town. After talking to his buddy from a neighboring town, he realizes that he and his fellow citizens are being ripped off, so he incites his fellow citizens to demand change. _Class Consciousness_ occurs when the oppressed class realizes that they are being taken advantage of and join together based on this understanding.

An expert pianist and a first year music student at Berklee both perform at a concert venue. The expert pianist feels confident and performs better than he expected he would in solitude, while the student, unfamiliar with the instrument, was unable to put on a good show. What phenomenon does this describe? (A) Bystander effect (B) Deindividuation (C) Social facilitation (D) Social loafing

(C) Social Facilitation Social Facilitation is the idea that you perform differently in front of others than you would if you are all alone.

You can combine images of faces to create a face that is the average of all the images. Which would be most attractive to most individuals? (A) 2 Face Average (B) 4 Face Average (C) 8 Face Average (D) 16 Face Average

(D) 16 Face Average Facial averageness is seen as more attractive.

Sarah was a very sweet girl until she started hanging out with the "popular" girls at school. The more time she spent with these mean girls, the more she began to talk, act, and even think like them. Which theory would best explain the Deviance in this example? (A) Social Interactionist Perspective (B) Labeling Theory (C) Theory of Differential Association (D) Strain Theory

(C) Theory of Differential Association Sarah changed over time due to her association with these mean girls. This would best be explained by The Theory of Differential Association.

You see a billboard at the local grocery store advertising for new employees. On the billboard, there is a great diversity of employees modeled, from blacks, hispanics, asians, and whites. Inside the store, however, you notice that there is only one asian and tons of whites working there. Which concept does this example best relate to? (A) Gate Keeping (B) Cultural Universals (C) Tokenism (D) Agent of Socialization

(C) Tokenism This is an example of Tokenism in which is the practice of making only a perfunctory or symbolic effort to do a particular thing, especially by recruiting a small number of people from underrepresented groups in order to give the appearance of sexual or racial equality within a workforce as is the case in this example.

Overtime, Bill's downtown neighborhood began to attract more crime, buildings became abandoned and the local school fell into disrepair. This is an example of which of the following? (A) Suburbanization (B) Urban Sprawl (C) Urban Decline (D) Urban Renewal

(C) Urban Decline Urban Decline describes the decline of a city into a worse condition, often caused by people moving away from the city. This is what is described as happening in Bill's neighborhood.

Which example best illustrates Bureaucratization? (A) As Sarah's business is growing, she continually needs to rely on many more businesses to help her own succeed. (B) Billy recently started a new company and is tasked with organizing his office. (C) Zach's business has been growing for several years, and over that time, he has had to increase the number of rules and regulations, making the structure of his company more rigid over time. (D) Marty is replaced as the CEO of his company as soon as his company goes public.

(C) Zach's business has been growing for several years, and over that time, he has had to increase the number of rules and regulations, making the structure of his company more rigid over time. Bureaucratization refers to the process by which a company becomes increasingly governed by law and policy as is the case here.

Which of the following examples best exemplifies The Mere Exposure Effect? (A) Jim is better able to remember the lyrics to country songs compared to other songs due to hearing a lot of country music growing up. (B) Sarah is subliminally exposed to various images of hamburgers and hotdogs, making her more likely to stop at Burger King as opposed to Subway for lunch. (C) Zane sees many oak trees around his neighborhood growing up. As a result, he tends to favor neighborhoods with more oak trees. (D) Jane tends to like guys that she has met in person more than she likes guys that she merely messages online.

(C) Zane sees many oak trees around his neighborhood growing up. As a result, he tends to favor neighborhoods with more oak trees. The Mere Exposure Effect states that we tend to like or favor things that we have had more exposure to. In this case, Zane had a high amount of exposure to oak trees, causing him to favor them more. Answer choice (A) mentions nothing about likes/preferences. Answer choice (B) is more related to priming. Answer choice (D) mentions nothing about Jane being exposed to certain types of guys more than others.

Individuals with Anterograde Amnesia are taken to a lab and shown faces. They come to the lab on a later day, and tell the researcher that they ____ remember the faces, and they ____________ favor the faces that they were exposed to during the first visit. (A) do, do (B) do, don't (C) don't, do (D) don't don't

(C) don't, do Individuals with Anterograde Amnesia cannot remember events moving forward. For this reason, these individuals would forget the faces. The amazing thing is that the Mere Exposure Effect is still exhibited by these individuals, which is why they favor the faces that they were exposed to before.

In Demographic Transition, first the _________ rate will decrease and then the ____________ rate will decrease, stabilizing the population growth. Will this result in an increase or decrease in the overall population? (A) mortality, birth (B) birth, migration (C) mortality, birth (D) migration, birth

(C) mortality, birth In Demographic Transition, first the mortality rate will decrease and then the birth rate will decrease, stabilizing the population growth. This results in an increase of the overall population

Mary is trying to figure out who she is. She is experimenting with new things to figure out what she likes and where she fits in. How old is Mary? (A) 8 months (B) 2 years (C) 7 years (D) 13 years

(D) 13 years Mary is struggling with Identity vs. Role Confusion, which occurs between the ages of 12 and 18.

Connor feels guilt about the things he has done throughout his life. He is starting to feel like a total failure. How old is Connor? (A) 5 years (B) 21 years (C) 48 years (D) 68 years

(D) 68 years Connor is struggling with Integrity vs. Despair, which occurs during the ages of 60+.

A man is shown a picture of a woman, and he rates her appearance on a scale of 1 to 10 as a 7. He then walks across a narrow, scary bridge and is then asked to reevaluate the image. What rating would he be expected to give? (A) 2 (B) 5 (C) 7 (D) 9

(D) 9 Attractiveness can be mediated by unwarranted physical arousal. Arousal will increase our attraction to others because we misinterpret our sympathetic nervous system activation as resulting from our attraction.

Which of the following examples best relates to the concept of a Reference Group? (A) You are look to the lifeguard to know if it is safe to swim in the water. (B) Before getting married, a man asks his girlfriend's dad if he can have her permission to marry his daughter. (C) A man uses a female shopping catalogue to know what gift to buy for his wife. (D) A medical student tries to be a good doctor by thinking about the doctors he has shadowed in the past.

(D) A medical student tries to be a good doctor by thinking about the doctors he has shadowed in the past. Reference Groups are groups that we look up to in order to know what beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors to adopt.

Dee was a serial killer. He was extremely violent and was sentenced to prison for the remainder of his life. While in prison, he finds joy and forgets his problems as he focuses on serving his fellow inmates, trying to make their stay in prison more enjoyable. Which defense mechanism is Dee most likely implementing? (A) Passive Aggression (B) Displacement (C) Projection (D) Altruism

(D) Altruism Dee is forgetting about his own problems and finding joy in serving others. This is an example of Altruism.

Which of the following situations best exemplifies Diffusion as understood by a Sociologist? (A) Japanese school children are pushed to work harder in school in order to keep up with America. (B) African employees begin making more money, leading to industrialization within their country. (C) South American Countries begin to notice more Americans walking around their main industrial centers. (D) Chinese teenagers start listening to Lady Gaga, watch Kobe Bryant play basketball, and enjoy going to McDonalds.

(D) Chinese teenagers start listening to Lady Gaga, watch Kobe Bryant play basketball, and enjoy going to McDonalds. Diffusion is the transfer of culture from one place to another as is exemplified here.

The leadership team at Google decides that self-driving cars are so cool and will change the future forever. Whenever they encounter information to the contrary, they ignore it and whenever they encounter information to the affirmative, they believe it. Which term best describes the leadership team's behavior? (A) Group Polarization (B) Conformity (C) Groupthink (D) Confirmation Bias

(D) Confirmation Bias This group is struggling with Confirmation Bias in which confirming information is believed while info to the contrary is dismissed.

What made the model T difference from past cars is that it was produced by machines that replaced human labor. Which of the four aspects of McDonaldization does this situation best exemplify? (A) Efficiency (B) Calculability (C) Predictability (D) Control

(D) Control Control refers to the idea that workers are replaced by machines. It also refers to workers wearing standardized uniforms and workers that can easily be replaced by another low-wage worker.

On YouTube, people write nasty comments because they have a username that is not related to who they are. This can be explained best by which term? (A) Social Loafing (B) Bystander Effect (C) Diffusion of Responsibility (D) Deindividuation

(D) Deindividuation These YouTubers feel less identifiable and thus engage in worse behavior than if their usernames were their actual names. This is explained by Deindividuation.

Fred's wife is having an affair. Instead of dealing with the problem , he simply ignores it and carries on with life as usual. Which defense mechanism is Fred most likely implementing? (A) Regression (B) Suppression (C) Repression (D) Denial

(D) Denial Fred is pretending that the problem is not true, which is what is done in Denial.

Which of the following scenarios best exemplifies a cohort? (A) Mary and her children. (B) Bill and his neighbors. (C) Jane and her siblings. (D) Dick and his high school graduating class.

(D) Dick and his high school graduating class. A Cohort is a group of people with a similar age. Because they are from the same age group, they've had similar experiences.

When Yoda reached age 932, he retired into the woods, and reflected upon all that he learned throughout his life. He found this to be extremely fulfilling. Yoda's experience is most similar to which theory? (A) Life Course Theory (B) Continuity Theory (C) Activity Theory (D) Disengagement Theory

(D) Disengagement Theory Disengagement Theory suggests that the elderly should detach themselves from society in order to engage in reflection. It views elderly that are still engaged with society as not adjusting to old age very well.

Children with this sort of attachment show no clear pattern of behaviour in response to presence/absence of the caregiver, but rather a mix of different responses which can range from avoidance or resistance to confusion to repetitive behaviours. This attachment is often associated with erratic behaviour and social withdrawal, and may be a red flag for abuse. What sort of attachment is this describing? (A) Secure attachment (B) Avoidant attachment (C) Ambivalent attachment (D) Disorganized attachment

(D) Disorganized attachment Children with this *disorganized attachment* show no clear pattern of behaviour in response to presence/absence of the caregiver, but rather a mix of different responses which can range from avoidance or resistance to confusion to repetitive behaviours. Disorganized attachment is often associated with erratic behaviour and social withdrawal, and may be a red flag for abuse.

Bandura's Bobo Doll experiment introduced concepts of reciprocal determinism and locus of control, crucial to the social cognitive perspective. Reciprocal determinism is idea that out thoughts, feelings, behaviour and environment all interact with each other to determine our actions in a given situation. Which of the following is not an element of Reciprocal Determinism as seen by Social-Cognitive Theory? (A) Actions (B) Thoughts (C) Environment (D) Disposition

(D) Disposition Actions/Behavior, Thoughts/Cognition, and Environment are all elements of Reciprical Determinism.

What is the Peter Principle? Which characteristic of a Bureaucracy may cause the Peter Principle? (A) Division of Labor (B) Hierarchy of Organizations (C) Written Rules and Regulations (D) Employment based on Technical Qualifications

(D) Employment based on Technical Qualifications The Peter Principle is the idea that when individuals are promoted based on technical qualifications, they are promoted over and over until they reach a position that they cannot perform well, at which point they won't get promoted due to their incompetence, yet they will stay there because they have nowhere else to go.

Which of the following do Stigmas share aspects of? I.Stereotypes II.Prejudices III.Discrimination (A) I only (B) I and III only (C) II and III only (D) I, II and III

(D) I, II and III Stigmas have some aspects of Stereotypes, Prejudices, and Discrimination.

Vygotsky believed that Elementary Mental Functions develop into Higher Mental Functions. Which of the following are Elementary Mental Functions as listed by Vygotsky? I. Attention II. Perception III. Sensation (A) I Only (B) II Only (C) III Only (D) I, II, and III

(D) I, II, and III Vygotsky believed that there are four basic mental functions: (1) Attention (2) Sensation (3) Perception (4) Memory

Put the following terms in order of increasing size: I. Metropolis II. Village III. City IV. Megalopolis

(D) II < III < I < IV In order of increasing size: Village < City < Metropolis < Megalopolis

Herbert Blumer came up with the three tenets of Symbolic Interactionism. Which of the following is/are not some of his tenants? I. Our actions are dependent upon the meaning we attach to things. II. People learn the meanings of things from others. III. The meaning we attach to things are stable over time. (A) I Only (B) II Only (C) I and II Only (D) II and III Only

(D) II and III Only People learn the meanings of things from others (II), and the meaning we attach to things are stable over time (III) are NOT tenets of Symbolic Interactionism. The three tenets of Symbolic Interactionism are as follows: I. Our actions are dependent upon the meaning we attach to things. II. Different people attach different meanings to things. III. The meaning we attach to things CAN change over time.

Jeffrey struggles with Alcoholism. Instead of getting emotional about his problem, he instead tracks his alcoholic intake, reads up on scientific literature, and plans out his day to avoid triggers. He speaks about his problem using scientific terminology and rarely displays emotions in regards to his problem. Which defense mechanism is Jeffrey most likely implementing? (A) Subilimation (B) Humor (C) Rationalization (D) Intellectualization

(D) Intellectualization Jeffrey is implementing the intellectualization defense mechanism by separating the emotion from the ideas of the problem. He is making something emotional into something more academic.

Jeremy doesn't initially agree with the ideology of the KKK. After attending their meetings with his friends for some time, however, he begins to agree with their values. Even after his friends stop attending the meetings, Jeremy keeps attending and is an avid supporter. Jeremy has fallen prey to which term? (A) Identification (B) Compliance (C) Conformity (D) Internalization

(D) Internalization Jeremy has internalized the values of the group over time, which is in line with Internalization.

Mark is a basketball player, and on the basketball team, it is totally normal to slap another player's butt when they make a basket. During gym class, however, Mark slaps a girl on the butt after she makes a basket. He is charged with Sexual Assault and sentenced to 5 days in prison. Which type of Norm does this example exemplify?

(D) Law In this case, Mark broke a law, and the norms of society were formally enforced.

Which of the following examples best exemplifies Urbanization? (A) A small grocery store is torn down to make way for a skyscraper. (B) A new sidewalk is built, allowing for more pedestrian traffic in a downtown area. (C) A new apartment building cannot accept any new applications as they have too many residents already. (D) Mexicans are moving out of small pueblos in order to move to Mexico City, which is now the largest city in the world.

(D) Mexicans are moving out of small pueblos in order to move to Mexico City, which is now the largest city in the world. Urbanization refers to the moving of more people from rural areas to urban areas.

You are conditioning your parents to stop asking you about your personal life. You leave your clothes all over your room except on days that your parents don't ask you about your personal life. Which of the following Operant Conditioning terms is this an example of? (A) Positive Punishment (B) Negative Punishment (C) Positive Reinforcement (D) Negative Reinforcement

(D) Negative Reinforcement Not leaving your clothes on the floor is an example of Negative Reinforcement because you are taking away a negative stimulus.

Compare secure and insecure attachments

*Secure attachment* is seen when a child has a consistent caregiver and is able to go out and explore with the knowledge of a secure base to return to. Secure attachment is thought to be a vital aspect of a child's social development. Insecure attachments have three types: avoidant, ambivalent and disorganized attachments.

Impression Management, introduced by Erving Goffman's Dramaturgical theory, describes how we try to manage the way that: (A) We act (B) Others act (C) We see others (D) Others see us

(D) Others see us Impression Management describes how we try to manage the way that others see us.

Fred believes that he should give what he doesn't need to the poor because he truly cares about them. He tries to see his actions from the viewpoint of everyone else. He believes in principles that can be applied differently in different situations. Which stage of moral development is Fred currently in? (A) Pre-conventional (B) Conventional (C) Post-conventional - Social Contract (D) Post-conventional - Universal Principles

(D) Post-conventional - Universal Principles Fred is focused on universal moral principles.

Individuals tend to organize perception of others based on traits and personal characteristics of he target most relevant to the perceiver. This is known as __________________________. (A) The halo effect (B) Attribution theory (C) Implicit personality theory (D) Reliance on central traits

(D) Reliance on central traits Individuals tend to organize perception of others based on traits and personal characteristics of he target most relevant to the perceiver. This is known as *reliance on central traits*.

Your psychology teacher tells you that even though you practiced you presentation, you will perform it differently in front of others than you did alone. Your professors remarks are most closely in line with which sociological phenomenon? (A) Social Loafing (B) Social Change (C) Peer Pressure (D) Social Facilitation

(D) Social facilitation *Social facilitation* is the tendency of people to perform better on simpler (familiar) tasks in the presence of others, while the opposite is true for complex (unfamiliar) tasks.

In Europe, the population is neither increasing nor decreasing and birth rates largely match mortality rates. What type of population pyramid would you expect to see in this situation? (A) Constrictive Population Pyramid (B) Retroactive Population Pyramid (C) Expansive Population Pyramid (D) Stationary Population Pyramid

(D) Stationary Population Pyramid

Gary wants to be a doctor, but feels like he can't get into school because he is not part of a minority group. In order to get into medical school, he decides to lie on his medical school application to make himself sound better than he actually is. Which theory would best explain the Deviance in this example. (A) Social Interactionist Perspective (B) Labeling Theory (C) Theory of Differential Association (D) Strain Theory

(D) Strain Theory Gary is trying to reach a goal and resorts to deviance upon realizing that his goal is unattainable in his situation. This is best explained by Strain Theory.

Austin starts a new initiative to improve their urban areas. This is an example of which of the following? (A) Suburbanization (B) Urban Sprawl (C) Urban Decline (D) Urban Renewal

(D) Urban Renewal *Urban Renewal* is a process by which urban areas are made nicer.

Jackson works full time for a non-profit and is paid a reasonable salary. Which type of Organization does Jackson belong to? (A) Coercive Organization (B) Normative Organization (C) Bureaucratic Organization (D) Utilitarian Organization

(D) Utilitarian Organization Because members are paid/reimbursed for their membership, this non-profit would be considered a Utilitarian Organization.

You will randomly give your cat a treat throughout the day as long as she has continued to avoid scratching the furniture. This example is most illustrative of which partial reinforcement schedule? (A) Fixed-ratio (B) Variable-ratio (C) Fixed-interval (D) Variable-interval

(D) Variable-interval *Variable-interval (VI) schedules* reinforce a behaviour the first time that behaviour is performed after a varying interval of time. After the variable time elapses (e.g. 60s, 30s, 180s, whatever), the behaviour is reinforced the first time it is performed again. Giving your cat a treat at random times is an example of a variable-interval schedule because it is based on a random time table and not on number of actions.

There are three key types of statuses. Compare ascribed, achieved and master statuses

*Ascribed status* is given involuntarily, based on race, ethnic background, gender, family background. (e.g. a male, father) *Achieved status* is a status gained through efforts or choices, such as being a doctor. *Master status* is the most important, all defining status upon which all aspects of that person's life are influenced.

Organizations attempt to achieve maximum through bureaucracies - what is a bureaucracy? Describe the criticism referring to the iron law of oligarchy

*Bureaucracies* are rational systems of political organization, administration, discipline and control, aiming to achieve max efficiency. The *iron law of oligarchy* states that organizations tend to become more bureaucratic over time and naturally shift to a state of being governed only by a select, elite few

Ivan Pavlov's famous dog experiment was revolutionary in introducing the concept of classical conditioning. Describe classical conditioning and Pavlov's experiment

*Classical conditioning* is a type of associative learning that creates association between unrelated stimuli cues through biological, instinctual responses. Some *unconditioned stimulus* causes an innate, reflexive physiological response (*unconditioned response*) Stimuli that do not result in a response are *neutral stimuli* - they are referred to as *signaling stimuli* if they have the potential to be used as conditioning stimulus. In Pavlov's experiment, he rang a bell (neutral stimuli) before placing meat in the dog's mouths. The dogs initially didn't react to the bell but over time, the dogs began to salivate when hearing the bell - the neutral stimulus (bell) became a *conditioned stimulus* and now produces a reflexive response, a *conditioned response*.

Differentiate between cultural transmission (learning) and cultural diffusion

*Cultural transmission* is the manner in which society socializes its members; *Cultural diffusion* is the spread of norms, beliefs, customs throughout a culture.

Describe Cultural Lag and how it relates to the concepts of Material and Non-material Culture. Give an example of Cultural Lag.

*Culture lag* results when symbolic/nonmaterial culture is slower to change than material culture, creating some issues. The expansion of tech and devices has definitely led to culture lag!

Different types of governments?

*Democracy* - political voice to everyone *Dictatorship* - one man has all ruling power *Monarchies* - royal ruler with variable levels of power depending on the existence of a constitution *Theocracy* - power held by religious leaders (e.g. partial theocracy for Ayatollah in Iran) Many of these systems of leadership are based around a *charismatic authority* (leader with compelling personality)

Differentiate between *deviance* and *stigma*

*Deviance* refers to any violation of norms, rules or expectations within a society. The term [[deviant]] simply refers to any act that goes against social norms. Deviance is not limited to but also includes acts met with disapproval in society, like pedophilia. Social *stigma* is the extreme disapproval of a person/grouped based on perceived differences from the rest of society, such as beliefs, appearance, behaviours. Examples: Ahmadi's in Pakistan; medical conditions like HIV, obesity, even mental illnesses.

Describe the three theories of deviance: - Differential Association theory - Labelling theory - Strain theory

*Differential association theory* states that deviance can be _learned_ via interactions and exposure to others who engage in deviant behaviour. Differential association is the degree to which one is surrounded by people adhering to social norms vs. people who go against them. "Fallen into the wrong group" *Labelling theory* - a behaviour is deviant if people have judged the behaviour and labelled it as deviant. Labels are given to people which affect not only how people respond to that person, but also the person's self image. This can lead to channeling of behaviour into deviance or conformity. *Strain theory* explains deviance as a natural reaction to disconnect between social goals and resources/structures. Deviant behaviour such as theft may arise as an attempt to reach social goals outside of limiting social structure.

Describe how family can also be a source of violence alongside joy and support.

*Domestic violence* - spousal abuse in form of physical, sexual, emotional or financial abuse. *Child abuse* - neglect, but also physical, emotional or sexual abuse of children *Elderly abuse* - mainly neglecting of elders, but also physical or emotional abuse Physicians are *mandated reporters*, meaning legally obligated to report suspected cases of elder or child abuse.

*Social support* is the perception or reality that one is care for by a social network, and takes many forms. Describe emotional, esteem, material, informational and network forms of social support.

*Emotional support* - listening, affirming and empathazing with someone's feeling (e.g. condolences) - mostly done by family and friends. *Esteem support* - focuses on directly affirming the qualities and skills of a person for confidence. *Material support* - aka *tangible support* - support in the form of finances/materials/goods and resources (e.g. a loan or charity) *Informational support* - providing information that will help someone (e.g. doctors advising patients) *Network support* (aka companion support) - type of support that gives a person a sense of belonging.

*Aversive control* describes situations in which a behaviour motivated by the threat of something unpleasant. Differentiate between escape learning and avoidance learning, two types of aversive control.

*Escape learning* - behaviour with the purpose of reducing the unpleasantness of something that already exists (e.g. leaving a burning building, taking aspirin to treat headache) *Avoidance learning* - behaviour meant to prevent unpleasantness of something that has yet to happen (e.g. Abba avoiding high salty foods to keep his blood pressure normal)

Compare and contrast ethnic identity and national identity

*Ethnic identity* refers to one's ethnic group (members share common ancestry, cultural heritage, language). *National identity* refers largely to our nationality (birth country), and is the result of shared cuisine, history, media, symbols.

Discuss ethnocentrism and cultural relativism.

*Ethnocentrism* refers to the practice of making judgements about other cultures and beliefs based on values/from the perspective of one's own culture. *Cultural relativism* counters ethnocentrism by perceiving and understanding other cultures as different from one's own, but with recognition that cultural values, mores and rules fit into that culture itself.

Three factors which contribute to population increase are fertility, mortality and migration. Differentiate between the three.

*Fertility rate* refers to the average # of children born to a woman during her lifetime. In US - declined over time, but still remains above 2, hence contributes to increasing population. *Mortality rate* refers to # of deaths in a population per unit time - measured in deaths per 1000 people per year. Declined in the US with improving healthcare and access, which also contributes to population growth. Decreased mortality rate = _increase in average age_ of population. *Migration* - immigration increases population size, emigration decreases. All rates are measured per 1000 people, so that they can be compared and used to determine overall population growth rate.

Is gender identity strictly linked to biological sex? Discuss gender identity, androgyny and gender schema

*Gender identity* describes a person's appraisal of him/herself on scales of masculinity or femininity - these concepts are considered two separate dimensions due to individuals being able to score high on both scales (*androgyny*) and score low on both scales (*undifferentiated*). Gender and biological sex are closely related but need not be necessarily tied, as seen in Western cultures. Theories like the *gender schema* theory believe components of gender identity are transmitted through cultural + societal means.

There are a few processes that can modify the response to a conditioned stimulus after acquisition has occured. Differentiate between generalization and discrimination.

*Generalization* - broadening effect by which a stimulus similar enough to the CS can also produce the conditioned response. Little Alber experiment - afraid of a white rat it was paired with a loud noise. Subsequently showed his conditioning had generalized and fear response was also seen to a white stuffed rabbit, white beard, etc. *Discrimination* - opposite of generalization -when an organism learns to distinguish between two similar stimuli

Discuss the last two stages of Erikson's psychosocial theory, which emphasizes emotional development and interactions with the social environment: - Generativity vs. stagnation - Integrity vs. despair

*Generativity vs. stagnation* (40-65) - virtue is care - successful resolution leads to an individual capable of being productive, caring and contributing to society; unfavourable outcome is a sense of stagnation, self-indulgent, self-centered maybe. *Integrity vs. despair* (65+) - virtue is wisdom - favourable resolving leads to wisdom, feeling of a worthwhile life and productivity, dignity, and readiness to face death with a sense of closure; unfavourable outcome is a sense of bitterness, despair and dissatisfaction upon death.

Describe globalization and its causes + effects

*Globalization* - process of integrating the global economy with free market trade and tapping into foreign markets. Caused by improved global communication and transportation technologies, as well as economic interdependence. Positive effects include cultural exchanges and things such as the availability of food, which requires trade with a very large number of world markets. Negative effects include rising prices, worldwide unemployment increase, increased pollution, civil unrest and global terrorism.

Describe the three perspectives of looking at globalization: - Hyperglobalist - Skeptical

*Hyperglobalist* perspective - sees globalization as a process, new age in history, as nations become interdependent and function more as one global society rather than individual entities. *Skeptical* perspective - critical of globalization - considers process as more of regionalization than globalization, as 3rd world economies are not experiencing the same benefits of globalization that first world economies are. National borders being important as ever is considered a sign of this. *Transformationalist* perspective - national governments are changing, into patterns that are uncertain - NWO design is developing

Discuss the second three stages of Erikson's psychosocial theory, which emphasizes emotional development and interactions with the social environment: - Industry vs. inferiority - Identity vs. role confusion - Intimacy vs. isolation

*Industry vs. inferiority* (6-12y) - virtue is competence/pride - favourable resolving leads to a child feeling competent, intelligence, high self-esteem and feels able to exercise his/her abilities to serve and affect the world; the unfavourable outcome though would be a sense of inferiority, low self-esteem, and inability to act in a competent manner. *Identity vs. role confusion* (12-20y) - virtue is identity, this conflict encompasses *_physiological revolution_* - favourable outcome is fidelity, sense of identity and personality, integrated person; unfavourable outcome is confusion about identity and amorphous personality. *Intimacy vs. isolation* (20-40y) virtue is love and intimacy - favourable outcomes are love, commitment abilities, intimate relationships; unfavourable outcomes are avoidance of commitment, alienation, distancing

Differentiate between internalization and identification - how do these relate to private and public conformity?

*Internalization* is essentially private conformity - involves changing one's behaviour to fit with a group _while also agreeing internally_ with the ideas of the group internally *Identification* is essentialy public conformity - outward acceptance of others' ideas without personally agreeing.

Describe interpersonal attraction and what factors affect attraction

*Interpersonal attraction* is the phenomenon of individuals liking each other - several factors including similarity, self-disclosure, reciprocity, proximity, face-symmetry, dimorphism play roles in determining attraction. In general, the more symmetrical a face is, the more attractive it is. High cheek bones are a huge point for attraction. Furthermore, so is the *golden ratio* (1.618:1) and high cheek bones.

Describe the following age theories: - Life course theory - Age stratification theory - Activity theory - Disengagement theory - Continuity theory

*Life Course theory* - ageing is a socio-psych-biological process that runs throughout life. Biological process of living longer has influenced social process - age based expectations no longer apply. Can't *Age stratification theory* - regulating activities based on age (no drinking till 21, no driving till 18 etc) *Activity theory* - looks at how elders look at themselves (e.g. inability to do some activity may influence morale and well being). *Disengagement theory* - suggests older adults and societies separate - sees people as more self absorbed after leaving work force or major parts of society. *Continuity theory* - people try to maintain same basic structures of their lives over time

Describe the Malthusian theory

*Malthusian theory* focuses on how exponential population growth can outpace growth of food supply, leading to social disorder and degradation. A malthusian catastrophe is the prediction that as a 3rd world nation industrializes and undergoes demographic transition, the pace at which the world population will grow is much faster than ability to generate food - leads to mass starvation.

Material culture is often the tangible embodiment of symbolic culture - can you describe this statement? What are material and symbolic culture?

*Material culture* refers to artifacts and tangible, physical objects given meaning - can include artwork, food, emblems, clothing, buildings, tools, etc. *Symbolic culture* is also called nonmaterial culture - focuses on ideas that represent a group of people - encoded in mottos, songs, catch-phrases, themes, etc. It has cognitive and behavioural components - informs cultural values + beliefs, as well as norms and communication styles. Symbolic culture usually is represented in material culture through these components.

What is McDonaldization?

*Mcdonaldization* is a term used to refer to a shift in focus towards more efficiency, predictability, calculatability and control in societies - stemmed from McDonalds chain but applies so many many more institutions.

Norms vary amongst different societies and cultures, and can change over time. Describe the following terms: - Mores - Sanctions - Folkways - Taboo - Laws

*Mores* are widely observed social norms. While norms are not laws, they are a means of social control. *Sanctions* - penalties for misconduct or rewards for appropriate behaviour, also used to maintain social control *Taboo* - socially unacceptable, disgusting or reprehensible behaviour *Folkways* - norms referring to behaviour considered polite in social interactions (e.g. handshake) *Laws* are norms based under a concept of right and wrong, but with legal backing and punishable sanctions.

Define multiculturalism

*Multiculturalism* is when communities contain multiple cultures - encourages and respects cultural differences, increasing cultural diversity and acceptance within a society. Creates a cultural mosaic or melting pot of cultures (e.g. Singapore, NYC)

How would you define norms?

*Norms* are defined as unwritten societal rules that define the boundaries of acceptable behaviour. They describe moral standards and ethical rules that individuals internalize, and thus serve as a means of social control.

Define organizations and the characteristics of formal organizations

*Organizations* are institutions or entities designed to achieve specific goals and have their own structure and culture. e.g. companies, schools, sports teams, music groups, etc. Formal organizations have some characteristics; (1) continue despite departure of individual(s); (2) have common expressed goals that guide the members; (3) have enforcement procedures that controls activities of members; (4) hierarchal allotment.

The stereotype content model classifies groups in four possible combos of warmth and competence - describe: - Paternalistic stereotypes - Contemptuous stereotypes - Envious stereotypes - Admiration stereotypes

*Paternalistic* stereotypes are those where the group is looked down upon as inferior to the in-group. (high warmth, low competence; e.g. racism against blacks) *Contemptuous* stereotypes are those where the group is viewed with resentment and anger (low warmth and competence; e.g. resentment of immigrants 'stealing' jobs) *Envious* stereotypes are those where the group is viewed with bitterness and jealousy (low wamrth high competence) *Admiration* stereotypes are those in which the group is viewed positively with pride (high wamrth high competence)

A variety of social factors influence both prejudice and discrimination. Describe power, prestige and class and how they influence both.

*Power* refers to the ability of people to achieve their goals and control resources despite obstacles. *Prestige* refers to the level of respect shown to a person/group by others. *Class* refers to socioeconomic status. Social inequality (unequal distribution of power, resources, money, prestige) influences prejudice and discrimination by grouping of /haves/ and /have-nots/ - /haves/ may hold a negative view of /have-nots/, and vice versa, leading to attitudes and behaviours.

Differentiate between prejudice and discrimination.

*Prejudice* is an irrational positive or negative attitude towards a person/group/thing/object etc. without prior experience or interaction with the entity. *Discrimination* is a negative behaviour that ACTS UPON prejudice, causing individuals or groups to be treated differently from others.

Mead believed that in young years, we are ego-centric and focus on ourselves, but beliefs of how others perceive us become more important as we grow older in 3 particular stages - describe: - Prepatory stage - Play stage - Game stage

*Prepatory stage* - children interact with others through imitation, which is not real interaction, but towards the end they are focused more on communication through symbols and words unmastered, etc. rather than just imitation. *Play stage* - children become aware of importance of social relationships - pretend play; taking on perspectives of others and acting based on their perceived point of view - mimicing AND creating social interactions *Game stage* - children begin to understand attitudes and behaviours of the "generalized other" (society as a whole) - performance based on how people want to act as well as society's expectations of them

Differentiate between primary and secondary groups.

*Primary groups* include people that share direct interactions with close bonds and enduring relationship. These groups often last a long period and may include core friends circle, family, members of a team, etc. *Secondary groups* include formal, impersonal interactions based on a specific limit and goal - short term and form + dissolve without much significance (e.g. students working on a group project)

Differentiate between the following: - Primary socialization - Secondary socialization - Anticipatory socialization - Resocializaton

*Primary socialization* occurs in childhood where we initially learn acceptable actions + attitudes *Secondary socialization* is learning appropraite behaviour in smaller sections of society, such as schools, church, sports field, etc. *Anticipatory socialization* is process by which a person prepares for future changes in occupations, living situations, etc. *Resocialization* is the process of discarding old behaviours in favour of new ones to make a life change - e.g. army training for obedience

How are proximity and the mere exposure effect factors in determining physical attraction?

*Proximity* is just being close to someone or something. Studies have shown we are more likely to form friendships and relations with people in the same dorm/class/within a range of proximity as us. Makes sense to be more attracted to someone hot that's next to you than across the globe! *Mere exposure effect* (aka *familiarity effect*) states people prefer stimuli they have been exposed to more frequently; (e.g. acquiring a taste for Diet coke after multiple tastes). In terms of attractiveness, you are more likely to be attracted to a person who you see or interact with more often than another of the same level of relative attractiveness.

Describe the rational choice and exchange theories.

*Rational choice theory* states people take rational decisions based on a mental pros and cons analysis, choosing an option with the best benefit-to-harm ratio when evaluating the potential benefits and costs. Rewards can include money, accolades, honor, prestige, social approval; punishments can include embarrassment, humiliation, sanctions, stigma. *Exchange theory* expands on rational choice theory and focuses on interactions in groups rather than simply independent individual - states people behave with incentive to maximize own rewards and minimize punishments.

Compare role strain, role conflict and role exit

*Role strain* refers to the tensions between multiple requirements and expectations of the same role and status (e.g. being a student and getting everything done). *Role conflict* refers to the tension between roles of two or more statuses, e.g. a doctor and a husband/parent *Role exit* is dropping of one identity for another.

Define and compare the terms self concept, self schema and identity.

*Self-concept* refers to how we think about, perceive and evaluate ourselves. To be self aware is to have a self-concept. *Self-schema* - a self given label that carries with it a set of qualities; a category we fall under *Identity* refers to the individual components of our self concept related to the groups in which we belong. Whereas we all have one-all encompassing self-concept, we have multiple identities (religious affiliation, sexual orientation, etc).

Jimmy watches a lot of violent television and plays Call of Duty: Black Ops III all the time. He tends to be more aggressive toward his friends and family. How might the idea of Social Scripts explain Jimmy's behavior?

*Social Scripts* could explain Jimmy's behavior in that Jimmy is learning a script of how he should behave from his video games. Social Scripts basically act as guidelines for us, informing us how we should behave in certain situations.

Durkheim described social facts - what are they?

*Social facts* are ways of thinking and acting formed by society formed before any one individual existed, and will persist after they are gone. They cannot be influenced by an individual and have a coercive effect over the individual, only apparent when we resist them. E.g. laws, moral regulations, religious beliefs, suicide

Notice how sometimes in group projects, one member may do all of the work while the others contribute very little. What social phenomenon explains this?

*Social loafing* is the tendency of individuals to put in less effort in a group setting than individually.

What are social movements? Differentiate between proactive and reactive social movements.

*Social movements* are organized to either promote (*proactive*) or resist (*reactive*) social change, often motivated by a perceived *relative deprivation*. E.g. of proactive social movements include civil rights, movement, women's suffrage movements, gay rights movements etc. E.g. of reactive include white supremacist movements, anti-immigration movements, etc.

Demographic shift refers to changes in population makeup over time, and *demographic transition* is a specific example of demo- shift referring to changes in birth and death rates as a country develops from a preindustrial to industrial economic system. Describe how this transition was seen in the US during Industrial Revolution in its 4 stages.

*Stage 1* - preindustrial society with high birth and death rates *Stage 2* - improvements in healthcare, nutrition, wages, sanitation lowered death rates *Stage 3* - improvements in women's rights, contraception, and shift from agricultural to industrial economy caused birth rates to drop. *Stage 4* - industrialized society with low birth and death rates.

Compare Status to Role. What might the Status and Role of a doctor be?

*Status* refers to a social position used to classify individuals - because in most societies people are not viewed as equal with same amount of respect - some are loved, liked, disliked, even stigmatized. Each status has a *role* (set of beliefs, values, attitudes and norms) that defines expectations of the holder of said status. For a doctor, his status being a doctor; his role would be to help sick people.

Discuss the first three stages of Erikson's psychosocial theory, which emphasizes emotional development and interactions with the social environment: - Trust vs. mistrust - Autonomy vs. shame & doubt - Initiative vs. guilt

*Trust vs. mistrust* is the first conflict (0-1y) where the virtue is hope - resolving of this conflict leads to a child who trusts his environment and self, whereas mistrust winning out results in the child being suspicious of the world. *Autonomy vs. shame and doubt* (1-3y) where the virtue is will - the favourable outcome of resolving this conflict is the feeling to be able to exert control and exercise choice and self-restraint. However, the unfavourable outcome is a sense of doubt, shame, and/or persistent external locus of control. *Initiative vs. guilt* (3-6y) where the virtue is purpose - favourable outcomes include a sense of purpose, ability to initiate activities and enjoy accomplishment; the flipside outcome is inadequacy, child that may unduly restrict himself, or compensate by showing off.

Describe the following types of formal organizations: - Utilitarian - Normative - Coercive

*Utilitarian organizations* - members paid or rewarded for their efforts (e.g. businesses, govt jobs, universities) *Normative organizations* - groups that come together for a common or shared goal - characterized by unity and purpose (e.g. religious groups) *Coercive organizations* - members don't have much of a choice about membership/don't have exact ability to leave - very strict rules (e.g. prisoners, military).

Describe the World Systems theory of globalization and how it categorizes areas of the globe

*World systems theory* of globalization - focuses on importance of the world as a unit, rather than looking at individual countries, and divides it into 3 regions: core, peripheral and semi-peripheral countries. _Core countries_ include areas like the US, Western Europe, Australia - have strong central govts, economically diversified, industrialized, and independent of outside control. Strong working class force, focuses on production of higher scope material goods rather than raw materials. _Periphery countries_ include areas like Latin America and Africa, which have a relatively weak central govt. Tend to depend on one economic activity (e.g. extracting raw materials). High numbers of poor people and small, controlling upper class creating huge social inequality. Highly influenced by core countries and trans-national corporations. _Semi-periphery countries_ such as India and Brazil make up the middle ground between the two extremes. Not dominant in intl trade but have a diversified and decently developed economy

What are some examples of stigma? Think of any!

- People with mental disorders are dangerous or crazy. - People with addictions are flawed. - Women who have abortions are amoral.

What is the difference between Altruism and Reciprocal Altruism?

Altruism is when you help selflessly without expecting anything in return. Reciprocal Altruism is when you help but expect a return sometime down the road.

How does the social identity theory describe/categorize the self concepts?

The *social identity theory* has two components - the personal self, referring to our individual and unique self, and the social self, referring to our community and groups we belong to.

An Amoeba can sense and move toward food. What is this an example of?

An Amoeba can sense and move toward food. This an example of Taxis as it is purposeful movement.

What are two problems associated with urbanization?

1) sociologists have found links between urban societies and health issues such as sanitation of water, air quality, environmental hazards, violence, infection, unhealthy diets 2) they are rarely homogenous, and some areas are socioeconomically well off at the expense of others which are impoverished - e.g. the ghettos for racial specific minorities, slums

Social Identity says that there are three steps that we take to develop a Self Identity. Describe these three steps using yourself as an example: 1. Categorize 2. Identification 3. Comparison

1. Categorize - You associate different things with other things (i.e. jocks, nerds, drama queens, etc). 2. Identification - You adopt the identity of the group that you identify yourself as (i.e. "I am a nerd"). 3. Comparison - You compare your group to other groups (i.e. "Nerds are so much smarter than Jocks").

There are three main underlying premises of the Rational Choice Theory. Describe each of the following premises in terms of choosing between options A, B, and C: 1. Completeness 2. Transitivity 3. Independence of Irrelevant Alternatives

1. Completeness - A, B, C have different values and can thus be ranked as follows: A > B > C 2. Transitivity - If A > B > C then A must also be > than C 3. Independence of Irrelevant Alternatives - If you add in option Z then this new option will not change anything and is not preferable to A, B, nor C.

World Systems Theory divides the world into three types of countries. Give an example of each type and explain why it is a good example: 1. Core Countries 2. Semi-periphery Countries 3. Periphery Countries

1. Core Countries - United States, Canada, Europe, Japan, Australia have a strong central government, are industrialized, and focus on higher-skill, capital-intensive production. 2. Semi-periphery Countries - Mexico, China, South Africa are a mix between Core and Periphery Countries. 3. Periphery Countries - South America, Africa, Russia, Indonesia have a weak central government, are dependent upon Core Countries economically, and focus on producing raw goods or materials.

Think about a grocery store, describe how the _five characteristics of a Bureaucracy_ might be seen there: 1. Division of Labor 2. Hierarchy of Organizations 3. Written Rules and Regulations 4. Impersonality 5. Employment based on Technical Qualifications

1. Division of Labor - The cashier checks people out while the bagger bags groceries, and the stock room workers stock the shelves. No one does each other's job. Each is trained to do one specific task. 2. Hierarchy of Organizations - The CEO of the grocery store is above the regional managers who is above the store managers who is above the hourly-wage workers. 3. Written Rules and Regulations - The cashier must follow exact procedures when checking out customers. 4. Impersonality - A cashier cannot give out special discounts even to their friends. 5. Employment based on Technical Qualifications - Employment at a grocery store is based on your resume, GPA, and ACT score.

What three questions do we ask ourselves when developing our Looking Glass Self?

1. How do I appear to others? ("I walk upright") 2. What do others think of me? ("That guy is too serious") 3. How should this affect how I think about myself? ("Maybe I am a little to serious")

Having strong self-efficacy is great, but a weak sense of self-efficacy can lead to failure, avoidance, etc.; There are four ways to develop Self-efficacy. Pretend that you want to get better at playing the piano, describe how each of these things may build up your self-efficacy: 1. Mastery of Experience 2. Social Modeling 3. Social Persuasion 4. Psychological Responses

1. Mastery of Experience - You practice the piano all the time, so you start to feel more confident. 2. Social Modeling - You see your friend who has been playing the piano as long as you, play really well. 3. Social Persuasion - Your friends compliment you and even tell other people that you are good at the piano. 4. Psychological Responses - You develop the ability to decrease your stress level and anxiety before a concert.

Which of the following are the two substages of the Pre-conventional Stage? -Self-Interest (Individualism and Exchange) -Conformity and Interpersonal Accord -Social Contract -Obedience vs Punishment -Universal (Ethical) Principles -Authority and Social Order

1. Obedience vs. Punishment 2. Self-interest (Individualism and Exchange)

Little Timmy sees himself as the center of the universe. Describe how the following stages may play a role in helping little Timmy start to be influenced by others: 1. Preparatory Stage 2. Play Stage 3. Game Stage

1. Preparatory Stage - Timmy starts imitating others, allowing him to realize that he is a distinct individual from others. 2. Play Stage - Timmy starts pretending that he is a lawyer like his daddy. He begins to see things better from other's perspectives. 3. Game Stage - Timmy starts to understand that his teachers at school also have home lives and families. He also starts to see himself from the perspective of others.

Which of the following are the two substages of the Conventional Stage? -Self-Interest (Individualism and Exchange) -Conformity and Interpersonal Accord -Social Contract -Obedience vs Punishment -Universal (Ethical) Principles -Authority and Social Order

3. Conformity and Interpersonal Accord ("Good Boy + Girl") 4. Authority and Social Order ("Law and Order")

Freud believed human psychology and sexuality were inextricably linked - asserted that the *libido (sex drive) is present at birth and hypothesized five distinct stages of psychosexual development - order the 5 stages of Psychosexual Development from earliest to latest: (1) Genital (2) Phallic (3) Anal (4) Oral (5) Latent

4, 3, 2, 5, 1 Oral -> anal -> phallic -> latent -> genital

Which of the following are the two substages of the Post-conventional Stage? -Self-Interest (Individualism and Exchange) -Conformity and Interpersonal Accord -Social Contract -Obedience vs Punishment -Universal (Ethical) Principles -Authority and Social Order

5. Social Contract 6. Universal (Ethical) Principles

Define culture

Culture is a way of life shared by a group of people - refers to knowledge, beliefs and values.

A Population Pyramid can tell you what information?

A *Population Pyramid* can tell you the population of a community based on age and gender.

Differentiate between fads, mass hysteria and riots.

A *fad* is a behaviour that becomes very popular quickly and also loses popularity quickly - reach influence of large numbers of people in their time. E.g. cinnamon challenge on Youtube, "low-carb diet for weight loss" *Mass hysteria* refers to a shared, intense delusional concern about threats to society shared by many people - largely influenced by groupthink; delusion augmented by distrust, rumors and propaganda. E.g. Salem trials where people were killed for fears of witchcraft; Anthrax attacks *Riots* are characterized by large groups of people suddenly engaging in deviant behaviour (violence, theft, vandalism etc) - usually fueled by deindividuation.

Differentiate subcultures and countercultures

A *subculture* is subset of dominant culture - a meso-level subcommunity that distinguishes itself from the primary culture and society - has its own symbolic attachment to things, and can be formed based on race, ethnicity, sexuality, gender, etc. They share some characteristics of the dominant culture of the society they're in. *Counterculture* - subset of the dominant culture that opposes and goes to counter the main culture (e.g. cults, motorcycle gangs, etc.)

Differentiate between a sect and a cult

A Sect is a breakaway or a revival of an established church. For example, Lutherans may be considered a sect as they broke away from Catholicism to form their own unique sect. A Cult is a radical group (compared to a more established religious group) that is often led by a charismatic leader. These groups often only last for a short period of time. For instance, Heaven's Gate had very unique beliefs and they were led by a charismatic leader named Marshall Applewhite

Attachment is an emotional bond between a child and its caregiver. Psychologist Mary Ainsworth conducted the *Ainsworth-Strange Situation* - describe it and what it found.

A mother, her child, and a stranger are in a room. The mom gets up and leaves at one point, leaving the child alone with the stranger. Later on the mom returns. The child's behavior is observed, leading to the classification of the attachment style between mother and child - secure or insecure attachments. The experiment found that infants need a secure base in form of a consistent caregiver for the first 6 months - 2 years of life to explore the world and develop appropriately.

According to Freud, what characterizes the latency stage of his theory?

After the libidinal energy of the oedipal stage is sublimated, the latency stage begins where there is no real focus of the libido, and this lasts until puberty.

Describe aggression, forms it can take, and purpose.

Aggression is defined as behaviour, physical or verbal, that intends to cause harm, increase social dominance, or destroy. Aggression can be in the form and range from physical action and harm, to verbal communicaition, and even bodily contact or displays of threat. Threat display is common in both humans and other animals. Aggression offers evolutionary purpose - protection against perceived and real threats - helps ancestors fight off predators, and organisms to gather food and resources, territory or mates + gene propogation.

Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory states that you are reliant upon four factors that will determine whether or not you will learn something through observation. What are these four factors (Hint: Am I Motivated?)? Describe each and how it might apply to the Bobo Doll Experiment.

Attention - Were the kids paying attention to the video of the man beating up the Bobo Doll? Memory - Did the kids remember what the man did and said? Imitation - Were the kids physically able to kick and punch? Motivation - Were the kids motivated to beat up the Bobo Doll?

What were Skinner and Pavlov's views on the behaviourist perspective?

BF Skinner championed the behaviourist perspective. His view focused on operant conditioning, and described personality as the result of behaviours reinforced over time. Pavlov - focused on classical conditioning. Both believed that the environment shapes behaviour and personality, and that it develops over a life span.

Albert Bandura's Bobo doll experiment is famous for coming up with the social cognitive theory of personality. What were his crucial ideas?

Bandura's concepts of *reciprocal determinism* and *locus of control* were crucial to the social cognitive perspective. Reciprocal determinism - idea that out thoughts, feelings, behaviour and environment all interact with each other to determine our actions in a given situation. Locus of control - level of control people feel they have over the environment, or the environment has over them.

Cultural differences include everything from typical jobs, to diet, to time to eat lunch, etc. When traveling outside one's home country to another, these differences can seem dramatic and overwhelming - what is this phenomenon referred to as?

Culture shock!

Jerry is extremely poor and worked his whole life as a custodian. He does, however, feel like he was able to choose his own destiny throughout his life. How do the terms Power, Social Class, and Prestige apply to Jerry?

Because Jerry feels like he is in control and he has power to do things, he has a high amount of Power from his perspective. Jerry is poor, though, which means he is of a low social class [at least in a society where social class is based on income] Jerry was a custodian, which is not a very prestigious job.

Jim meets a new girl at work and Jim thinks she is very attractive. He is later made her manager and is asked to evaluate her in several key indicators. How might the Halo Effect play into Jim's evaluation?

Because his overall impression of her is good, he will likely over-exaggerate how good she is in each individual area of work.

Compare Birth Rate and Fertility Rate.

Birth Rate is the number of new babies per 1,000 people per year. Fertility Rate on the other hand is the number of children a woman would be expecting to give birth to throughout her entire life based on averages (i.e. 2.1 average children per woman).

Similarity has been found to be a huge determinant and factor in attraction. Does this only entail physical or mental attraction or both?

Both. We are more likely to be attracted to someone who shares either or both features - we would be more likely to form friendships and/or relationships with others who have similar attitudes, intelligence, education, height, age, religion, appearance and socioeconomic status.

Describe the relationship of the Bourgeoisie and the Proletariat according to Karl Marx's Conflict Theory.

Bourgeoisie had the power and own the means of production such as a factory. The Proletariat are the workers that do the producing such as being factory workers. The Proletariat are dependent upon the Bourgeoisie for their livelihood, and likewise the Bourgeoisie were dependent on the Proletariat for their labour to function and maintain status quo.

Compare how Charles Cooley and George Herbert Mead thought that other people can influence us.

Charles Cooley seemed to think that anyone can influence us at any time. George H. Mead had a more restrictive view, thinking that only certain people can influence us at certain time points..

Compare and contrast Classical and Operant Conditioning. Give an example.

Classical Conditioning is when you learn to associate a stimulus with another stimulus (i.e. Pavlov's dogs associate bell ringing with getting food). Operant Conditioning is when you learn to associate a consequence with a behavior (i.e. My dog associates getting a treat with going potty outside where he is supposed to).

How is collective behaviour different from group behaviour?

Collective behaviour is usually time-limited (short), open to participants, and loose norms Group behaviour is usually long, exclusive and has strongly held norms.

Describe the Zimbardo (Stanford) Prison Study.

College kids taken into a basement. Some were randomly made guards and the others made prisoners. The guards and prisoners started acting in accordance with their role so much so that the study had to be stopped. Zimbardo's Girlfriend had to convince Zimbardo to stop the study.

Compare compliance, identification and internalization (all ways of being motivated by different influences or pressures)

Compliance is doing what you are asked regardless of whether you want to or not. Identification - when we go along with something under motivation of being like a certain famous figure Internalization - conforming not only publicly but also privately with a certain behaviour - internalizing the ideas - most powerful because not only do you, but you also want to!

Is the explanation of your computer screen a brute or institutional fact? What about quarks and subatomic particles?

Computer screen explanation is an institutional fact, as it is dependent on the movement of subatomic particles and metals. Because they do gown to quarks as we know right now, explanation of quarks would be brute facts in this case.

How can Marxist conflict theory be applied to healthcare and medicine?

Conflict theory would not deny that healthcare and medicine aim to help people, but it may question and ask who holds the power in the healthcare system? Is it the patient? Doctor? Hospitals? Pharma companies? Insurance companies? The government? The US continues to grapple with this issue!

Differentiate between conformity, compliance and obedience

Conformity is how we adjust our attitudes and behaviours in order to go along with the group. Compliance is doing as you are asked even when you don't want to. (e.g. paying taxes) Obedience describes how we obey authority and follow order - does not involve cognitive factor that conformity does. (e.g. Nazism)

What is the definition of conformity?

Conformity is the tendency of people to bring their behaviour in line with group norms.

Differentiate between the conservative and progressive views of institutions

Conservative view - sees institutions as natural positive byproducts of human nature Progressive view - sees institutions as artificial creations that need to be redesigned to benefit humanity

When using the situational approach to attribution theory, we look at the external component of attribution which has three parts/cues: consistency, distinctiveness and consensus

Consistency - does the person usually act this way in the situation? Distinctiveness - does the person behave differently in different situation, or this particular situation distinct? Consensus - do others typically behave similarly in this situation? If you can answer yes to the second two components (distinctiveness and consensus), then you can infer the person is behaving in a particular way due to the situation and external factors.

Describe the role of Cost Selection in Altruism.

Cost Selection would indicate that people act altruistically in order to be seen as someone with resources (and worthy of respect) in a community.

David lives in a rural community. He has a hard time focusing in school and finds that he is sad sometimes when his friends don't want to play. If the healthcare system in David's small community underwent Medicalization, how do you think David's life might be impacted?

David would likely be given medications to deal with his problems as his problems would now be seen as illnesses. He would likely be given ADD medication for his inability to focus and Depression medication for his sadness episodes.

Describe how Deindividuation may help explain the Bystander Effect.

Deindividuation is the idea that when you are in a group, you feel less identifiable as an individual. For example, perhaps you don't help the person in trouble because you feel less identifiable as someone to blame for not helping.

Describe the Dependency theory of globalization and how it relates to the other two theories

Dependency theory was a reaction to modernization theory and uses the idea of core and periphery countries to look at inequalities between them. Periphery (3rd world) countries are described as poor and supply resources to the core, first world countries. It describes these poorer countries as stuck in subordination and dependence to the core countries, and unable to break from that cycle.

Describe discrimination based on sex/gender and sexual orientation

Differences in gender do not necessarily imply inequity but occues in many countries. *Gender inequality* is intentional/unintentional empowerment of one gender over another; *gender segregation* is separation of individuals on the basis of perceived gender (division in labour, bathrooms, sports teams, etc). These are based again on perceived genders, associated with sex and sexual identity and orientation. Restrictions might be placed on homosexuals that don't apply for heterosexuals, such as the right to marry. This has changed now, but others may still exist. Gender identity does not have to match biological sex.

Describe how the Marshmallow Experiment applies to the idea of *Ego Depletion*.

Ego Depletion views self-control as a limited quantity that can get used up. If a kid holds off on eating the marshmallow for 10 minutes and then finally gives in, it would be because his self-control "ran out."

Why might people who act more altruistically toward others be more likely to also have a high level of empathy?

Empathy is one's ability to see things from a another's perspective and feel sorry for someone who is going through a hard time. People who act altruistically likely do so because they feel sorry for someone else and see that person's heartache from that person's perspective. This is known as the *Empathy-altruism Hypothesis*.

How has the understanding of disease shifted over time?

Entities formerly defined as illnesses like homosexuality and transgenderism are no longer thought of as so. At the same time, formerly neglected problems and disorders have now been *medicalized*, such as the disorders in the DSM-5.

A mouse is on a diving board that can sometimes administer electric shocks. The researcher shocks the diving board, and the mouse jumps in the water. Before the shock, however, the researcher made a beeping noise. Next time, when the researcher makes the beeping noise, the mouse jumps off the diving board before the researcher has time to apply the electric shock. How does this example relate to Avoidance Learning, Escape Learning, and Aversive Control. respectively?

Escape Learning applies to the mouse jumping off the bridge to escape the continuous electric shock. Avoidance Learning applies to the mouse jumping off when it hears the beep noise in order to avoid getting shocked. Both Escape and Avoidance Learning are examples of Aversive Control.

How does Rational Choice Theory relate to Exchange Theory?

Exchange Theory is Rational Choice Theory as applied to social interactions. It is the idea that if actions receive social approval, they are more likely to be repeated.

How might Exchange Theory relate to Altruism?

Exchange Theory would say that truly Altruistic Acts do not happen since they do not logically result in the greatest gain for the individual deciding to act altruistically.

Types of population pyramids

Expansive population pyramid - characterized by high fertility rates and lower than average life expectancy rates Constrictive population pyramids - countries with more elderly population and shrinking, less of a young cohort Stationary population pyramids - low birth rates and high quality of life - developed nations

True or false: Functionalism and conflict theory stem from a microsociological perspective

FALSE: Functionalism and conflict theory stem from a MACROSOCIOLOGICAL perspective Symbolic interactionism falls under microsociological perspective

True or false: Stereotypes are always used in negative and inappropriate situations.

FALSE: Stereotypes are fundamentally necessary to everyday life in order to make sense of a complex world by categorizing and systemizing information. Only when it is used in prejudice and discrimination is it used negatively.

True or false: assimilation can be sped up by the creation of *ethnic envlaves* (locations w/ high concentrations of specific ethnic group).

FALSE: assimilation can be SLOWED DOWN by the creation of *ethnic envlaves* (locations w/ high concentrations of specific ethnic group).

True or false: fundamental attribution error is not influenced by culture and remains the same in individualistic societies as opposed to collectivist.

FALSE: fundamental attribution error IS influenced by culture and INCREASES in individualistic societies as opposed to collectivist.

True or false: studies show that exposure to films with violent behaviour or violent video games have no influence on aggression.

FALSE: studies show that exposure to films with violent behaviour or violent video games HAVE influence on aggression.

True or false: variable-interval schedules are the fastest for learning a new behaviour and also the most resistant to extinction.

FALSE: variable-ratio schedules are the fastest for learning a new behaviour and also the most resistant to extinction.

True or False. Population Dynamics looks at the movement of a population from one region to another as in urbanization.

False. *Population Dynamics* looks at the rise or fall in a population. Is the population growing in size or decreasing?

Explain why the rats who got shocked when administered sweet water only did not develop an aversion to sweet water?

It is not natural to associate a shock with food poisoning whereas it is natural to associate an upset stomach with food poisoning. This illustrates that we are evolutionarily predisposed to learn certain things.

True or False? According to Relative Deprivation Theory, if Jimmy makes $20,000 per year and feels good about his income, Mary, his next door neighbor must share similar feelings.

False. According to Relative Deprivation Theory, if Jimmy makes $20,000 per year and feels good about his income, Mary, his next door neighbor might be feeling something entirely different depending on who she is comparing herself to. This theory suggests that people join a social movement when they have a sense of RELATIVE deprivation and feel like they can't get what they want through conventional means.

True or False. Attribution means inferring that someones behavior is caused by external factors.

False. Attribution is the act of inferring the cause of the behavior of others, whether that cause is internal or external. Distributional attribution is inferring it to internal factors, situational attribution is inferring it to external.

True or False? Although Taboos are based on highly-cherished values, they are not punishable by law.

False. Because Taboos are based on highly-cherished values, they are often punishable by law.

True or False? Children who engage in lots of Private Speech tend to fall behind in development because they don't spend enough time speaking with others.

False. Children who engage in lots of Private Speech tend to develop faster cognitively. Vygotsky saw speech as an accelerator for learning. He saw thought (Inner Speech) as developing out of Private Speech. Vygotsky believed that thought (which is a higher mental function, independent) emerged from language.

True or False? The larger the group, the more likely you are to conform.

False. Conformity is strongest for groups of 3 to 5.

True or False? Deviance is always a bad thing.

False. Deviance is relative and simply means that you are breaking a norm. Sometimes it can be good to break a norm such as Rosa Parks did during the Civil Rights Movement.

True or False? In the Milgram experiment, when the experimenter held a clipboard, obedience of the participant decreased because they knew the experimenter should have known better.

False. In the Milgram experiment, when the experimenter held a clipboard, obedience of the participant increased due to the increased authority of the person giving them the command.

True or False? In the Milgram experiment, when the experimenter was standing right behind the participant, obedience of the participant decreased because they knew the experimenter more intimately.

False. In the Milgram experiment, when the experimenter was standing right behind the participant, obedience of the participant increased because obedience increases as physical proximity and closeness increase.

True or False? Individuals tend to act less aggressively in big groups as opposed to when they are all alone.

False. Individuals tend to act MORE aggressively in big groups as opposed to when they are all alone. This might be explained by Deindividuation in which we don't see ourselves as personally identifiable in a large crowd.

True or False. Milgram's study is considered ethical as evidenced by its many replications across cultures.

False. Milgram's study is considered unethical despite its many replications across cultures.

True or False? One's Looking Glass Self is extremely accurate due to it being based on the objective opinions of others and not our own thoughts about ourselves.

False. One's Looking Glass Self is extremely INaccurate because it is based on how we THINK others THINK about us. It is very subjective.

True or False. Rational Theory is based on the idea that the best choices are made by individuals who are thinking rationally.

False. Rational Theory is based on the idea that the every choice we make is rational and based on a cost-benefit analysis in which we try and maximize our personal gain.

True or False? Symbolic Interactionism would say that two people cannot look at the same image and see two different things.

False. Symbolic Interactionism is based on the idea that two people can look at the same image and see two different things. To one person, a cross might sybolize death. To another it might symbolize healthcare. It is dependent upon their perspective.

True or False? Impression Management is unrelated to the Backstage Self.

False. The Backstage is where you prepare for Impression Management (get dressed, put on makeup, practice singing, etc).

True or False? The Fundamental Attribution Error is more common in Collectivist Cultures such as Asia.

False. The Fundamental Attribution Error is more common in Individualistic Cultures such as the United States due to a greater focus on individuals and their ability to control their situation. In Collectivist Cultures, successes are much more likely to be credited to external factors, and failures blamed on internal factors.

True or False? Charles Cooley's concept of The Looking Glass Self refers to how you view yourself through your own eyes.

False. The Looking Glass Self refers to how you view yourself through the eyes of others.

True or False? Social Institutions are temporary and may disappear after short periods of time.

False. The actual format of a Social Institution may change but it is still there. For instance, even if the Educational System were to change from public schools to charter schools, it would still be the Educational System, which will endure despite changes.

True or False? There is a certain personality type that is more likely to obey and conform than others.

False. There isn't a certain personality type that is more likely to obey and conform than others. However, different socioeconomic and cultural groups may be a little more likely.

True or False? In the Asch experiment, when a supporter (one who answers correctly when the others didn't) was added, conformity of the participant increased because they didn't want to look stupid like the supporter.

False. Without a supporter, 37 percent of individuals answered in line with the group 100 percent of the time, but with a supporter, conformity dropped to just 5 percent. The more unanimous a group, the more likely you will be to conform.

True or False? Men live longer than Women on average.

False. Women live longer than men on average.

Describe how the family functions as a social institution

Family can be defined by many *patterns of kinship*, not just the small nuclear family perceived as family in the US - varies across cultures. Family is influenced by beliefs, practices, gender, age, race, ethnicity, culture and value systems etc.

What are some agents of socialization?

Family, schools, workforce, peers, ethnic/religious background, mass media Primary agents are personal relationships - for children are family; for adolescents and adults, this can expand to peers and colleagues+bosses (respectively)

In the movie Avatar, individuals can wear a mask, which puts them inside a virtual world. Some people might argue that our lives are much like this in which the things around us may not actually be real. Which theory is most relatable to? (A) Conflict Theory (B) Symbolic Interactionism (C) Functionalism (D) Social Constructionism

Femi(D) Social Constructionism This theory looks at how our reality is socially constructed and may not actually be as "real" as we think it is.

Feminist theory relates to Marxist conflict theory but states a conflict of gender rather than class. Describe feminist theory and how it applies today.

Feminist theory explains social inequalities on the basis of gender, and focuses on subordination of women through social + institutional discrimination - forms can be *gender roles* (expected roles of given sex/gender), sexuality, financial opportunity, social mobility. Though feminist waves helped diversify, the effects of gender discrimination are still seen today - differential expectations of behaviour, objectifying of women, less pay in workforce, *glass ceilings* for women (invisible top, difficulty to attain high ranks as easily) vs. *glass elevators* for men (easier to achieve high ranks due to gender).

What might happen in adults fixated in the Oedipal (phallic) stage?

Fixated adults who never resolve the Oedipus complex may exhibit sexual dysfunction.

Innate behaviours are broken down into simple and complex types. Describe the complex innate behaviours of fixed action patterns, migration, and circadian rhythms.

Fixed action patterns are complex innate behaviours that already ingrained within the organism for a purpose. Example includes mating dance in birds for attracting a mate. Migration is another complex form of an innate behaviour, such as migration of birds to the south. Circadian rhythms are complex innate behaviour relating to sleep cycles. For a bird, example would be waking up early morning to sing

In America, white people generally hand shake while black people fist bump upon greeting. In Japan, people bow when greeting. These are examples of what?

Folkways, and norms varying across cultures and societies.

Ford markets itself as an American Company and has its headquarters in the United States. It also pays taxes to the United States. Can Ford still be considered a Transnational Corporation?

Ford can be considered a Transnational Corporation if is does business or produces goods outside the United States, which it does. Transnational Corporations are those which do business across multiple countries.

If Freddie has a strong attraction to Hannah Montana, how might he use the Reaction Formation Defense Mechanism to deal with this?

Freddie might actively voice disgust with her and say that he hates her music. In Reaction Formation, an individual expresses the opposite emotion to the one they actually have.

Compare Frued's Theory of Psychosexual Development with Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development.

Frued's Theory states that personality is basically fully developed by the age of 5 and is centered around sexual influences. Erikson focuses on the role of culture and society and believes that personality will continue to change and develop throughout one's lifespan. His theory has 8 stages, and failure at resolving conflict in one does not mean mastery of each is required to move onto the next.

Many sociological theories converge on key ideas, but there is no one unified sociological perspective. Describe the theories of functionalism, conflict theory, symbolic interactionism

Functionalism - states society is always trying to come to an equilibrium - for society to be stable and function smoothly, it's parts (businesses, institutions, etc) must function and work together in harmony. Conflict theory - focuses on how societies change and adapt through conflict and power, which polarizes the society. Class struggle. Social constructionism - focuses on how people form and put together social constructs and realities - constructs arise from communication and agreement on significance of certain concepts - can be intangible (honor, justice) or even physical objects (money - paper and coinage money have value because we give it value). Symbolic interactionism - concerns interactions of race, ethnicity, immigration - individuals interact through shared understanding of words, gestures, *symbols* (to which we assign meaning).

Emile Durkheim described the theory of Functionalism - elaborate more on this theory and what it entails.

Functionalism is the thought that society is working towards an equilibrium, and for it to work smoothly it's compartments (institutions, individuals, etc) must function together in harmony. Theorists after Durkheim described *functions* as beneficial consequences of people's actions, necessary to keep society in balance. In contrast, *dysfunctions* referred to harmful consequences of people's actions that undermine society's equilibrium.

Describe the basic premise of Functionalism and how it relates to the idea of Homeostasis.

Functionalism views society like an organism. When something is wrong with part of the Society, homeostasis is lost, throwing the society out of equilibrium. It sees all aspects of Society as having a function and as necessary for the survival of the Society.

Conflict Perspective believes that the Mass Media enhances divisions within society, particularly through Gate Keeping. How might this be so?

Gate Keeping refers to the idea that certain individuals in charge will determine what media gets aired and which media doesn't. It might reject media that portrays blacks as having equal rights to whites, which would reinforce inequality.

Let's say that your mom will sometimes text you before giving you a gift card. How might Generalization vs. Discrimination play out in this scenario?

Generalization would mean that you feel happy when your mom texts you as well as calls you whereas Discrimination would mean that you discern this to be different than a phone call and don't feel the same happiness (conditioned response).

Describe how the government and economy function as a social institution

Government & economy - defined as systematic arrangements of political and capital relationships, activities, social structures. Government may heavily influence other institutions - may cause family structure changes, changes in education system, religious tolerance and freedom, certifying healthcare and medicine etc. - influence is bidirectional (someone who doesn't like the changes may vote for a different candidate next time around) Capitalist economies requires division of labour for efficiency and specialization, and face little govt intervention - success of businesses driven by consumerism; Socialist economics treat large industries as collective, shared businesses - compensation provided is base don work contribution of individuals and profit is distributed equally in the work force.

A group of closet racists and a group of closet feminists are placed in a room to discuss issues about racism for an hour. After the discussion, it was found that in the first group, members became overt and more racist than they were before, whereas the other group members became even less so. What explains this?

Group polarization - tendency for group ideas to shift more to an extreme than individual ideas of members within the group. Some factors: -All views do not have equal influence - viewpoint shared by majority -Arguments made tend to favour popular view, criticism is directed to minority view (confirmation bias)

Group interactions can shape an outcome. What is group polarization?

Group polarization is a phenomenon in which group decision making amplifies original opinions of group members. Group ideas have a tendency to polarize towards an extreme, more so than individual ideas or inclinations of members within a group. Some factors: -All views do not have equal influence - viewpoint shared by majority -Arguments made tend to favour popular view, criticism is directed to minority view (confirmation bias)

Group interactions can shape an outcome. What is groupthink?

Groupthink is the social phenomenon where the desire for harmony and minimizing conflict results in a group of people potentially coming to a poor decision. The desire to eliminate conflict drives consensus decisions without presenting of alternative views/ideas, and the desire to agree causes a loss of independent critical thinking. Many factors influence groupthink, including: illusion of invulnerability, collective rationalization, illusion of morality, pressure of conformity, self censorship, illusion of unanimity, mindguards

Habituation and sensitization (dehabituation) are forms of non-associative learning - what do these two entail in terms of response to a stimulus?

Habituation - reduced response to continuous stimuli Sensitization - increased response to continuous stimuli

Jimmy is a wealthy land owner and has many slaves. How might Jimmy use the Just World Hypothesis to justify his position (Social Class)?

He might say that the slaves got what they deserved and he did too, which is why he is wealthy.

Describe how healthcare and medicine function as a social institution

Healthcare and medicine aim at maintaining/improving health status of the individual, family, community and society. Key goals include: increased access to health care, reduced costs, increased education, disease prevention, primary-care physician association for patients, life course approach to health (history of patients health), and decreased paternalism (doctor knows best attitude) Sociologists investigate medical ethics - key tenets are *beneficence* (responsibility of physician to act in patients best interest), *nonmaleficence* (avoid potential harm of patients), *respect patient autonomy* (respecting patients healthcare decisions unless psychiatric illnesses involved) and *justice* (treat similar patients with similar care + distribute resources fairly).

Kohlberg's moral reasoning theory of personality development focuses on development of moral thinking, and states as out cognitive abilities grow, we are able to think about the world in more complex ways. It describes 3 stages and 6 phases - what are they?

I. Preconventional morality - consists of stage 1 (obedience) and stage 2 (self-interest) II. Conventional morality - consists of stage 3 (conformity) and stage 4 (law and order) III. Postconventional morality - consists of stage 5 (social contract) and stage 6 (universal human ethics)

Differentiate between manifest and latent functions

If an action is intended to help some part of a system, it is a *manifest function*. Unintended positive consequences of manifest functions are *latent functions*. E.g. manifest functions of annual doctor meetings is to educate a group of physicians sharing research findings and setting goals. Latent function would be stronger interpersonal relations between those physicians and sense of group identity.

Give an example of how Culture might shape Evolution?

If we all start doing desk jobs, different phsyical characteristics and strengths such as a strong back might be favored and become more prevalent over time through natural selection.

You go to Japan and a man bows to you. How might you view this gesture if you have a mindset based in Cultural Relativism? Ethnocentrism?

If you have a mindset based in Cultural Relativism, you might think, "How nice. What a great way to show respect. I might not do that, but I can at least appreciate it." You are seeing Japanese culture from the Japanese perspective. If you have a mindset based in Ethnocentrism, however, you might think, "How strange. What a weird place this is." You are seeing Japanese culture from your own perspective/lens, which you see as superior.

Define imitation

Imitation is a type of individual social influence - most basic form of social behaviour, when we copy someone else, and it comes from the understanding that there is a difference between ourselves and others.

Compare the two types of Unintentional Discrimination: Side-effect Discrimination and Past-in-present Discrimination. Give an example of each.

In Side-effect Discrimination, discrimination in one setting leads to Unintentional Discrimination in another setting. For instance, a couple is discriminated against and unable to move into an apartment in a nice neighborhood and end up living in a poorer neighborhood, where they are unintentionally discriminated against by the government in that they received worse educations for their children in that area. In Past-in-present discrimination, discrimination in the past leads to Unintentional Discrimination in the present. For instance, an all-black hospital becomes a all-races hospital, yet the doctors continue to unintentionally treat the blacks differently than the whites who go there.

Come up with your own example of Negative Punishment.

In order to have encourage Sarah to do her homework right after school, she is not allowed to go play with her friends until her HW is complete.

Describe prejudice in terms of race and ethnicity, as well as power, social class and prestige.

In terms of race and ethnicity, prejudice can form from dissimilarities amongst in-groups and out-groups of different racial or ethnic backgrounds due to stereotypical factors. In terms of power, groups with larger numbers or majorities have more political power to sway votes their way and keep candidates they like in office to protect their interests. This in turn influences economic and personal factors. In terms of social class, the ideal of the *just world hypothesis* (good things happen to good people, bad things to bad people) comes into play, where people often justify social class inequality by such. In terms of prestige - high prestige jobs like doctors and lawyers are more likely to go to majority group members, while low wage and prestige jobs are more likely to go to minority groups.

What are criticisms of the world systems theory of globalization?

It is looked at as a fluid model but criticized for being overly focused on economy and forgetting about culture and class struggles.

Your Mom starts to call you every so often. After she talks to you, she will send you a $5 Amazon gift card immediately via email, which makes you happy. After a while you start feeling happy as soon as your mom calls. What is the Neutral Stimulus, Conditioned Stimulus, Unconditioned Stimulus, Conditioned Response and Unconditioned Response in this example?

In this example, your mom's phone call is the Neutral Stimulus. The Amazon gift card is the Unconditioned Stimulus, which elicits the Unconditioned Response of you feeling happy. Once you begin to associate gift cards with your mom calling, your mom calling becomes the Conditioned Stimulus, which elicits a Conditioned Response of you feeling happy. What a tricky mother you have!

You are trying to solve a difficult physics practice question. How might insight learning help you in this instance.

Insight learning is immediate, clear learning or understanding that takes place without overt trial-and-error testing - an insight! Maybe you will go take a shower, and then randomly the solution will come to you as an insight.

How does Internal Migration differ from your typical Migration?

Internal Migration is when you move somewhere new within the same country or region.

What information does a Life Table tell you?

Ironically, a Life Table will tell you the chances of dying at a certain age.

What is going to happen to the Baby Boomers as a percent of the population by the year 2025?

It is going to double! We will have many old people to help take care of. The number of people over the age of 64 is rapidly growing as the Baby Boomers population is growing older.

Jack says that he is a Christian, but he doesn't go to church very often and doesn't really follow the teachings of his religion. He thinks of himself as spiritual, however, as he engages in meditation, yoga, and even tai chi. How would you describe the Religiosity of Jack?

Jack has a low amount of Religiosity because religion plays a small role in his life and he is not very engaged with his religion. His spirituality is unrelated to his engagement with religion.

Jessica believes that she is good at playing basketball, but deep down she feels a sense of guilt about who she is. She doesn't like herself. How does Jessica's situation relate to Self-esteem and Self-efficacy?

Jessica has high self efficacy but low self esteem.

Jim sees an image of his friend morphed with his own image. Will Jim like this picture more or less than a normal picture of his friend? Why?

Jim will like the morphed picture more because we tend to like/be attracted to things that are like/similar to ourselves.

How does the Just World Hypothesis relate to Attribution Theory?

Just World Hypothesis would lead people to make internal attributions when evaluating situations.

Describe the Bobo Doll Experiment. What was the major conclusion of this experiment?

Kids observed a man beating up a Bobo Doll. After the children were tasked with putting together a frustrating puzzle, they were given the opportunity to play with a room full of toys. Several children copied the man's actions and proceeded to beat up the Bobo Doll. The conclusion was that children can learn through observation.

Describe the role of Kin Selection in Altruism.

Kin Selection would indicate that we tend to favor and act more altruistically toward those we are related to.

What might be a Latent Function of Apple as a company? What about a Manifest Function?

Latent Functions may include providing employees with a sense of purpose, health insurance, or even friendships with others. These are the purposes of a company that are hidden under the service and not directly related to their core purpose. Manifest Functions may include making profit, innovation, and contributing to the technology of the world. These are the obvious and stated purposes of a Social Institution.

In terms of Freud's theory of Psychosexual Development, define the following terms: -Libido -Adult Fixation

Libido refers to a natural energy source that fuels the minds' processes. Fixation is when this libido is stuck on one specific focus, instead of successfully advancing through the stages. Vices in the adult life could theoretically be traced to this fixation.

First Impressions are "Long, Strong, and Easy to Build Upon." What do each of these mean?

Long - First impressions last a long time. Strong - First Impressions are hard to change or erase. Easy to Build Upon - People tend to look for info that supports their first impression.

Differentiate between macrosociology and microsociology

Macrosociology is a large scale perspective, looking at big phenomenon that affect large chunks of people, such as societies, civilizations etc. - analyzing large collective for broad social trends Microsociology - focuses on small group interactions and individuals

As humans, males and females tend to be attracted to each other's Sexual Dimorphism. What does this mean?

Males tend to be attracted to feminine females and females tend to be attracted to masculine males.

Give a few examples of Mass Media?

Mass Media includes things such as books, newspapers, the internet, television, movies, music, and magazines.

Match each of the following to either (A) Collective Behavior or (B) Group Behavior: (1) Long-term (2) Short-term (3) Open-access (4) Exclusive (membership requirements) (5) Strongly Defined Norms (6) Loose Norms

Match each of the following to either (A) Collective Behavior or (B) Group Behavior: (1) Long-term -> B (2) Short-term -> A (3) Open-access -> A (4) Exclusive (membership requirements) -> B (5) Strongly Defined Norms -> B (6) Loose Norms -> A

How can McDonalds be considered a part of American Culture?

McDonalds comes with its own objects and beliefs, which contribute to the overall culture of our society. For instance, McDonalds is all about convenience, which has become a value in our society. Culture consists of the beliefs, behaviors, objects, and other characteristics common to the members of a particular group or society.

How might Media, Society, Family, and Oneself respectively influence the spreading of a Stigma that women who are overweight are unintelligent?

Media is a major source of stigma - may portray women that are overweight as being brainless in various situations. Society may believe this and avoid giving intellectual jobs to women that are overweight. One's Family may tell a girl that she needs to lose weight or study harder. Oneself may believe the Stigma placed upon them, resulting in a Self-fulfilling Prophecy.

What causes the decrease in the Mortality Rate? What causes the decrease in the Birth Rate?

Mortality Rate decreases due to higher availability of food and decrease in disease due to better hygiene and healthcare possibilities. Birth Rate decreases due to expanding ability for birth control/contraceptives and due to a higher percentage of women in the workforce.

Sexual and gender minorities are represented under the grouping of the *LGBT community* - what are some health disparities recognized in the LGBT communities?

Most significant LGBT health disparity is seen with HIV/AIDs - disproportionately higher for gay men in urban areas. Lesbians in the healthcare community receive less screening for cervical cancers and may not be screened for other STDs Transgender people have multiple areas of increased risk, including use of "street hormones" without proper guidance and counselling.

Compare Oedipus Syndrome and Electra Syndrome

Oedipus Syndrome occurs when a young boy is sexually attracted to his mom. Electra Syndrome occurs when a young girl is sexually attracted to her dad.

Whereas classical conditioning is concerned with instincts and biological responses, what is *operant conditioning*?

Operant conditioning links voluntary behaviour with consequences in an effort to alter the frequency of those behaviours. Op-conditioning is associated with BF Skinner, the father of *behaviourism* (theory believing all behaviours are conditioned).

Freddy, as we know, belongs to the town rotary club. It is a very democratic organization and decisions are made jointly between all members. According to the Iron Law of Oligarchy, what will inevitably happen to this structure over time?

Over time, the current members will develop close relationships with one another. These members due to their relationships and previous knowledge and history with the rotary club will have an advantage over new members; thus their voices may begin to matter more. The members that continue with the club may formally claim a higher status than newer members, making it so their power is more permanent in nature. Those with close ties to this inner circle will likely maintain power over time, making this organization more of an oligarchy than a democracy as it once was. This is what happens according to the Iron Rule of Oligarchy, which says that all organizations, despite their origins will eventually become Oligarchies.

True or false: people with social support tend to live longer and have less issues with mental health problems

True

Patients in the past were expected to play the *sick role* whereas now things have changed a little - elaborate?

Patients used to be expected to play the *sick role* which entails they are not responsible for the illness and exempt from normal societal roles. NOW - patients are expected to be more responsible via diet, exercise, seeking help early on etc. to avoid health problems better.

Describe the Solomon Asch Conformity Study.

People are asked to identify which line (A, B, or C) is equal to the line of interest. Only one person is actually a participant, and they are found to go along with the group even when they knew the group was wrong. The participant went along with the group at least once 75 percent of the time. The participant went along with the group every time 37 percent of the time. When alone however, the participant made errors less than 1 percent of the time!

Why did Urbanization start during the Industrial Revolution?

People were losing their jobs on the farms to machines. They had to flock to cities where they could get a job at a factory. Also, new technology such as sewer, water, and transportation systems made larger urban centers possible.

Mary is nervous about marrying a really strong guy with a wide face. How might you counsel her in this decision? Is her thinking reasonable?

People with higher testosterone levels tend to have wider faces and stronger muscular features. Higher testosterone is also associated with higher levels of aggression. Maybe you could tell her that there may be an association, but that doesn't necessarily mean causation. You might tell her that it is good for her to be cautious, but she might need to be a little more open minded.

How might Expectation Theory apply to a child that failed his most recent math test?

Perhaps this child failed the math test because his teacher did not believe he would succeed on this test; thus, the child was simply living up to the teacher's expectations. Another possibility is that the child's previous teacher did not push the children very hard and gave them easy A's, resulting in their unpreparedness for this next grade level.

What equation can be used to determine the Population Growth Rate?

Population Growth Rate = (Birth Rate + Immigration Rate) - (Mortality Rate + Emmigration Rate)

What is the main factor that causes a society to change from one in which individuals are independent and self-sufficient to one in which individuals work together and divide labor?

Population growth within a small space leads to issues that must be reconciled by working together.

Mitch agrees to smoke a cigarette when offered it by his friend. He doesn't like the taste of it, and never wants to do it again. His Mom saw him do it and punishes him severely for it. Mitch starts to see himself as a smoker and decides to continue smoking with his friend. How do the terms Primary and Secondary Deviance apply to Mitch's situation?

Primary Deviance is the intial act of deviance and is exemplified by Mitch smoking his first cigarette. Secondary Deviance occurs as Mitch incorporates the smoker identity as his own and continues acts of deviance in the long term.

Jimmy agrees to eat 10 hot chili peppers with his friends. How would Private Conformity play out in this situation? What about Public Conformity?

Private Conformity would entail Jimmy agreeing inwardly and outwardly that eating 10 hot chili peppers is a good idea. Public Conformity would entail Jimmy eating the 10 hot chili peppers and agreeing that it is a good idea outwardly while feeling it is a bad idea inwardly. A private conformity will actually change your internal beliefs, whereas public would only make you put on a public persona.

Consequences in operant conditioning have reinforcements and punishments. Describe reinforcement and differentiate between positive and negative reinforcements.

Reinforcement is the process of increasing the likelihood of a certain behaviour. *positive reinforcers* increase behaviour by providing a _positive consequence/incentive_ following desired behaviour (e.g. money) *negative reinforcers* increase frequency of a desired behaviour but _by removing something unpleasant_ (e.g. increased likelihood of taking aspirin next time you have a headache).

Consequences in operant conditioning have reinforcements and punishments. Describe punishment and differentiate between positive and negative punishments.

Punishment uses conditioning to reduce occurrence of a behaviour. *Positive punishment* adds an unpleasant consequence in response to an undesired behaviour (e.g. chop off hands for stealing in Saudi Arabia) *Negative punishment* reduces frequency of a behaviour when a stimulus is removed (e.g. parent punishes kid for bad behaviour by banning TV)

Compare Race and Ethnicity.

Race is a physical characteristic that has been deemed to put you in one group versus another. It can be seen as socially-constructed. Examples include Black, White, Hispanic, etc. Ethnicity is the cultural group that you belong to. It may also relate to your country of origin. Examples include Jewish, Japanese-American, Irish, etc.

Describe how religion functions as a social institution

Religion is considered to be a pattern of social activities based on a set of beliefs and practices. *Religiosity* refers to how religious one considers him or herself to be: strength of beliefs, engagement in practices, attitudes about religion itself.

Samantha's parents don't let her do things on her own, leading her to lose trust in her own abilities. How old is Samantha? (A) 8 months (B) 2 years (C) 7 years (D) 13 years

Samantha is struggling with Autonomy vs. Doubt, which occurs between the ages of 1 and 2.

Sarah struggles with an eating disorder and body dysmorphia, meaning that she sees herself as being much fatter than she actually is. Because she is not as thin as the pictures she sees in magazines, she tends to feel bad about who she is. Describe how Carl Roger's Self-esteem, Self-image, and Ideal Self relate to this example.

Sarah feels a low Self-esteem as she views herself poorly. Her Self-image is skewed from reality as she sees herself as fatter than she really is. Her ideal self is likely based on the images she sees in the magazine. It is who she wants to be/thinks she should be.

Differentiate between self-esteem and self-efficacy.

Self-esteem refers to our self worth and the respect we have for ourself. Self efficacy is the belief in our ability to succeed in a certain situation.

Carl Rogers had a humanistic approach to studying the self and stated the self-concept had three components: describe self-image, self esteem and the ideal self

Self-image - the view we have of ourselves Self-esteem - (self worth) - how much value we place on ourselves Ideal self - what we wish or aspire to be

Compare the Self-serving Bias, Fundamental Attribution Error, and Actor-observer Bias.

Self-serving Bias - where you attribute your success to yourself but your failures to the external environment. (always serving your self basically). It is a mechanism to protect your own self-esteem. *Self enhancement* is the need to maintain self-worth, which can be accomplished through the self serving bias. Fundamental attribution error - tendency to attribute people's negative behavior to them personally rather than considering other circumstances/environment. Actor-observer Bias - tendency to attribute your faults to outside factors but other's faults to their personality/personally.

Describe self-serving bias

Self-serving bias is the notion that we ourselves couldn't commit atrocious acts or crimes applying to certain situations, such as the Milgram experiment or the holocaust.

Describe how Sensitization and Habituation may relate to trying to sleep in a new noisy neighborhood.

Sensitization (or dehabituation) would entail you having a harder and harder time trying to sleep because the noises start bothering you more and more. Habituation would entail you having and easier and easier time trying to sleep because the noises begin to blend into the background and affect you less and less over time.

What is the difference between Sex, Gender, and Sexual Orientation?

Sex refers to biological sex Gender is a social construct corresponding to behavioural, cultural or psychological traits usually associated with sex - how you identify and express yourself Sexual orientation - sexual preferences and desires

Suppose you want to teach a kid to do a handstand. Describe shaping and how it could be useful in doing so.

Shaping is successively, gradually reinforcing behaviours that approximate (/come close to) the target behaviour. The target behaviour = headstand. You would reinforce the steps, so first you'd reinforce showing up to the class. Then, you'd reinforce the position with hands on the mat, and stop reinforcing the previous behaviour. Then, you'd reinforce the position with forearms on the mat, and stop reinforcing the hands on mat step. Finally, you'd reinforce lifting up the legs until the target behaviour is performed.

Jenny ends up deciding on a flavor of ice cream. Do you expert her to feel more or less satisfied about her choice than someone choosing from 5 flavors of ice cream?

She would be expected to feel less satisfied. Those who experience Tyranny of Choice are expected to feel less satisfied about their final choice.

Shi'as and Sunnis are examples of __________ of Islam, which are denominations within a religion that share some beliefs but not others.

Shi'as and Sunnis are examples of *sects* of Islam, which are denominations within a religion that share some beliefs but not others.

How do Social Institutions relate to Society? Describe how the following Institutions' roles may have had an impact on your day yesterday. -Legal system -Education system -Healthcare system

Social Institutions are established sets of norms and subsystems that support a society by meeting its needs. If society was a bike, Social Institutions are like the tires, pedals, bike frame, etc. The Legal System may have protected your neighborhood from danger. The Education System may have allowed you to go to class. The Healthcare System may have supported you if you were sick.

Compare Social Stigma and Self Stigma.

Social Stigma - negative belief toward a group of people (i.e. "mentally ill are dangerous"). Self Stigma - when one internalizes the Stigma that has been placed upon them (i.e. "maybe I really am dangerous and need to be locked away").

Describe social constructionism and examples of social constructs

Social constructionism - focuses on how people form and put together social constructs and realities - constructs arise from communication and agreement on significance of certain concepts - can be intangible (honor, justice) or even physical objects (money - paper and coinage money have value because we give it value). Examples include money, nations, even gender

Describe how religion might be viewed as a Social Fact.

Social facts originate in an institution or culture and have an influence on individuals. We only notice it is there when we push against it, and it remains there despite people being born and dying. In this context, religion is clearly a social fact because of how it affects behaviors and attitudes of individuals.

Define socialization

Socialization is a lifelong process by which we learn social expectations and how to interact with others. This can include developing, inheriting and spreading norms, customs and beliefs. Individuals gain knowledge, skills, behaviours and habits necessary for inclusion in society.

What does Socialization mean? Describe how attending school might affect the Socialization of a child.

Socialization is the process by which we as individuals acquire a personal identity and learn the norms, values, behavior and social skills appropriate in a certain society. At school, the child will learn from their teachers and peers that it isn't okay to make weird noises with your tongue. They may learn from their teacher that it is isn't okay to speak with someone else is talking. They will also learn what is valued in society by what is seen as "cool" by their peers at school. For this reason, school is an example of an Agent of Socialization as it helps socialize individuals.

How does Culture relate to Society?

Society is the structure. It is a group of people that share a culture. It is like a canvas. Culture consists of what the people of a society value, their believes, objects, and behaviors. It is like the paint on a canvas. Each society is unique in that it has a different culture just as each canvas is unique in that it has a different painting on it.

What are ways religious groups might deal with the struggle to find a place in contemporary society as times change and modernize?

Some religious groups may shift towards modernization within the religion and relax historical practices Some may shift away from religion as society *secularizes* and become more dominant in scientific thinking Some may shift more towards *fundamentalism*, strict adherence to religious code predominating (e.g. Zia's Pakistan)

Describe the *self-fulfilling prophecy* in terms of stereotypes

Stereotypes can lead to certain expectations of particular people/groups, which can create conditions leading to conformation of those expectations. This process is known as the *self-fulfilling prophecy*, which essentially states that an initial cognitive stereotype becomes only more true as it is acted upon.

Describe symbolic interactionism and how it explains society

Symbolic interactionism looks at a small scale of society and explains it through individuals and their interactions + signing of meanings to decide how to act - through these it can explain social order and change. George Herbert Mead compiled the theory - believed development of individual was a social process and people change through interactions. Herbert Blumer added to it and coined the term symbolic interactionism - 3 tenets: (1) we act on the meaning we give something; (2) we give meaning to things based on social interactions; (3) meaning we give something is not permanent

True or false: in rural areas, larger families were more ideal for labour purposes, while in urban smaller families were more ideal for consumption purposes

TRUE

True or false; diffusion is the spread of cultural norms, ideas, structures etc. across the globe

TRUE; diffusion is the spread of cultural norms, ideas, structures etc. across the globe Both things like capitalism and Mcdonalds are examples of diffusion!

Differentiate between Taxis and Kinesis

Taxis is innate purposeful movement in response to stimuli. E.g. bugs moving towards a spotlight in a dark room Kinesis is innate random movement in response to stimuli. E.g. rats scurrying around and away in response to spotlight in a dark room.

How do socioeconomic factors in society influence the education system?

Teachers put students into categories based on perceived intrinsic abilities, as well as other things like gender, race, ethnicity, residential segregation etc. creating inequalities between school districts. Schools in lower-income districts will receive less funding than schools in more affluent areas, creating a social inequality from the get-go.

Some theorists are skeptical of the Authoritarian Personality connection with Prejudice. The Frustration-aggression Hypothesis is an alternative theory for what leads people to exhibit Prejudice. How does this theory explain why one person might be more prejudice than another?

The *Frustration-aggression Hypothesis of prejudice* suggests that as someone becomes frustrated they become more aggressive, which in turn will lead them to take out their aggression on easy prey like minority groups, who they may use as Scapegoats and easy targets.

Kohlberg organized moral reasoning based on participants' responses to hypothetical moral dilemmas into 6 stages ranging from concrete to the abstract. Describe the preconventional phase in terms of the [[Heinz dilemma (stealing an expensive drug to save his wife)]]

The *Preconventional morality* phase is typical of preadolescent thinking and emphasizes consequences of moral choices. Consists of the first two stages. Stage 1 (*obedience*) is concerned with avoiding punishment (/steal the drug, go to jail/)' Stage 2 (*self-interest*) is focused on gaining rewards (/i need to save my wife/), and is often called the *instrumental relativist stage*

The *self-discrepancy theory* consists of the actual self, ideal self and ought self - describe these and how they relate to self esteem

The *actual self* is the way we see ourselves; our self-concept. The *ideal self* is who we want to be The *ought self* is our representation of the way others think we should be. The closer these three selves are to one another, the higher our self-esteem.

Explain how each of these biological components influence aggression: the amygdala, the prefrontal cortex, and hormones

The *amygdala* is responsible for associating stimuli with corresponding rewards/punishments. In essence it tells us whether or not something is a threat. An activated amygdala increases aggression. Higher order brain structures like the *prefrontal cortex of the frontal lobe* can place brakes on activated amygdala - reducing emotional reactivity and impulsiveness - controls the aggression. Reduced activity of the prefrontal cortex and frontal lobe linked to increased aggressive behaviour. Hormonal control influences aggression too - *high levels of test = more aggressiveness*. Explains why men might be more aggressive than women in general.

According to Freud, what characterizes the anal stage of his theory?

The *anal stage* (1-3yo) - libido is centered on the anus and gratification is gained through elimination and retention of waste. This is the stage where toilet training occurs. Fixation as this stage would lead to either excessive orderliness (anal-retentiveness; "being anal" about order) or sloppiness in the adult.

According to Freud, what characterizes the genital stage of his theory?

The *genital stage* is characterized by libidinal energy again focused on the genitilia - lasts from puberty through adulthood. According to Freud, if prior development proceeds correctly, the person should have healthy heterosexual relations. However, unresolved earlier stage and fixation in developments can result in homosexuality, asexuality and fetishism.

Describe the following theories of social movements: - Mass society theory - Relative deprivation theory - Resource Mobilization theory

The *mass society theory* of social movement - skepticism of social movements and their motive resulted in a dark view of social movements, useful only to those who needed refuge and didn't feel belonging in society. Was strong during times of fascism, nazism, Stalinism. The *relative deprivation theory* focused on social movements motivated by those who felt oppressed and deprived of rights (e.g. civil rights movement). The *resource mobilization theory* focuses on factors that help or hinder a social movement, such as gathering group members and resources, money and materials, access to media, political influence etc. A charismatic figure is almost necessary for a social movement (e.g. Martin Luther King in civil rights movement).

According to Freud, what characterizes the oral stage of his theory?

The *oral stage* (0-1yo) is the stage where gratification is obtained by putting things in mouth - biting, sucking reflexes; libidinal energy is focused on the mouth. An orally fixated adult would likely exhibit excessive dependency or aggression (e.g. people that might do nail biting, thumb sucking, cigarette smoking, over-eating)

*Social perception* (social cognition) provides tools to make judgements and impressions - describe the three components of social perception (perceiver, target, situation)

The *perceiver* is influenced by experiences, motives and emotional state. Past experiences affect attitudes which set expectations of future events and experiences. Motives influence what info is deemed important vs. negligible, and emotional state flavours interpretation of the event. The *target* refers to the person about which perception is being made. The *situation* is the given social context which is very important in providing information and developing perception of the perceiver.

According to Freud, what characterizes the phallic/oedipal stage of his theory?

The *phallic (Oedipal) stage* (3-5yo) centers on the resolution of the *Oedipus complex* (male children) or the *Electra conflict* (females). Libidinal energy is focused on the genitals, and in Freud's view, the male child envies his father for intimate relationship with the mother. The child develops guilty feelings of wanting to eliminate the father and a supposed fear of castration, and deals with these by identifying with his father, establishing sexual identity and internalizing moral values. Results in *sublimating* of libidinal energy, which leads to the latency stage. For females, there is no fear of castration but a supposed *penis envy*

One model of social perception focuses on selection of cues to form interpretations that are consistent over time. Describe the primacy and recency effects of *impression bias*.

The *primacy effect* of impression bias refers to how first impressions are more powerful than subsequent impressions. The *recency effect* suggests the most recent information about something/someone is the most important in forming our impressions.

Differentiate between a role, role performance and role set in terms of a doctor.

The *role* of the doctor is to help sick people. The *role performance* is the carrying out of the behaviours associated with that role. The various roles associated with the status of being the doctor is referred to as the *role set*

Why is Cognitive Theory seen as a bridge between Behaviorism and Psychoanalysis?

The *social cognitive* perspective focuses not only on how the environment influences behaviour, but also how we interact with the environment.

Contrast The Behavioral Theory and the Psychoanalytic Theory.

The Behavioral Theory says that we are influenced by our environment and is focused on observable behavior. Psychoanalytic Theory, on the other hand, is focused on internal desires and mental states.

Why might you hypothesize as to why criminals and drug addicts tend to have smaller Frontal Lobes?

The Frontal Lobe is responsible for impulse control, and reduced activity may lead to these individuals being less able to control their aggressive impulses and/or drug addictions.

Compare the Halo Effect and the Devil Effect.

The Halo Effect occurs when you have an overall good impression of someone and it skews your evaluation of them toward the positive end of the spectrum. The Devil Effect occurs when you have an overall bad impression of someone and it skews your evaluation of them toward the negative end of the spectrum.

A teacher gives the class the following practice problem, "Jim takes three apples from Mary, which makes her angry, so she throws 2 apples at Jim's face. This makes Jim very sad. Eventually they apologize to each other and each eat one of Mary's apples together. If Mary originally had 13 apples, how many apples does she have now?" How does this relate to the idea of the Hidden Curriculum of Education?

The Hidden Curriculum of Education is the idea that the Education System is more than about just learning information. It is there to Socialize us and teach us things about the world such as manners, morals, and how to make friends. This practice problem doesn't just teach math but it has a hidden curriculum of teaching kids about being kind and forgiving. By the way, Mary now has 6 apples left

What is the Just World Phenomenon?

The Just World phenomenon is the idea that the universe is fair and people must get what they deserve. "Good things happen to good people, while bad things happen to bad people". In terms of Milgram's experiment, some of the participants who felt ashamed for what they did still justified their actions somewhat by sort of blaming the victims, stating if they got more answers correct and were smarter, they wouldn't have gotten shocked as much.

Stanley Milgram was inspired by his background (Jewish parents who immigrated to the US) and by the Holocaust to conduct his experiment regarding obedience. Describe his experiment.

The Milgram experiment was conducted to observe the obedience of participants who were asked to give an individual for answering questions wrong. Individuals did as they were told and administered high level shocks in order to obey the authority, despite having to give up to 'lethal' shocks. It found that stark authority usually overuled peoples morals and people would go to any extent under authority.

The Fertility Rate is 2.9. Will the population of this community increase, decrease, or stay relatively the same?

The Population will increase as the Fertility rate is above 2. At exactly 2, the current population will almost exactly be replacing itself. The value of 2 would mean the two children born to the average woman would replace the two biological parents.

How might Cultural Universals relate to the Theory of Evolution?

The Theory of Evolutions states that physical traits that are selected for/are favorable to a species will become more common/prominent over time. It is the same with culture. Aspects of culture that are favored in a society will become more prevalent over time. Perhaps these Cultural Universals were selected for over time.

As stated before, Sam works at the only lemonade stand in the town. After talking to his buddy from a neighboring town, he realizes that he and his fellow citizens are being ripped off, so he incites his fellow citizens to demand change. What is the Thesis in Sam's town? What about the Antithesis? Why might be the Synthesis?

The Thesis is the idea that the lemonade stand owner (the Bourgeoisie) is in charge and can set whatever wages he wants for his workers. The Antithesis is the idea that the lemonade stand workers (the Proletariat workers) have to overthrow the lemonade stand owner. Because the Thesis and the Antithesis cannot coexist, they will eventually result in a Synthesis. Perhaps in this case, the lemonade stand workers form a union, which results in a legal right to higher wages.

How does the *Yerkes-Dodson law of social facilitation* describe the phenomenon?

The Yerkes-Dodson law of social facilitation states that in the presence of others, arousal is raised significantly in a setting of perceived evaluation, which enhances the ability to perform simple tasks and hinders that to perform complex tasks.

What is the bystander effect?

The bystander effect refers to the inverse relationship between number of people in a group and the inclination for any individual to act during an event which requires action. The more sizeable the group is, the less inclined anyone feels to take action.

Immigrant population in the US is rapidly increasing. What are some barriers that can affect interactions with social structures and institutions?

The complex organization of the US healthcare system and language barriers can both serve as barriers to maximum access to healthcare and making healthcare decisions.

The bystander effect is explained by the Diffusion of Responsibility theory - describe this

The diffusion of responsibility theory - when individuals are in the presence of others, they feel less personal responsibility and are less likely to take action when in a situation where help is needed.

Describe how the education system functions as a social institution

The education system aims to arm the populaton with information, not only learning and cognitive skills but also the *hidden curriculum* of transmitting social norms, ethics, attitudes, beliefs to students. *Teacher expectancy* refers to the idea that teachers expect certain things from different students (e.g. males vs females), and that they tend to get what the expect from the students. They put students into categories based on perceived intrinsic abilities, as well as other things like gender, race, ethnicity, etc. creating inequalities between school districts.

The self-concept has two aspects: the existential and categorical selfs. Describe the two

The existential self - most basic part of self-concept - a sense of being unique, separate and distinct entities from others + understanding and awareness that the self is constant - I recognize I exist, as a being separate from all other beings. The categorical self - recognition that we have properties similar to other entities/people - categorizing by age, gender, skills, size. Unlike the existential self, the categorical self can change - Categorizing yourself, e.g. I am Pakistani, male, Shi'ite, looksmaxed

The 1947 study by Kenneth and Mamie Clark explore ethnic self-concepts among white and black children with dolls - describe the experiment and its findings

The experiment showed these children a black doll and a white doll and asked how the child preferred. Most of both white and black kids preferred the white doll, which highlighted the negative effects of racism and minority group status. However, subsequent research showed that black children hold a more positive view of their own ethnicity, which may represent societal changes at large.

How would the feminist perspective describe portrayal of information through mass media?

The feminist perspective would describe the mass media as reinforces dominant ideology on the basis of gender stereotypes and discrimination such as subordination of women, gender segregation in ads (pens, pens for her).

Give an example of a Fixed Action Pattern, Migration, and Circadian Rhythm as it might apply to a fish.

The fish may swim in circles when it is trying to attract a mate. This would be an example of a Fixed Action Pattern. The fish may swim upstream to lay its eggs at a certain time of the year. This would be an example of migration. The fish may consistently sleep at night as opposed to the daytime, which would be an example of Circadian Rhythm.

The Functionalist Perspective thinks of Mass Media as an enforcer of Social Norms. How might this be so?

The functionalist perspective looks at mass media as an agent of socialization through the enforcement of norms. It also functions to bring people together (e.g. reddit, LGBT groups). Mass Media will also glorify "good" behavior such as winning sport's competitions.

What is the halo effect?

The halo effect is a cognitive bias where judgements about a specific aspect of a person can be influenced by overall impression of the individual - tendency for general impression to influence other, specific evaluations. The halo effect explains why people are often inaccurate when evaluating people they like or dislike a lot. Physical attractiveness is strongly linked to the halo effect.

A man is playing a violent video game when a researcher uses a probe to activate the man's Amygdala. How will this influence the man's violent behavior?

The man is likely to become more violent as Amygdala activation is associated with anger/aggression.

Describe the Modernization theory of globalization

The modernization theory states that countries follow the same/similar path of going from a traditional country to a modernized one, and looks at internal social dynamics as countries adapt to tech changes and advancements, and the political + social changes that occur.

What are *self-disclosure* and *reciprocal liking* and how are they components of attraction?

The opportunity of *self-disclosure*, sharing one's fears, thoughts, and goals with another person and being met in a non-judgemental empathy, deepens attraction and friendships or relationships. These must be met with reciprocal behaviour, however. Reciprocity influences aspects of attraction - *reciprocal liking* is the phenomenon whereby people like others better when they believe the other person likes them.

What is the purpose of the Dependency Ratio?

The purpose of the *Dependency Ratio* is to allow you to determine what percent of the population is dependent upon those who can work. The higher the ratio, the more dependent people there are on the workforce. Dependency Ratio = (population that is <14 and <65+)/(population that is 15 - 64 years) If the Dependency Ratio was 2 that would mean that every working person will need to support two dependent/non-working individuals.

Kohlberg organized moral reasoning based on participants' responses to hypothetical moral dilemmas into 6 stages ranging from concrete to the abstract. Describe the conventional phase in terms of the [[Heinz dilemma (stealing an expensive drug to save his wife)]]

The second phase is *conventional morality* and is based on understanding + accepting social rules - develops in early adolescence, when individuals begin to see themselves in terms of relationships to others. Stage 3 (*conformity*) emphasizes the orientation in which we seek approval from others (/should not steal because it's wrong/) Stage 4 (*law and order*) maintains the social order in the highest regard (/if everyone who can't afford stole, the products might not be able to be made by the businesses/)

When the mother is present, how will a securely attached child typically behave compared to an insecurely attached child?

The securely attached child will feel safe to explore, knowing it has a Secure Base. The insecurely attached child, on the other hand, will stay close to its mother.

True or false: stigmas can expand to affect others associated with particular individuals

True. e.g. family members of an alleged murdere or rapist

A child is unable to ride a bike alone but able to do so with the help of his father. His older brother, however, is well versed with how to ride a bike. What would Vygotsky's theory state about these two?

The skill of riding the bike is within the child's zone of proximal development, but not for the older brother, for whom the skill is fully developed.

How does the sociological use of the term Bureaucracy compare to our everyday use of the term?

The sociological use of the term Bureaucracy refers to the way an organization is organized (rules, structure, and ranking) whereas in our everyday life we only use the term to refer to overly rigid and structured organizations such as the DMV.

Stereotypes occur when attitudes and impressions are based on limited and superficial information about a person/group - content of stereotypes are attributes that people believe define a group. Describe the *stereotype content model*

The stereotype content model classifies stereotypes with respect to a hypothetical in-group using two dimensions: warmth and competence. Warm groups are those not in direct competition with the in-group; competent groups are those with high status within society.

Kohlberg organized moral reasoning based on participants' responses to hypothetical moral dilemmas into 6 stages ranging from concrete to the abstract. Describe the postconventional phase in terms of the [[Heinz dilemma (stealing an expensive drug to save his wife)]]

The third phase is the *postconventional morality* where reasoning is more abstract and by Kohlberg's explanation, not attainable by everyone. Phase is based on social rules that may conflict with laws. Stage 5 (*social contract*) views morals as conventions for the greater good of society, with reasoning focused on individual rights (/everyone has the right to live; businesses have the right to profit/) Stage 6 (*universal human ethics*) is the final stage which reasons that decisions should be made in consideration of abstract principles (/wrong to hold life for ransom/)

What does it mean to say the Population Growth Rate is 7?

There were 7 new individuals in that community per 1,000 people for that year.

What is the difference between Exurbs and Suburbs?

They are very similar except that Exurbs are farther away from the city as Suburbs and are often home to very rich individuals.

How might a feminist view the use of the term "policeman"?

They may see it as structural oppression, which puts women in a box that says they can't be a police officer.

In the second version of the experiment, the children were shown a man getting punished after he beat up the Bobo Doll. Some children still copied the man, but other children didn't. These children still learned the behavior, though, as evidenced by their ability to imitate the behavior after being bribed with candy. What did this reveal about the *Learning-performance Distinction*?

This experiment revealed that just because you learn something doesn't mean you are going to actually perform what you learned. This is the essence of the *Learning-performance Distinction*.

Explain why a one-year-old child really wants to touch the outlets in my house (no aversion), but he gets scared of a barking dog (aversion).

This is because my child is predisposed by evolution to know that barking dogs are dangerous whereas outlets have not been around long enough to result in any sort of evolutionary adaptation.

Jack sees a poor man on the street. He thinks to himself, "That poor fellow. He doesn't deserve this." Is this an example of the Just World Phenomenon?

This is not an example of the Just World Phenomenon. If it was, Jack would have said, "That fellow is getting what he deserves. He must be too lazy to get a job." Think of the "Just World Phenomenon" as a "Fair World", and it can be used to justify critical judgments.

Jack looks back on the Holocaust, and thinks to himself, "If I were in that situation, I may have done the same thing." Is this an example of the Self-serving Bias?

This is not an example of the Self-serving Bias. Jack would have said, "I would have never done something like that", asserting his actions or morals would be superior.

Is the saying, "what goes up must come down" a Brute Fact or an Institutional Fact?

This saying is an Institutional Fact because it is based upon other facts such as gravity, which is based on mass, which is based on atomic structure, and so on. A Brute Fact is a fact that cannot be explained by any other facts. It can stand on its own.

True or false: a big factor for participants in the Milgram experiment was the passing of responsibility of actions to others.

True. A big factor for participants in the Milgram experiment was the passing of responsibility of actions to others. Think of the term "I was just following orders"

True or false: aggression is influenced by biological components, social/psychological/situational factors, as well as exposure to violent behaviour.

True. Aggression is influenced by all three: (1) biological factors; (2) psychological and situational factors; (3) exposure to violent behaviour.

True or False? Babies develop a sense of their Existential Self within 12 to 21 days of birth.

True. Babies develop a sense of their Existential Self (idea that they are a separate, unique entity) within 12 to 21 days of birth. This is evidenced by studies on Imitation.

True or false: partial reinforcement schedules are generally more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement

True. Continuous reinforcement eventually becomes less reinforcing.

True or False? Gestalt Psychologists believe that you cannot understand human psychology by breaking it down into its parts. Rather it must be understood as a whole.

True. Gestalt Psychologists believe that you cannot understand human psychology by breaking it down into its parts. Rather it must be understood as a whole.

True or False? Globalization refers to the expansion of global interconnectedness.

True. Globalization refers to the expansion of global interconnectedness.

True or False? In the Asch experiment, when the participant was told to write their answers down, conformity of the participant decreased because they no longer had to state a dissonant answer out loud.

True. In the Asch experiment, when the participant was told to write their answers down, conformity of the participant decreased because they no longer had to state a dissonant answer out loud. When you know you are not being observed, your conformity will decrease.

True or False? Mead believed that very young children are not influenced by others.

True. Mead believed that very young children are not influenced by others. He believed that children see themselves as the center of their own world. Think of this as a parallel to Piaget's egocentrism stage.

True or false: self-efficacy can be depressed past the point of no recovery

True. Self-efficacy can be depressed to a point beyond recovery, leading to *learned helplessness*. This is a possible model for clinical depression.

True or False? An Antithesis may come from the Bourgeoisie.

True. The Antithesis can come from any source. What makes it an Antithesis is that it opposed the accepted status quo (the Thesis).

True or false: Mead believed that the understanding of the generalized other in the game stage lead to the formation/understanding of the concepts of The I and The Me

True. The concept of the generalized other leads to the concepts of The I and The Me, according to Mead. The Me represents out social self, how the generalized other sees us, learned through interactions with society; "society's view". The I is our response to the social self; "our own view". Mead would say who we are is a balance of the I and the Me. "I am a product of society's view of me, and my view of what society views me as"

True or false: innocent ethnic pride and violent supremacy groups are both examples of ethnocentrism.

True. They are just different ways ethnocentrism can manifest in.

True or false: At the same time, when we consider our own behaviour, we skew it in the other direction and are more likely to base them on external factors.

True: At the same time, when we consider our own behaviour, we skew it in the other direction and are more likely to base them on external factors. This is known as *Actor-observer bias*

True or false: Kohlberg's theory believes that each new level or stage replaces the thinking of the previous.

True: Kohlberg's theory believes that each new level or stage replaces the thinking of the previous.

True or false: Self-serving bias is more commonly seen in Individualistic N.American and European societies as opposed to Collectivist societies such as Asia

True: Self-serving bias is more commonly seen in Individualistic N.American and European societies as opposed to Collectivist societies such as Asia

True or false: culture is adaptable, builds on itself, and transmitted.

True: culture is adaptable, builds on itself, and transmitted. The beliefs held by an individual are typically based on learned behaviour, expectations and pressure from the group one is in.

True or false: one of our biases is when we judge the behaviour of others, where we are likely to attribute their behaviour more to internal factors of their character rather than external, situational factors.

True: one of our biases is when we judge the behaviour of others, where we are likely to attribute their behaviour more to internal factors of their character rather than external, situational factors. This is known as *Fundamental attribution error*

Baskin Robbins is known for having 31 flavors of ice cream. Jenny goes there for the first time and feels uncomfortable. How might Tyranny of Choice describe her feelings?

Tyranny of Choice is the idea that it is possible to have too many options/choices and that having too many can cause distress as is the case with Jenny. If her options were simply vanilla or chocolate, perhaps she'd feel less stressed by this choice.

You want to develop better eating habits, how can you use your newfound knowledge of Ego Depletion to help you develop a good diet plan?

Understand your limitations. Allow yourself to indulge in a healthy way. If you try to restrain yourself too much, you may end up overeating big time or giving up on your diet altogether. Self control needs to be developed slowly over time like a muscle.

Which reinforcement schedule is the best at causing the repetition of behavior?

Variable-ratio is best at causing repetition of behavior, which is why gambling is so addictive.

Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of development studied the role that social interaction plays in the development of cognition. Describe his concept of *zone of proximal development*

Vygotsky's theory stated the engine driving cognition was the child's internalization of various aspects of culture: rules, symbols, language etc. using four elementary mental functions: attention, sensation, perception and memory. The *zone of proximal development* concept refers to those skills and abilities that are in the process of but not yet fully developed. Gaining these skills requires help of a "more knowledgeable other"

Differentiate between weak and strong social constructionism and what they say about brute/institutional facts.

Weak social constructionism - social constructs are dependent on brute facts (basic and fundamental - don't rely on other facts) and institutional facts (which are created by social conventions and do rely on other facts). Strong social constructionism - whole of reality is based on language and social habits - all knowledge is a social construct and there are no brute facts. Everything is socially constructed.

What is the problem with Urban Renewal though?

When urban areas are made nicer, property values rise, and the poor are no longer able to afford housing there and are forced to leave to poorer areas. The new residents benefit while the previous residents are essentially punished and lose their home.

When you drop a baby, it will throw its arms up in the air instinctively. What is this an example of?

When you drop a baby, it will throw its arms up in the air instinctively. This is an example of a reflex.

Sarah wins the Boston Marathon. If she has an External Locus of Control, what might she tell herself about winning the race?

With an External Locus of Control, Sarah might say, "I won because everyone else was having a bad day."

Jack finds himself in a Holocaust type of situation in which he is told to kill others. After this event, he is asked if he feels responsible for his actions. He responds, "No. I was just following orders. I only acted the way I did because of my situation." When asked about his fellow soldiers who did horrible things, he responds by saying, "they, on the other hand, are terrible people and did what they did because they are flawed." Is this an example of the Fundamental Attribution Error?

Yes. This is a perfect example as Jack is attributing others' actions to their internal characteristics while attributing his own actions to his situation.

How does the Hypothesis of Relative Deprivation suggest about what causes frustration?

You become frustrated when what you actually get is less than what you expected to get/feel entitled to.

You shine a light in a dark room and cockroaches scurry in all directions. What is this an example of?

You shine a light in a dark room and cockroaches scurry in all directions. This is an example of Kinesis.

You are studying the economy of the United States and how it is influenced by job security. Should you approach this research project using a Macrosociology or Microsociology perspective? Why?

You should approach this project with a Macrosociology perspective as it focuses on large groups and society as a whole.

You want to observe how discrimination may play out during job interviews, so you ask your friend if you can shadow them in their job as a manager. Should you approach this research project using a Macrosociology or Microsociology perspective? Why?

You should utilize a Microsociology perspective because Microsociology looks at small scale everyday interactions between individuals and small groups.

Describe how Reciprocal Determinism may have played a role in your decision to become a doctor?

You thought that being a doctor is cool, so you started going to pre-med classes, which led you to be in an environment with others who think alike. This led you to start to behave like a pre-med, which in turn caused you to start thinking like one and so on.

A Harlow Monkey is removed from his mother and given two options for replacement mothers, a wire cage mother with a food dispenser and a cloth mother without a food dispenser. Which mother would you expect the monkey to spend most of its time with? What does this reveal?

You would expect the monkey to spend most of its time with the cloth mother. This reveals that comfort is a huge factor in forming secure attachments.

How might you use shaping to teach your dog to do a backflip?

You would reward your dog for each successive good step in the right direction. For instance, first reward him for getting up on two feet. Then reward him for falling backwards. Then reward him for the attempt at a flip, and finally reward him for the full, successful flip.

You share an apartment with 4 other college students. Describe how Social Loafing might affect the cleanliness of your apartment.

Your roommates will depend on each other to keep the apartment clean. Because everyone is dependent on each other and feels a sense of shared responsibility, everyone will do less than they should, resulting in a more messy apartment than it would have been if you were each responsible for a specific section of the apartment.

Pablo has been struggling with eating habits, and wants to improve his self control. Give an example of of how each of the following strategies can develop self control: - Changing the environment - Operant conditioning - Classical conditioning

_By changing the environment_: Pablo could change his environment by limiting the unhealthy options around him. _Via operant conditions_: Pablo could use operant conditioning by using positive reinforcement, like for every full day he eats healthy, he allows himself to watch sports. _Via classical conditioning_: Pablo could use classical conditioning by associating his favorite junk food with healthier alternatives, and develop a conditioned response.

Trait theory is focused on the _________________ of behavior whereas other theories are focused on the ______________ of behavior. (A) Describing, Origins (B) Origins, Describing (C) Causes, Effects (D) Effects, Causes

(A) Describing, Origins Trait theory is focused on the describing of behavior whereas other theories are focused on the origins of behavior.

Jack started hunting to provide food 20 years ago, but continues to do so today despite plenty of food and lack of necessity, purely out of enjoyment. This can be best explained by ______________, a major part of Allport's trait theory which describes how a behaviour continues despite satisfaction of the drive that originally caused that behaviour. (A) Functional autonomy (B) Cardinal traits (C) Cognitive dissonance (D) Functional determinism

(A) Functional autonomy Jack started hunting to provide food 20 years ago, but continues to do so today despite plenty of food and lack of necessity, purely out of enjoyment. This can be best explained by *functional autonomy*, a major part of Allport's trait theory which describes how a behaviour continues despite satisfaction of the drive that originally caused that behaviour.

In the analogy of the iceberg, which parts of our mind are completely below the surface of the water (only part of our unconscious)? I. Id II. Ego III. Superego (A) I Only (B) I and II Only (C) II and III Only (D) I, II, and III

(A) I Only The Id is described as the most unconscious and earliest developed part of our mind which has a pleasure principle under which it operates.

When you are hungry, your ______________ will signal to you that you are hungry. Once you've eaten enough and are full, your ____________ will signal to you to stop eating. (A) Lateral Hypothalamus, Ventromedial Hypothalamus (B) Ventromedial Hypothalamus , Lateral Hypothalamus (C) Ventromedial Hypothalamus , Ventromedial Hypothalamus (D) Lateral Hypothalamus, Lateral Hypothalamus

(A) Lateral Hypothalamus, Ventromedial Hypothalamus When you are hungry, your Lateral Hypothalamus will signal to you that you are hungry. Once you've eaten enough and are full, your Ventromedial Hypothalamus will signal to you to stop eating.

While taking illicit drugs, Mary-Kate experienced a state of euphoria. Which of the following nervous system structures was most likely affected? (A) Limbic System (B) Frontal Cortex (C) Lateral Hypothalamus (D) Ventromedial Hypothalamus

(A) Limbic System The limbic system is known for controlling emotion, cognition, motivation and pleasure, and is a common target for illicit drugs.

Elizabeth has always dreamed about being a doctor, but she is not studying hard for the MCAT because she needs to work her hourly job at Walmart in order to pay the bills and afford groceries. Which theory of motivation is best able to explain Elizabeth's situation? (A) Maslow's Hierarchy (B) Evolutionary Approach (C) Cognitive Approach (D) Optimal Arousal Theory

(A) Maslow's Hierarchy According to Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, we fulfill basic needs before higher-level needs just as Elizabeth is doing in this situation.

Jack is a medical student. He is trying his best to act like a doctor. Over time, he starts to truly feel like a doctor. Which theory best explains Jack's change? (A) Role-Playing (B) Door-in-the-Face (C) Foot-in-the-Door (D) Situational Approach

(A) Role-Playing Jack is role-playing being a doctor until he starts feeling like one.

In deciding whether or not she should go on a trip, Eliza decides not to go because she feels that the weather is out of her control and may ruin her vacation. Which attitude theory best explains Eliza's thought process? (A) Theory of Planned Behavior (B) Elaboration Likelihood Model (C) Attitude-to-behavior Process Model (D) Prototype Willingness Model (PWM)

(A) Theory of Planned Behavior The Theory of Planned Behavior is focused on people making decisions based on the implications and intentions of their actions. Those intentions are affected by 3 factors, including perceived behavior control, and in this case Eliza feels she does not have control over her vacation's weather.

Hunger is one of the strongest natural motivations, yet people often eat for sheer pleasure. Some cultures have diets traditionally high in fat, and social activities involving food. In other cultures, anorexia has become more prevalent and is related to personality disorders. Which of the following best explains these? (A) Motivation stemming from taste bud reward response (B) Biological and sociocultural factors impact motivation (C) Expectancy-value theory of motivation (D) Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

(B) Biological and sociocultural factors impact motivation Biological and sociocultural factors can impact motivation. Sociocultural example is the traditions where high-fat diets are prevalent + social activities involving food (example: Pakistani weddings or gatherings). Biological example is anorexia - sufferers are more likely to suffer from personality disorders, indicating biological interactions leading to the condition.

Sam is goes to a car dealership to buy a car, and while he is impressed with the cars and the prices, he does not like the way the salesman is dressed or the way he talks to Sam. Which attitude theory best explains Sam's thought process? (A) Theory of Planned Behavior (B) Elaboration Likelihood Model (C) Attitude-to-behavior Process Model (D) Prototype Willingness Model (PWM)

(B) Elaboration Likelihood Model Sam is persuaded by quality (Central Route Processing) but distracted and put off by the superficial cues (Peripheral Route Processing). This is closely related to the Elaboration Likelihood Model.

Max explains his desire to eat lasagna at dinner as resulting from his innate need for food. Which theory of motivation is Max relying upon to make this explanation? (A) Maslow's Hierarchy (B) Evolutionary Approach (C) Cognitive Approach (D) Optimal Arousal Theory

(B) Evolutionary Approach "innate need for food" = instinct The Evolutionary Approach focuses on the role instincts play in motivation. Max is explaining his motivation in terms of innate instincts that make him want to eat.

Which psychoanalytical theory postulated that individuals with neurotic personalities are governed by one of ten *neurotic needs*, each of which is designed to make life and interactions bearable? (A) Jung's psychoanalytical theory (B) Horney's psychoanalytical theory (C) Alder's psychoanalytical theory (D) Freud's psychoanalytical theory

(B) Horney's psychoanalytical theory The primary concept of Horney's theory is *basic anxiety*, which stems from inadequate parenting causing vulnerability, anxiety and helplessness; while neglect and rejection cause *basic hostility*

Which of the following is not a sociocultural factor for eating habits? (A) Time of day (B) Insulin levels (C) Occasions (D) Appeal

(B) Insulin Levels Common sociocultural factors affecting eating habits include occasions, time, desire, appeal, and availability.

Mohammad was on a roller coaster when it broke down. Ever since then, he has had a bad attitude toward riding roller coasters and no longer rides on them. Which attitude theory best explains Mohammad's thought process? (A) Theory of Planned Behavior (B) Elaboration Likelihood Model (C) Attitude-to-behavior Process Model (D) Prototype Willingness Model (PWM)

(C) Attitude-to-behavior Process Model. According to the Attitude-to-behavior Process Model, an event will influence our attitude, which will then influence our behavior.

If you were to ask Jackie's 5 besties what single trait best defines her, they all unanimously say that she is determined. Determination could be said to be Jackie's: (A) Central Trait (B) Secondary Trait (C) Cardinal Trait (D) Distinct Trait

(C) Cardinal Trait Cardinal Traits are traits that we are most known for and that most closely define us. This is the case with Jackie.

Sarah is motivated to go to work because she knows that it is the responsible thing to do. When asked why she doesn't skip work to party, she replies that it makes rational sense to go to work so that she can pay the bills and not end up living on the streets. Which theory of motivation is Sarah relying upon to make this explanation? (A) Maslow's Hierarchy (B) Evolutionary Approach (C) Cognitive Approach (D) Optimal Arousal Theory

(C) Cognitive Approach Sarah is relying on logical thinking to explain her motivation. The Cognitive Approach focuses on rationality and decision-making abilities.

A girl scout comes to your door and sells you girl scout cookies. The next week, she stops by again, and asks you to donate $1,000 so that she can attend girl scout camp. You agree. Which theory would best explain your willingness to do this? (A) Role-Playing (B) Door-in-the-face (C) Foot-in-the-door (D) Situational Approach

(C) Foot-in-the-Door You likely agreed because you already agreed to support her in a small way before. This enhanced your willingness to support her in a bigger way now. This is perfectly in line with the Foot-in-the-door theory.

Which theorist did not rely on Factor Analysis to develop their theory? (A) Big Five Theorists (B) Hans Eysenck (C) Gordon Allport (D) Raymond Cattel

(C) Gordon Allport Factor analysis is a complex statistical method to narrow down a wider set into a smaller, more representative and significant subset Gordon Allport did not rely on Factor Analysis to develop his theory.

Hannah believes that there are thousands of different traits out there in the world, but she believes that some traits are more important than others. Which theorist is her thinking most closely in line with? (A) Big Five Theorists (B) Hans Eysenck (C) Gordon Allport (D) Raymond Cattel

(C) Gordon Allport Gordon Allport believes that there are over 4500 different traits, but that some are more important than others (i.e. Cardinal Traits being more important than Central or Secondary Traits).

Who of the following are considered proponents of the Humanistic Theory? I. Carl Rogers II. Carl Jung III. Abraham Maslow (A) I and II Only (B) II and III Only (C) I and III Only (D) I, II, and III

Put the following phases of the Sexual Response Cycle in order from first to last: I. Plateau II. Orgasm III. Excitement IV. Refractory Period

(C) III > I > II > IV In order from first to last, the order of the phases of the Sexual Response Cycle are as follows: Excitement > Plateau > Orgasm > Refractory Period.

According to the Psychoanalytic Theory, what two things influence our behavior? (A) Our current emotions and unconscious desires (B) Our current emotions and future expectations (C) Our childhood experiences and unconscious desires (D) Our childhood experiences and future expectations

(C) Our childhood experiences and unconscious desires The Psychoanalytic Theory says that our childhood experiences and unconscious desires influence our behaviour. Freud's theory consists of three major entities: the id, ego and superego. This theory is also known as the psychodynamic theory of personality.

Jim is working out because he likes the respect he gets from his friends when they see his six-pack at the beach. Which level of Maslow's Hierarchy is Jim relying upon? (A) Safety (B) Phsyiological (C) Self-esteem (D) Belongingness/Love

(C) Self-esteem The need for Self-esteem is closely related to our desiring of respect from others, just as is the case with Jim the muscle man.

Alder's theory of personality incorporated two notions: the notion of ___________, which is the force by which individuals shape their uniqueness and personalities; and the notion of ______________, which represents a person's unique way of achieving superiority. (A) Inferiority complex, the creative self (B) The creative self, inferiority complex (C) The creative self, style of life (D) The persona, style of life

(C) The creative self, style of life Alder's theory of personality incorporated two notions: the notion of *the creative self*, which is the force by which individuals shape their uniqueness and personalities; and the notion of *style of life*, which represents a person's unique way of achieving superiority.

The humanistic theory emphasizes that we as humans have __________ and that we can actively develop ourselves to our highest potential and reach ____________________. (A) Individuality, Summation (B) Individuality, Self-actualization (C) Free Will, Summation (D) Free Will, Self-actualization

(D) Free Will, Self-actualization The humanistic theory emphasizes that we as humans have Free Will and that we can actively develop ourselves to our highest potential and reach Self-actualization.

Which or the following can be affected by genetics? I. Drug Use II. Sexual Activity III. Hunger Levels (A) I and II Only (B) I and III Only (C) II and III Only (D) I, II, and III

(D) I, II, and III Drug Use, Sexual Activity, and Hunger Levels are all affected by genetics.

Andrew, was a "PROTAGONIST (ENFJ-A)" on the MBTI - Which of the following are a key part of my personality according to this? I. Thinking II. Judging III. Intuitive (A) I Only (B) II Only (C) I and II Only (D) II and III Only

(D) II and III Only

John enjoys being a physician. He finds it to be much more mentally stimulating than his last job cleaning toilets and much less scary than his old job cleaning windows on 100-story skyscrapers. He feels like he is motivated to be at work because it is exciting to the right level. Which theory of motivation is John relying upon to make this explanation? (A) Maslow's Hierarchy (B) Evolutionary Approach (C) Cognitive Approach (D) Optimal Arousal Theory

(D) Optimal Arousal Theory "exciting to the right level" - hint! John has found the optimal level of arousal and it is motivating him to perform his job. In accordance with this, the Optimal Arousal Theory would suggest that John is also performing his job well due to a balanced level of arousal.

Natalie knows people who drink and they are cool in her mind. She has also always been someone to try something new. Therefore, she started drinking and going to parties at the age of 13. Which attitude theory best explains Natalie's thought process? (A) Theory of Planned Behavior (B) Elaboration Likelihood Model (C) Attitude-to-behavior Process Model (D) Prototype Willingness Model (PWM)

(D) Prototype Willingness Model (PWM) The Prototype Willingness Model takes into account the role models one has and one's willingness to engage in risky behavior, as is the case here with Natalie.

Jack believes that there are 16 traits that can be used to characterize everyone. Which theorist is her thinking most closely in line with? (A) Big Five Theorists (B) Hans Eysenck (C) Gordon Allport (D) Raymond Cattel

(D) Raymond Cattel Raymond Cattel believed that there are 16 traits that can be used to characterize us.

Gordon Allport described three basic traits which were of utmost importance in comparison to thousands of others. Describe cardinal, central and secondary traits

*Cardinal traits* - characteristics that influence most of a person's behaviours and ways they organize his life (dominant traits - e.g. selflessness, power-motivation). Cardinal traits influence central and secondary traits. *Central traits* - major characteristics of personality easy to infer, like honesty, shyness or charisma *Secondary traits* - personal characteristics more limited in occurrence - can be described as preferences - e.g. love for modern art, pescatarian or veganism, attitudes

Match the defense mechanism to it's appropriate description: - Rationalization - Displacement - Sublimation (A) Justification of behaviours in manners acceptable to self and society, e.g. smoker believes he is in complete control of amount he smokes and can quit whenever (B) Channeling of an unacceptable impulse in a socially acceptable direction, e.g. pent-up sexual urges expressed in drive for artistic creativity or business success (C) Changing the target of an emotion while maintaining the same feelings; e.g. man angry at his boss holds his tongue and snaps at his spouse when home

*Rationalization* - (A) Justification of behaviours in manners acceptable to self and society, e.g. smoker believes he is in complete control of amount he smokes and can quit whenever *Displacement* - (C) Changing the target of an emotion while maintaining the same feelings; e.g. man angry at his boss holds his tongue and snaps at his spouse when home *Sublimation* - (B) Channeling of an unacceptable impulse in a socially acceptable direction, e.g. pent-up sexual urges expressed in drive for artistic creativity or business success

Match the defense mechanism to it's appropriate description: - Repression - Regression - Reaction formation - Projection (A) Individuals attribute their undesired feelings to others, e.g: /I hate my parents/ turns into /My parents hate me/ (B) The ego's way of forcing undesired thoughts and urges to the unconscious, e.g. to disguise threatening impulses (C) Individuals suppress urges by unconsciously turning them into exact opposites (D) Reversion to an earlier state of development due to stress, e.g: child returns to thumb-sucking or tantrums

*Repression* - (B) The ego's way of forcing undesired thoughts and urges to the unconscious, e.g. to disguise threatening impulses *Regression* - (D) Reversion to an earlier state of development due to stress, e.g: child returns to thumb-sucking or tantrums *Reaction formation* - (C) Individuals suppress urges by unconsciously turning them into exact opposites *Projection* - (A) Individuals attribute their undesired feelings to others, e.g: /I hate my parents/ turns into /My parents hate me/

Carl Rogers believed that the path toward self-actualization starts early in our lives and requires a growth-promoting climate. What are the two conditions that are essential to a growth-promoting climate?

A growth promoting climate is a place where we feel free to be our *genuine* true selves. It is also a place where we feel *acceptance/unconditional positive regard* from others. Rogers believed that when both these conditions are met, we will develop a self-concept. This is also a humanistic outlook/approach.

Sally has a bad attitude towards spiders. Describe this by each of the three components of attitude

Affective - Sally is scared of spiders (fear being the emotion) Behaviour - because of her fear, Sally will avoid spiders and going near them (action) Cognitive - Sally believes spiders are dangerous. All three contribute to form Sally's negative attitude towards spiders.

How would you describe attitudes (ABC model) and how they influence us?

Attitudes can be described as learned tendencies with three components: affective, behavioural, and cognitive components (ABC model). Affective component refers to how we feel emotions, which shapes our attitude Behavioural component refers to how we behave towards a subject, influencing our attitude Cognitive component refers to thoughts and beliefs or knowledge we form about something which influences our components.

Read this paragraph about the Prototype WIllingness Model: http://wiki.scetool.nl/index.php?title=Prototype_Willingness_Model What does it mean to say that the Prototype WIllingness Model is a Dual-processing Model? Can you relate this to a child who decides to smoke for the first time?

Basically, this theory says that there are two paths of influence on this child's behavior. The first path is rational and analytical (i.e. "It is okay to smoke because I've never been taught the consequences") . The second path is the social reaction path, which involves prototypes ("I know people who smoke and they are cool") and willingness to engage in the risky behavior ("I'm a daredevil, risk-taker kind of person").

Later psychoanalytical theories have given more emphasis to interpersonal, sociological and cultural influences. Carl Jung preferred to think of libido as psychic energy in general. How did Jung define the ego and elements of the theory?

Carl Jung identified the ego as the conscious mind. He divided the unconscious mind into the *personal unconscious* (=Fruedian unsconscious) and the *collective unconscious*, which is a powerful system shared among all humans, considered to be a residue of experiences of early ancestors.

Differentiate between drive-reduction theory and the theory that motivation is based on needs.

Drive-reduction theory explains that motivation is based on the goal to eliminate uncomfortable stress. Need based theories state that motivation is explained by how we allocate energy and resources to satisfy our needs.

Describe the drive-reduction theory of motivation

Drives are internal states of tension that induce particular activity. The drive-reduction theory states drives help humans survive by creating an uncomfortable state ensuring motivation to eliminate this state or relieve internal tension. Primary drives (need for food, water, warmth) motivate us to sustain bodily temp in homeostasis. Homeostasis is controlled by negative feedback.

Motivation can be described as the purpose/driving force behind action. Can be categorized based on what drives people to act. Differentiate between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.

Extrinsic motivation - external forces driving motivation - e.g rewards and punishments Intrinsic motivation - internal motivation from within oneself - e.g. interest by a task, or pure enjoyment (me at the gym)

Becky is one of those people who is never upset. She is always calm and collected. After hanging out with friends, she tends to get worn out. Sometimes she believes that some of her friends are out to get her even though they are not. Hans Eysenck believed that Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Psychoticism were the three major traits of one's personality. How do these three traits apply to Becky?

Extroversion is the degree to which someone is outgoing. Becky would be seen to have little of this trait. Neuroticism is one's emotional stability, which is sounds like Becky has a lot of. Psychoticism is the degree to which reality is distorted in someone's view. In this case, Becky's view of reality is distorted so she would score high in psychoticism.

True or false: Between the central and peripheral processing routes, peripheral processing routes have greater likelihood of inducing long-lasting attitude change.

FALSE - central processing routes have greater likelihood of producing a long-lasting attitude change.

True or false: the id is responsible for our system of right or wrong, which substitudes for parental rewards and punishments.

FALSE: the *superego* is responsible for our system of right or wrong, which substitudes for parental rewards and punishments.

True or False. Attitudes are something innate and unchangeable as they are closely intertwined with one's personality.

False. Attitudes are defined as "learned tendencies."

True or False? Maslow believed that most people will eventually reach self-actualization.

False. Maslow believed only about 1% of people will reach self-actualization. Maslow also stated that people who self-actualize are more likely to have *peak experiences*: profound and deeply moving experiences that have important and lasting effects

True or False. The removal of a negative factor can replace a reward in Incentive Theory, similar to negative reinforcement and positive reinforcement in operant conditioning achieving similar outcomes.

False. The removal of a negative factor (negative reinforcement) cannot replace a reward (positive reinforcement) in Incentive Theory

True or False. The sooner a reward is given after an accomplishment/action, the less likely it is to occur again. Behavior is best rewarded at random and inconsistently as in variable-ratio conditioning.

False. The sooner a reward is given after an accomplishment/action, the more likely it is to occur again.

True or False. When you are hungry, Leptin is found in high amounts in your blood as it is a hunger-stimulating hormone.

False. When you are full, Leptin is found in high amounts in your blood as it is an appetite-suppressing hormone.

Differentiate between Freud's and Jung's idea of libido

Freud believed libido was physic energy rooted in sexuality; Jung believed libido was psychic energy in general.

Libido is the natural energy source that fuels the mechanisms of the mind. When Libido becomes fixed at a certain stage of development, what does Freud propose occurs at this point?

Freud would propose that you would end up stuck in that stage of development. So if your libido was stuck at an oral stage of development, you would have oral traits and personalities such as being very talkative, maybe smoking, etc.

Differentiate between Freud, Jung and Alder in terms of their psychoanalytical theories of personality.

Freud's major assumption was that behaviour is motivated by inborn instincts; Jung's principal is that a person's conduct is governed by inborn archetypes; Alder's theory assumes people are primarily motivated by striving for superiority.

How did Hans and Sybil Eysenck come up with their trait theory? (hint: PEN model)

Hans and Sybil Eysenck used factor analysis to group behaviours that typically occur together and assigned labels to those groups. They described three traits in the *PEN Model* - *Psychotism* (measure of social deviance and nonconformity); *Extraversion* (tolerance for social interaction + stimulation); and *Neuroticism* (measure of emotional arousal in stress) E.g. people who are more reserved and less outspoken tended to enjoy solitary activity and avoid stimulation.

Levi has a long Dopamine-4-receptor gene. He also hates sky diving, gambling, and even stays home on Halloween to avoid the thrill. He is very calm and not interested in such activities. Do Levi's actions confirm or disconfirm the Biologic Theory?

Having a longer Dopamine-4-receptor gene is associated with being a thrill-seeker, but just because you have a genetic disposition for something doesn't mean you will certainly act that way. For this reason, Levi's actions neither confirm nor disconfirm the Biologic Theory.

The Theory of Planned Behavior states that our behavior is determined by how we think about an action before we do it, specifically our implications and intentions. Our intentions are influenced by 3 things - attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavior control. Describe how your intention to study for the MCAT might be influenced by these three things.

If you have a negative attitude toward studying ("I hate studying"), others think your studying is a waste of time (subjective norms), and you feel like you can't control how much time you have for studying, you would be less likely to study.

Differentiate how the different processing routes of the elaboration likelihood model influences the types of characteristics of persuasion.

Information by this model is first filtered by our target characteristics, and then the content of the message/source characteristics are taken into account. Those in line with the central processing route - target characteristics (of listener) would likely be greater interest in topic, motivation to learn, and finding it important. In terms of message and source characteristics, the information is deeply processed. Those in line with the peripheral processing route - target characteristics might likely include lack of interest in or motivation to learn about the topic information, as well as little importance. In terms of message and source characteristics, the superficial factors like attractiveness have influence on persuasion.

What are intentions in the theory of planned behaviour based off and formed by?

Intentions are based off (1) our attitudes towards a certain behaviour, (2) our subjective norms (what others/society thinks of our behaviour), and (3) perceived behaviour control (how hard it is to control our behaviour).

Jacob walked on the carpet with muddy shoes on. His Mom told him that before he could eat any dinner, he would need to clean the carpet. How might this situation relate to the Drive-Reduction Theory of Motivation?

Jacob's need for food is driving him to clean the carpet. Once he finishes cleaning the carpet and eats his dinner, his need is fulfilled and his drive is reduced.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is the most well known motivation theory based on needs, and breaks down needs into categories on a pyramid. Describe his theory and hierarchy.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs - classifies needs into five groups of different importance on a pyramid, with the bottom being the most important. His needs, in order of importance, were: - Physiological (breathing, food, water, air, sex, homeostasis) - Safety (security of: body, employment, health, property) - Love/Belonging (friendship, family, intimacy) - Esteem (self-esteem, confidence, respect) - Self-actualization (morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem-solving, accomplishment)

William Masters and Virginia Johnson noticed certain factors increase sexual arousal - what did they find?

Masters and Johnson noted that physiologically, sexual arousal and motivation was linked to secretion of estrogens, progesterone and androgens, with a strong correlation between hormone conc and sexual desire. Another biological factor was smell - certain odors were shown to increase sexual desire and activity Cultural factors played a role in influencing pleasure and the interpretation of pleasure, as does cognition (sexual videos study). Culture and society also influenced what was deemed appropriate.

There are three characteristics that influence how we are persuaded for or against something that are part of the elaboration likelihood model - what are they?

Message characteristics - features of the message itself (was the argument logical? did it have key points? was there good grammar? too long/short? addressed the issue?) Source characteristics - (did the speaker seem knowledgeable or trustworthy? where was the messaged collected from? physical environment?) Target characteristics - characteristics of the listener/that you bring - (good/bad mood? high/low self-esteem? level of alertness? intelligence of listener? hungry or satiated?)

Compare and contrast the Psychoanalytic Theory and the Humanistic Theory?

Psychoanalytic Theory thinks of us as being controlled by our unconscious. Sees us as animals that have intense desires. Humanistic Theory, however, views us as being in control and focuses on our conscious thoughts and actions. Sees us as inherently good and wanting to improve.

Jacob says he has reached self-actualization after winning an Olympic Gold medal in the high jump. He used steroids to achieve this feat and was really only doing it for the fame and fortune. Would Maslow agree with Jacob?

Self actualization revolves around reaching one's maximum potential. If he was really doing it for the fame and fortune only, and not self-improvement, think about it. Self-actualizers are those who reach their full potential and these individuals are true to their own moral principles. Jacob is not focused on reaching his full potential or on obeying his own moral principles. He is most likely trying to meet needs of self-esteem, and is not actually self-actualizing.

Mwape just barely arrives at a new school. She meets two new friends, Becky and Sarah. Mwape starts inviting them over to her house and leading them in several of her favorite games. Does Mwape demonstrate Social Potency or Traditionalism. What about Sarah and Becky? Explain why?

Social Potency is the degree to which a person assumes leadership and mastery roles in a social situation. Mwape is demonstrating this by quickly taking control in her new friend group. Sarah and Becky likely demonstrate Traditionalism as they are quick to follow Mwape's lead.

Describe Frued's element of the ego

The ego and superego both have conscious and unconscious elements. The ego operates according to the *reality principle*, and takes reality into account to inhibit or guides the activity of the id - guidance referred to as *secondary process*. The aim of this principle is to postpone the pleasure principle until satisfaction is actually obtainable. The ego also moderates the superego

True or false: The biological and trait perspectives are closely linked. In twin studies with identical twins raised separately, one of the supporting findings for these theories was that traits such as social potency and traditionalism were common in both twins.

TRUE: The biological and trait perspectives are closely linked. In twin studies with identical twins raised separately, one of the supporting findings for these theories was that traits such as social potency and traditionalism were common in both twins. social potency = degree to which a person assumes leadership in mastery roles in social situations traditionalism = tendency to follow authority

True or false: the *object relations theory* is a psychoanalytical personality theory that refers to objects as representations of parents/caregivers based on subjective experiences during early infancy - these objects persist into adulthood and influence interactions and social bonds.

TRUE: the *object relations theory* is a psychoanalytical personality theory that refers to objects as representations of parents/caregivers based on subjective experiences during early infancy - these objects persist into adulthood and influence interactions and social bonds.

True or false: the PEN model by Eysenck was expanded to the *Big Five*, which describes majority of people using the dimensions of five traits: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism

TRUE: the PEN model by Eysenck was expanded to the *Big Five*, which describes majority of people using the dimensions of five traits: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism acronym - OCEAN

Why is Temperament often associated with the Biologic Theory?

Temperament related to mood, activity level, etc. - it is an innate disposition (inherited) and the Biologic Theory is focused on the innate causes of our behavior.

A smoker who has been smoking for 6 years is aware of how damaging it is to his body, yet he cannot seem to stop smoking. In fact, he claims he smokes more cigarettes today compared to two years ago, when he tried to start quitting due to harm realization. How does the opponent-processing theory explain these phenomenon?

The *opponent-processing theory* explains that when a drug is repeatedly taken, the body attempts to counteract effects by changing physiology. It counteracts alcohol abuse, for example, by increasing arousal. The problem arises because this reaction lasts longer than the drug - results in withdrawal symptoms which are exact opposing effects of the alcohol or drug. This can create a physical dependence. The same phenomenon runs for nicotine, in cigs - it explains why the smoker smokes more today as he has an increased tolerance.

One of Jung's archetypes is the self - describe what he means by the self.

The *self* - intersection between the collective unconscious, personal unconscious and conscious mind. This archetype strives for unity.

What makes the Biologic Theory unique as compared to the Humanistic and Psychoanalytic Theories?

The Biologic Theory posits that our behavior and personality are inherited whereas the Humanistic and Psychoanalytical Theory propose that they develop from our experiences. Certain traits and genes are coupled with certain behaviours, however not necessarily defining.

Describe Frued's element of the Id

The Id is the most unconscious part of our mind that develops at birth. It operates under a *pleasure principle* which demands instant gratification. The *primary process* is the id's response to frustration, which is to seek satisfaction immediately.

You are really craving ice cream. Describe how the Id, Ego, and Superego might interact within your mind as you face this temptation.

The Id wants immediate gratification and would drive you to just eat the ice cream NOW. The Superego is moral oversight and represents the values of society, which would tell you to never eat ice cream because it is not good for your body. The Ego acts as a mediator would balance out the two, resulting in a compromise where you eat some ice cream after patiently waiting for it.

There are a few theories that attempt to explain how attitudes influence behaviour. Describe the Prototype-Willingness model (PWM)

The PWM says that behaviour is a function of six factors - past behaviour, attitudes towards behaviour, subjective norms, intentions, willingness to engage in a behaviour, and prototypes (models) This theory combines the planned behaviour and attitude-behaviour theories and adds onto it.

The *Rorschach inkblot test* and *thermatic apperception test* both are used to identify individual undesired feelings via projection as a defense mechanism. Describe the tests.

The Rorschach inkblot test - relies on assumption that the client projects his or her unconscious feelings onto the shape Thermatic Apperception test - series of pictures presented to client who is asked to make up a story for each - will elucidate client's own unconscious thoughts and feelings.

There are a few theories that attempt to explain how attitudes influence behaviour. Describe the attitude-behaviour process model

The attitude-behaviour process model says that an event triggers an attitude, which influences our perception of an object or stimulus. Additional outside knowledge towards the situation or object, combined with our attitude, leads to our behaviour.

Describe the behavioural theory of personality.

The behavioural theory states that personality is the result of the interaction between an individual and their environment.

Describe Jung's *collective unconscious* and what elements it has

The building blocks of the collective unconscious are images of common experiences, referred to as *archetypes* - examples of archetypes: The *persona* - a personality mask we wear in public that is adaptive to social interactions The *anima* (feminine) and *animus* (masculine) - referring to sex-inappropriate qualities - feminine qualities in males, masculine qualities in females The *shadow* - appearance of socially reprehensible and unpleasant thoughts, feelings, emotions in our consciousness.

Describe the cognitive approach of motivation

The cognitive approach of motivation focuses on our rationale and decision-making ability

Describe Frued's element of the superego

The ego and superego both have conscious and unconscious elements. The superego also aims to achieve desires, but unlike the id (which desires basic needs), the superego has refined and focused desires on the ideal self - personality perfectionist that judges our actions and responds with pride or guilt. Two elements: the *conscience* - collection of punishable improper actions from childhood; the *ego-ideal* - proper actions rewarded from childhood. These eventually transform into a system of right or wrong.

How are the ego and superego related?

The ego mediates the desires of the superego, just as it does those of the id. The three are in conflict, and the ego's recourse for relieving anxiety caused by clash of the id and superego is via *defense mechanisms*

There are a few theories that attempt to explain how attitudes influence behaviour. Describe the elaboration-likelihood model for persuasion

The elaboration-likelihood model theory separates individuals based on their processing of persuasive info - is more cognitive and focuses on the 'why' and 'how' aspects. There are two ways this model is processed: 1) At one extreme, those who elaborate extensively and think deeply - *central processing route* - the degree of attitude change depends on the quality of arguments by the persuader 2) Other extreme - those who do not elaborate much - *peripheral processing route* - looks at superficial and nonverbal persuasion cues (attractiveness, status, expertise)

Describe the evolutionary approach of motivation

The evolutionary approach is based on the instinct theory - people are driven to do certain behaviours based on evolutionary programmed instincts. Described motivation in reference to Darwinian evolution. William James was the first to write about instincts.

Describe the foot-in-door phenomenon on how behaviour influences attitude.

The foot in door phenomenon states we are much more likely to do a large, attitude changing task if we agree to perform a small one first. This is one way people get 'brainwashed' into doing things. "foot in door" or "dipping feet into water". E.g. trying our SARMS before going to full-fledged steroids; gateway drugs

There are a few theories that attempt to explain how attitudes influence behaviour. Describe the functional attitudes theory

The functionalist attitude theory states that attitudes serve four functions: knowledge, ego expression, adaptation and ego defence. *Knowledge* provides consistency and stability in thought. Attitudes can be *ego expressive* (to communicate and solifidy our identity; e.g. big Eminem fan, big Pats fan) and *ego defensive* (protect self-esteem or justify actions we know are wrong). They can also be *adaptive* - idea that one will be accepted if attitudes are socially acceptable.

Describe the *humanistic theory* (or phenomenological)

The humanistic theory takes a person-centered approach in stating individuals have free will and the ability to strive towards self-actualization (which remember, is max potential in Maslow's hierarchy!) The theory states we are inherently good and strive to self improve. Maslow was the first humanist.

Describe the incentive theory of motivation

The incentive theory explains behaviour as motivated by desire to pursue rewards + avoid punishments, rather than by arousal. It is based on the idea that if a behavior is rewarded, it will result in the behavior occurring again.

Alfred Alder also formed a psychoanalytical theory - he was the originator of the *inferiority complex*. How did his theory describe personality?

The inferiority complex refers to individual's sense of incompleteness, imperfection and inferiority (physically & socially). Alder's theory stated striving for superiority enhances and drives personality.

There are a few theories that attempt to explain how attitudes influence behaviour. Describe the Learning theory

The learning theory of attitudes states that our attitudes are developed from different forms of learning - can be influenced by direct contact, direct instruction from others, subjective norms, and/or classical, operant conditioning or observational learning.

What is the optimal arousal theory of motivation?

The optimal arousal theory states people perform actions in order to maintain an optimal level of arousal - seek to increase arousal when it falls below their optimal level. The image shows the *Yerkes-Dodson law* which postulates a U shaped function between arousal and performance - performance is worst at extremely high and low levels of arousal, and best when at optimal levels.

When it comes to behaviour influencing attitudes, what is role-playing phenomenon?

The role-playing phenomenon states that people alter their behaviour when in a new role to fit that role, which may eventually influence their attitudes and normalize that role. E.g. first time parents feel unusual at it initially but eventually develop new attitudes, "mature"; new professional behaviours in a new job, making you eventually having a new attitude

There are a few theories that attempt to explain how attitudes influence behaviour. Describe the social-cognitive theory

The social-cognitive theory of attitudes states people learn how to behave and shape attitudes by observing behaviours of others. According to this - behaviour is not learned by trial and error, but develops via direct observation and replication of actions. 3 factors of behaviour, personal factors and environment are not independent, but rather influence each other.

There are a few theories that attempt to explain how attitudes influence behaviour. Describe the theory of planned behaviour

The theory of planned behaviour states we consider our implications of our actions before we decide how to behave. The best predictor of our behaviour are our intentions in a given situation.

What is the essence of the biological perspective of personality theories?

There is variation amongst biological theorists but in essence, the biological perspective holds that personality can be explained by the result of genetic expression in the brain and behaviour. The biological theory suggests that important components of personality are [[inherited]]

What is the expectancy-value theory of motivation?

This theory states that the amount of motivation needed to reach a goal is proportional to both the individuals expectations of success + degree to which they value succeeding at that goal

How do trait theories define personality?

Trait theories of personality use clusters of behavioural patterns to describe individuals - the combination and interaction of various traits defines a personality unique to each individual. No two people by these theories have the same personality.

Type theories like the MBTI create a taxonomy of personality types - one well known theory describes type theories as Type A or Type B - what were these types?

Type A- competitive and compulsive behaviour; type B- laid-back and relaxed. Type A were found to be more prone to heart disease, though no evidence of higher mortality rates exist.

Frued's psychoanalytical theory has heavy basis on unconscious desires and libido - describe these two.

Unconscious desires influence our behaviours, along with childhood experiences. Our personalities have memories, beliefs, urges and drives we aren't aware of, that make up this unconscious. Libido refers to natural energy source that fuels the mechanisms of the mind - it is fixated at certain psychosexual stages of development.

What is *wish fulfillment* and how is it part of the Id?

Wish fulfillment refers to mental imagery like fantasy or daydreaming - it serves as a ways to fulfill satisfaction, which is the function of the Id.

Psych/Soc II - Motivation, Psychological Theories, Conformity & Obedience, Socialization, C&O Conditioning, Social Development, The Self and Social Perception, Attraction & Aggression, Society & Culture

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