PSYS 350

How to build better relationships

1. Capitalizing on the good Share what's good in your life with your partner, and vice versa "Capitalize" on their interests 2. Be playful Opportunities to share laughter and have some fun E.g., "date night" 3. Look on the bright side Idealize your partner...to an extent Finding virtue in faults Regularly remind yourself what you love about them -e.g., Gilmore girls -be playful: Courtship and the early phases of a relationship involve unusual levels of fun, such as late-night dancing, weekend getaways. The later stages, especially when children are involved, become focused on less inherently enjoyable activities—diaper changing, house cleaning, bill paying -partners who idealize their significant other are happier. Partners who were happier were more likely to offer "yes, but" refutations of faults, for example, yes, my partner can be moody but it shows their depth of character Relationships are dynamic Don't expect things to remain the same over time Passive coping is generally not successful Absence vs. resolving problems Relationships provide us with many benefits - socially, psychologically, & biologically -the sign of a healthy relationship is not the absence of problems, but the resolution of problems.

The Robbers Cave Experiment

A demonstration of realistic group conflict theory Group conflict, prejudice, and discrimination are likely to arise over competition between groups for limited resources Two groups of boys were invited to participate in a summer camp experience in Oklahoma In reality, the summer camp experience was part of a study on intergroup relationships Simply being around one another after competition didn't reduce conflict If simply being around one another doesn't reduce conflict, what can we do? Reducing conflict through superordinate goals Superordinate goal A goal that transcends the interests of any one group and can be achieved more readily by two or more groups working together -the boys still called each other names, attacked each other, and threw food at one another Hostile feelings between the groups were reduced after researchers allowed the groups to work cooperatively A bus carrying supplies "broke down," forcing the two groups to work together to get the truck started The Rattlers even decided to spend the $5 they won from the tournament on milkshakes for the Eagles When two groups feel mutually interdependent, hostility between groups subsides also had the water line break and need repair

Groupthink

A group decision-making style in which maintaining group cohesiveness is more important than considering the facts in a realistic manner Solution to a task is what will make the group cohesive, not what is actually the most rational and best decision Presidential administrations very vulnerable to this - but first a non-presidential example. The importance of the groups ideals and maintaining the group (securing funding) led to a faulty decision-making process A decision regarding launch safety was not made on the merits of actual launch safety, but on the merits of what was perceived to be best for the group (groupthink)

Prejudice

A negative attitude or affective response toward a group and its individual members. Ex: A white male becomes angry after seeing an interracial couple being affectionate.

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

A technique for revealing nonconscious attitudes toward different stimuli including particular groups About 2/3 of Caucasians taking the IAT show a preference for white over black About half of African American respondents show a preference for white over black The IAT correlates with other measures of prejudice

The Evolutionary View

According to evolutionary theory: Males behave aggressively to secure status Female chooses male who offers greatest protection and resources Males aggress "jealously" To ensure their paternity Males are theorized to aggress for two reasons: first, to establish dominance over other males and secure the highest possible status. The idea here is that the female will choose the male who is most likely to provide the best genes and the greatest protection and resources for their offspring. Second, males aggress out of sexual jealousy, to ensure that their mate is not having sex with other men, thereby ensuring their paternity

Social Facilitation: Modern Perspective

Additional Evidence Michaels et al. (1982) examined the performance of pool players Pool players were either below or above average Pool players were either observed by other or not What would you predict?

Is Aggression Learned?

Aggressive behavior is strongly affected by learning. Aggression can be positively as well as negatively reinforced. Positive reinforcement: Aggression produces desired outcomes. i.e., hit brother to make him give you the remote control Negative reinforcement: Aggression prevents or stops undesirable outcomes. i.e., hit brother to keep him from teasing you

The IAT and Overt Behavior

An important question is whether a person's responses on the IAT are predictive of behavior Does the IAT predict overt racist behavior? To a small extent, but not reliably

The Cognitive Perspective

Argues that stereotyping is inevitable Stereotyping arises out of our need to categorize Stereotypes are a natural result of the way our brains are wired to store and process information Argues that prejudice results from biases in social cognition due to schemas applied incorrectly

Attachment Styles

Attachment theory The idea that early attachments with parents and other caregivers shape relationships for a person's entire life Originally theorized in developmental psychology to explain how a child interacts with his/her parents (Bowlby, Ainsworth) Strange situation paradigm -applies to romantic relationships and friendships. There is evidence that attachment style is a relatively enduring characteristic from infancy to adulthood -The attachments you form as a child shape the way you relate as an adult to your romantic partners, your children, and your friends -An experimental procedure in which an infant's reaction is observed after the mother leaves the child in a room with a stranger and then returns to the room

Consequence 1: Attributional Ambiguity

Attributional ambiguity Members of stigmatized groups may be uncertain if the treatment they receive is due to them personally or is a result their group membership For instance, wondering if you didn't get a job because you weren't qualified or whether it was because of your race, gender, handicap, or similar attribute This ambiguity can occur for good or bad outcomes White and black students may respond very differently to flattering or unflattering feedback White self-esteem went up when flattered and down when receiving negative feedback regardless of whether the person giving the feedback knew what they looked like Blacks were affected by feedback only if the person didn't know what they looked like: they only believed the feedback if the person providing it didn't know their race

Conscious and Unconscious Behavior

Automatic processes (implicit attitudes) may affect more unconscious behavior Controlled processes (explicit attitudes) may affect more conscious behavior If you like someone, you may unconsciously lean towards them when they're talking to you, but you probably have more control over what you say -In a study, white participants interacting with a white student and a black student were measured for implicit and explicit attitudes toward blacks. Videotapes were coded for verbal and nonverbal friendliness during interactions -Explicit racial attitudes predicted differences in verbal friendliness (what was said, or controlled behaviors) between black and white interactions -Implicit attitudes predicted difference in nonverbal behaviors (coded from videotapes with no sound, measure of nonconscious or automatic behavior) between black and white interactions

Benevolent Racism and Sexism

Benevolent racism (or sexism) Race and gender stereotypes often contain a mix of positive and negative sentiments Trouble with positive stereotypes Can be used to justify holding other negative stereotypes "I can't be racist" May disparage members that don't fit the positive stereotype

Avoidant Attachment Style

Caregivers are aloof and distant Infant wants closeness with his/her caregiver, but suppresses this to avoid rejection Uncomfortable with closeness, difficulty trusting and depending on others Don't believe "head over heels" love exists Romance seldom lasts Self-doubtful Negative view of others

Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment Style

Caregivers are inconsistent and/or overbearing Infants are anxious because they don't know what to expect from their caregivers May worry that they are unworthy of affection Fear of abandonment, constant reassurance seeking Social media Also called "preoccupied" attachment in developmental literature Prone to jealousy, neuroticism, believe in "love at first sight" (find it easy to fall in love - do it often), love is "obsessive" Really self-doubtful, feel others aren't as willing to commit -social media can now make it easier than ever to rely on others for reassurance rather than learning independence and dealing with intolerance of uncertainty, a risk factor for many anxiety conditions

Secure Attachment Style

Caregivers are responsive to child's needs Display positive emotions Infant trusts his/her caregiver, not worried about abandonment View themselves as worthy and likeable -Positive view of self and of others -associated with better life outcomes and fewer mental health problems -in Ainsworth paradigm, these infants were fine exploring a novel environment

Implications of the Cognitive Perspective

Cognitive perspectives highlight how stereotypes can alter perception of and behavior toward different social groups Stereotypes may conserve mental energy but can lead to unintentionally biased judgments/behaviors Stereotypes may influence behaviors and judgments in ways that are outside conscious awareness Influence of automatically activated stereotypes can be corrected for if people are motivated and aware of potential biases Often these automatic reactions can be corrected by conscious, controlled processes

Two Types of relationships: Communal vs. exchange

Communal relationships are relationships in which the individuals feel an individual responsibility for one another and give and receive according to the principle of need; such relationships are often long-term. They are usually limited to close friends, romantic partners, & family members. Exchange relationships are relationships in which individuals feel little responsibility toward one another; giving and receiving are governed by concerns about equity and reciprocity; such relationships are usually short-term. They most often exist between strangers and casual acquaintances and in particular long-term arrangements. -When a close friend is upset, what do you try to do? Listen to them and comfort them. Not concerned with fairness here. You may have a sibling whom you are always comforting and listening to, but who hardly listens to your concerns. Exchange relationships are governed by equity concerns and are more common among strangers and acquaintances. In these relationships, we expect other to reciprocate quickly - if we do something for them, they should immediately repay the favor.

The Mere Exposure Effect

Contrary to folk wisdom, familiarity does not "breed contempt." Mere Exposure Effect: The more often we are exposed to a stimulus, the more we come to like that stimulus. Subliminal exposure to Chinese pictographs influences liking of symbols Why does repeated exposure lead to liking? Fluency The mere exposure effect refers to the finding that the more exposure we have to a stimulus, the more positively we evaluate it. So being close to someone allows for repeated contact, and this repeated contact or familiarity leads us to be more attracted to them. Familiarity will increase liking even if you are not consciously aware of seeing the stimuli before. In fact, not being consciously aware of the stimuli actually makes the effect stronger. -the more times participants saw certain Chinese symbols, the more they assumed it referred to something good Fluency Easier to process information about familiar stimuli Pleasant feelings associated with more fluent processing

Deindividuation Increases Obedience to Group Norms

Deindividuation does not always lead to aggressive or antisocial behavior. Depends on what the norm of the group is

Other inconsistencies in beauty judgments:

Differences in preferred body type. Differences over time. In countries where there's not enough food, plumpness is more attractive. Beauty is not absolute. There seems to be the most agreement on what constitutes facial attractiveness.

Third Way Stereotypes Influence Perceptions

Distinctiveness and illusory correlations False beliefs about groups may be maintained because we easily remember the pairing of two distinct events Paired distinctiveness The pairing of two distinctive events stands out more even more because the events occur together It may be easier to remember examples of minorities doing negative things because encountering minorities and witnessing negative events are both individually more distinct E.g., minorities in the news -distinct events capture our attention. Thus, we remember them better. If someone was to show up to class naked, you'd probably remember that class a lot better than the other classes. They also come to mind more easily for us, just like we talked about with the availability heuristic. -so if you hear a news story about a minority member committing a crime, you'll be more likely to remember that story because it stands out in your mind than a story about someone of your own race committing a crime. If you remember, we also selectively attend to information confirming our initial assumptions, thus also increasing the likelihood that we'll remember it better. -so we begin to see a correlation where no correlation exists. People overestimate how often a negative behavior is performed by members of a minority group and underestimate how often a negative behavior is performed by members of a majority group

What about Complementarity?

Do "opposites attract"? If you're very introverted, it might make sense that you'd be attracted to someone very extroverted. Complementarity: The tendency for people to seek out others with characteristics that are different from, or complement their own But what if you're a hard worker and your spouse is lazy? The belief that "opposites attract" is not largely supported by the research

The Economic Perspective

Economic perspective Argues that prejudice results from different social groups competing over scarce resources Resources may be physical, economic, or conceptual Resources like jobs, money, food, freedom, power, etc. Evidence for the economic perspective Prejudice and discrimination increase under conditions of economic difficulty, like recessions and periods of high unemployment Those at risk of losing the most from another group's economic advance hold more prejudice

One of the Consequences of Group Competition for Resources

Ethnocentrism Glorifying one's own group while vilifying other groups Hostile conflict increases ethnocentrism -this is what Hitler did in WW2. Blamed Jews for the economic crises in Germany and the loss of WW1

Evolutionary perspective on gender preferences in attraction

Evolutionary perspectives argue that males and females seek different characteristics in potential mates Preferences for mate characteristics differ because males and females play different roles in reproduction Investment in child birth and raising a child Who contributes more? Women contribute much more in conception and child rearing They have more to lose in selecting a partner Because of this, they are more selective in choosing a mate than men -in virtually all cultures and societies, men are more ready to jump into bed and with a wider range of partners than the average female. When men are asked how many sexual partners they would like to have compared to women, men express a desire for a greater number of partners Men more likely to use features associated with reproductive capacity e.g., waist to hip ratio, physical attractiveness, youth, full lips Women more likely to use characteristics associated with ability to provide resources and protect offspring e.g., shoulder to hip ratio, age, status Evolution or culture? Some cultural universals may be due to rational logic and not to evolutionary drives For instance, across cultures women may find status and resources attractive in men because across cultures women have less access to status and resources In cultures where there is greater gender equality, women place less importance on a man's status and resources -Because women have to bear children for 9 months, evolutionary psychologists argue that women are more desire mates who possess material resources and traits suggesting ability to require resources, like physical strength, industriousness, and social status

What Predicts Initial Attraction?

Familiarity Physical Attractiveness Similarity Reciprocal Liking

Romantic Relationships

For most of the roughly 2.3 million couples who get married each year in the United States, marriage is about romance—about love So what is love? What about "being in love" vs. love? Most social psychology studies account for multiple varieties of love, but researchers organize them into broad categories, such as romantic love and companionate love -this is a difficult question to answer. Students who were asked this in one study came up with 216 different kinds of love. -There are many different types of love, but we'll try to distill them down into specific categories

Findings from cockroach study

For the easy task, roaches ran more quickly in the presence of others. For the more difficult task, roaches ran more quickly when alone. Audience box showed mere presence of others increased performance In a simple maze, roaches ran faster when they were in the presence of an audience of other roaches than when they were alone. In a complex maze, roaches ran more slowly in the presence of others than alone. -as stadium seating box showed, it wasn't just competition with another roach. It had to do with the mere presence of another individual. -this effect has been replicated in many other studies

Similarity

Friends and romantic partners tend to be similar in beliefs and other characteristics A study of romantic couples found that couples were more similar on 66 of 88 different traits than people paired at random On no characteristic were romantic couples more dissimilar than random pairs We tend to associate with others who are similar to ourselves with respect to demographic variables, opinions, interests, and values

Gender Differences and Aggression

Gender differences: Males are more aggressive 99% of rapes 88% of murders 87% of assaults 92% of arrests for robbery Males more physically aggressive, but women display more "relational aggression" E.g., gossiping, spreading rumors

Fourth Way Stereotypes Influence Behavior

Generalization of behavior and traits Because of the outgroup homogeneity effect, people are more likely to assume that a single action is typical of a group if the group is not their own If you witness someone in an outgroup being rude, you may be more likely to think that group is rude in general Stereotypes also influence how the details of events are interpreted Dispositional vs. situational attributions -we like to try to figure out why things happen, and when we know less about someone we apply these superficial explanations like race that are easily discernable.

Testosterone

Greater testosterone linked to greater aggression Demonstrated in animal and human studies Suggests biology plays a significant role in aggression, thus some evidence of aggression being "innate" The hormone that fuels male aggression is testosterone, which both sexes have, although in higher proportion in males. Laboratory animals injected with testosterone become more aggressive (Moyer, 1983), and there is a parallel finding in humans: Naturally occurring testosterone levels are significantly higher among prisoners convicted of violent crimes than among those convicted of nonviolent crimes (Dabbs, 2000; Dabbs et al., 1995). Similarly, juvenile delinquents have higher testosterone levels than do college students (Banks & Dabbs, 1996).

Why Do People Join Groups?

Groups have a number of other benefits: Important source of information: Help us resolve ambiguity in the social world Important aspect of identity: Help us define who we are Help us feel distinct from other groups Need to belong Forming relationships with other people fulfills a number of basic human needs. Some researchers argue that in our evolutionary past, there was a substantial survival advantage to establishing bonds with other people (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). People who bonded together were better able to hunt for and grow food, find mates, and care for children. Consequently, they argue, the need to belong has become innate and is present in all societies. Consistent with this view, people in all cultures are motivated to form relationships with other people and to resist the dissolution of these relationships (Gardner, Pickett, & Brewer, 2000; Manstead, 1997).

The cockroach study

Had cockroaches run simple or complex mazes to escape a bright light. They did this alone, or in the presence of "spectators". Measured the speed of finding the dark box. Examples: Cockroach Study (Zajonc and colleagues, 1969) - found support for his model IV1 - difficulty of the maze (exit straight ahead, exit to the right) IV2 - the presence of other roaches (present, absent) DV - performance of the roach - the time it took the roach subjects to run through the maze

Evidence Supporting Deindivdiuation

Halloween mayhem In America, many forms of uninhibited and impulsive behaviors occur at Halloween Zimbardo prison experiment

Instrumental Aggression

Harm is inflicted as a means to a desired end. e.g., harming someone for personal gain or attention

Hostile/Emotional Aggression

Harm is inflicted for its own sake. i.e., hurting someone who has caused you pain, getting revenge on someone Motivated by feelings of anger/hostility

The Motivational Perspective

Hostility can also develop in the absence of competition Motivational perspective Argues that prejudice results from motivations to view one's ingroup more favorably than outgroups

Collective influences: Early beginnings

How does the presence of others affect our behavior? Norman Triplett's (1897-1898) fishing reel studies & observations of bikers. Later research: conflicting findings. Triplett's (1897-1898) fishing reel studies. One of the first social psychology experiments. Children had faster winding times when working side by side than when working alone. Mere presence of others increases performance --He also noticed that bikers rode faster when in groups compared to when they raced against the clock. Theorized that presence of others improved performance Later research: conflicting findings. Sometimes the presence of others enhanced performance. At other times, performance declined. (e.g., asking students to refute philosophical arguments in the presence of another student) Bob Zajonc (Zyonk) to the rescue

Zajonc's Study of Social Facilitation

In 1969 Robert Zajonc examined existing literature on social facilitation and came up with a theory of when the presence of others would enhance performance. Zajonc's theory The presence of others increases arousal, and arousal increases an individual's dominant responses Zyonk -zajonc proposed that the presence of others makes us more aroused, which makes us more rigid, and inclined to do what we're already inclined to do.

Marriage: The Cold, hard facts

In the US, over 50% of all marriages result in divorce Divorce rate varies across cultures Almost 0% annually in Bolivia & Spain Almost 5% annually in the US Acceptability of divorce varies, as do views concerning what constitutes a "good" marriage Marriages are less satisfying today than they were 30 years ago Individualistic vs. collectivistic distinction is a big one here - more of a sense of obligation in collectivistic cultures -as you can see, it's really important to identify what leads to dissatisfying marriages and relationships

How Can We Reduce Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination?

Increase interaction among members of different groups But contact isn't enough Requirements for contact to reduce prejudice Groups need to have a shared goal Interactions need to based at an individual level One-to-one interactions Groups need to feel equal in status A community's broader social norms must support intergroup contact -Research shows that even if schools are integrated, if children's parents do not encourage and support that integration, children will be less likely to meet and play with children from different backgrounds.

Aggression

Intentional behavior aimed at causing physical harm or psychological pain to another person e.g., saying mean things, hitting someone, killing someone, deliberate action or inaction that results in someone else getting hurt Extreme acts of aggression are called violence.

What predicts commitment?

Investment Model of Commitment Relationship satisfaction Investment Alternative Partners -commitment leads to long lasting relationships not solely because of commitment, but because it encourages behaviors that are good for the relationship, like forgiveness and acceptance

Preventing Groupthink

Leader should remain impartial Seek outside opinions Encourage people to play devil's advocate Create subgroups that meet separately Seek anonymous opinions See how this may be hard for a presidential administration to do? Lincoln was one of the few who did this successfully

Different Ways of Relating to Others

Many psychologists believe even the most intimate relationships are based on rewards Social exchange theory A theory based on the idea that how people feel about a relationship depends on their assessments of its costs and rewards This theory tries to predict how satisfied and committed people will be towards their relationships and, hence, how stable relationships will be. Typically, people prefer relationships in which the rewards exceed the cost -think about the friends you like the most, and think about the rewards you receive from these relationships. Maybe one person makes you laugh, maybe someone else helps you solve your problems How do we evaluate costs/rewards? Comparison level Expectations about what people think they deserve or expect to get out of a relationship Comparison level for alternatives Expectations about what people think they can get out of alternative relationships -high comparison level means you expect to get a lot out of a relationship. Ever have friends who can't stay in relationships for more than a few months? They may have a high comparison level -think your hot stuff? You probably have a high comparison level for alternatives.

Consequence 3: The Cost of Concealment

Members of stigmatized groups throughout history have often felt compelled to hide their true identity Associated with physical and mental health problems -Gay and lesbian individuals have often chosen to remain "in the closet," light-skinned blacks have sometimes tried to "pass" as white, and many older adults get plastic surgery, tummy tucks, and toupees -the concealment of sexual orientation is associated with cardiovascular stress, and gay men who conceal their sexual orientation show more rapid progression of HIV symptoms

Mimicry and Liking

Mimicry increases liking and affiliation between people People mimic more when they are motivated to get along

The Minimal Group Paradigm

Minimal group paradigm An experimental paradigm in which researchers create groups based on arbitrary and seemingly meaningless criteria and then examine how the members of these "minimal groups" are inclined to behave toward one another

Testosterone and Aging out of Violent Crime

Most violent crime committed during peak testosterone age levels "Aging out of crime" (e.g., the Ungers) Problems with this research Correlational findings, not causal Testosterone can also increase following aggression These studies, however, are correlational, and causality runs in both directions: That is, being in an aggressive, competitive, or sexual situation increases the production of testosterone (Thompson, Dabbs, & Frady, 1990; Mazur & Dabbs, 1992).

Evaluating The Motivational Perspective

Motivational perspectives highlight the idea that prejudice may result from motivations to feel good about oneself This is also a powerful motivator People process information in terms of categories, including social information and information about the self As a result, often see social groups in term of "us" versus "them" Motivated to be biased and more favorable toward one's ingroup -categorization is one of the foundations of prejudice. Treating and thinking of everyone from a group as exactly the same .

attributions

Negative attributions of positive behavior can also lead to relationship problems Your significant other surprises you with flowers.....what do you think? "He/she is so sweet" "Is he/she cheating on me?" or "he/she feels guilty about something" Happier partners attribute their significant others' positive behaviors to causes that are general, intended, and selfless. Happier partners attribute their significant others' negative behaviors to causes that are specific and unintended Forget your anniversary? "He's just had a lot on his mind lately" vs. "I'm not important to him" -negative attributions: attributions in which you cast your partner in a negative light -Research has shown that 75% of women are suspicious when their partner surprises them with flowers....so find a different gift. And the more a gift costs, the more suspicious women are.

Social Facilitation

Originally defined as a process whereby completion of tasks in groups enhances performance or success (relative to performance alone). Contemporary definition The positive or negative effect of the presence of others on performance The actual phenomenon is more complex. In many cases the presence of others decreases performance.

Theory 1

Other people cause us to become particularly alert and vigilant. Because other people can be unpredictable, we are in a state of greater alertness in their presence. Causes mild arousal The beauty of this explanation (the one preferred by Zajonc, 1980) is that it explains both the animal and the human studies. A cockroach needs to be alert when in the presence of another member of its species—and the same goes for human beings.

Second Way Stereotypes Influence Perceptions

Outgroup homogeneity effect The tendency for people to assume that within-group similarity is much stronger for outgroups than for ingroups Impaired ability to view outgroup members as distinct individuals. "They are all alike, but we are all different" -part of the reason this occurs is because we have much less contact with the outgroup, so we have less opportunity to encounter evidence of divergent opinions and habits among outgroup members. With our own group, we are exposed to individual differences

Explaining Away Exceptions

People don't give up their stereotypes easily If someone doesn't fit our stereotype, we label them an exception to the rule Subtyping Explaining away exceptions to a given stereotype by creating a subcategory of the stereotyped group that can be expected to differ from the group as a whole -we don't expect every member of a group to behave in a certain way, so we count them as exceptions. -we critically evaluate information inconsistent with our beliefs, whereas information consistent with our beliefs is not challenged -if you believe African Americans aren't intelligent, you might rationalize your perception of President Obama viewing him as an unusual case

Beauty is also in the "Eyes of the Beholder"

People from different cultures enhance beauty in very different ways. Different beauty customs. People from different cultures enhance their beauty in very different ways. Standards of beauty change over time Situational circumstances can change ratings of attractiveness (people see each other as more attractive after they have grown to like them, men rate their wives/girlfriends as less attractive if they have recently looked at Playboy). ***"Closing time" study - people of opposite sex perceived as more attractive at closing time

What do we find attractive?....symmetry

People prefer faces that are symmetrical. But the effect is relatively small. May be an evolutionary indicator of reproductive fitness. The capacity to pass on one's genes to subsequent generations The way to tell if faces are symmetrical is to split the picture in half and show the right side twice, the left side twice and then the original picture. Most people have a slightly different looking halves of their faces. A face is symmetrical if the R/R, L/L, and original picture look the same. So, the boy on the top is very symmetrical and the girl is less symmetrical. We also think the boy is more attractive. -Evolutionarily, people may have preferences for certain physical characteristics because they were cues of health and reproductive fitness in our ancestral past

Composite Faces

People rate many faces merged together by a computer as more attractive than the individual faces Why? Composites more familiar, more prototypical Composite faces more symmetrical

What do we find attractive?... Being Average

People seem to prefer faces that are average. Computer programs make composites of faces. The more faces included in the composite, the more attractive that averaged person is rated. However, composites of attractive faces are rated as more attractive than composites of unattractive faces.

Predictors of Divorce & Lasting Marriage

Personality Neurotic, sensitivity to rejection Married after age 20 Both from stable, 2-parent homes Lengthy courtship Educated Stable income Didn't live together or have kids before marriage Religiously committed Similar in age, faith, and education -Do certain kinds of people or situations lead to divorce? Yes they do. -Note that some of these factors influence the unacceptability of divorce as much or more so than they contribute to "good" relationships. What would you guess would be some of those things?

Why does group polarization occur?

Persuasive arguments interpretation The average person is exposed to even more arguments in favor of their original position Social comparison interpretation People initially adopt the position held by everyone else, but become more extreme in order to be especially approved by the group. Attempts to distinguish self from the group Each person has own arguments, and you may have not heard all of the arguments in favor of your original position: so keep hearing more of others' arguments and get more persuaded. Simply hearing more arguments gives us more confidence and more extremity in our initial leanings. Once you discover more support for your idea, just knowing others agree, is first step. This discovery sets up a new more extreme norm and motivates group members to go beyond that norm. If believing X is good, then believing XX is better. If everyone likes Indian food, then saying Indian food is your favorite is even better. This way people distinguish themselves in a way that's approved by the group.

Another Indirect Measure of Racial Bias

Priming and implicit prejudice Priming The presentation of information designed to activate a concept (such as a stereotype) and hence make it accessible. A prime is the stimulus presented to activate the concept in question An example of priming Say the following word 10 times aloud TIN Now answer aloud this question as fast as you can What are aluminum cans made of? Read the following words out loud FLINT HINT MINT PINT

The Importance of Relationships

Relationships are satiable. There are profound consequences for those with no relationships. There is much evidence that being cut off from others is bad for mental and physical health. Relationships are something we desire when we don't have them, but like hunger, the need for relationships can be satisfied by finding new relationships.

Love and Marriage across Cultures

Romantic bonds across cultures Western cultures may emphasize romantic views of love more than other cultures do The more typical pattern in most countries is a marriage arranged by parents Common today in much of South, East, and Southeast Asia and in much of Africa Arranged marriages avoid some of the pitfalls of marrying for romantic love, including mismatches between the couple's socioeconomic status and their religion -as you will see, these are two factors associated with relatively high rates of divorce

What Is Love?

Romantic love is what we're referring to when we say we're "in love" with someone. Romantic love is the love associated with intense emotion and sexual desire State of intense longing & physiological arousal Companionate love is the love we typically experience with friends and family members; these are people we generally trust, share activities and interests with, and usually like to be around Feelings of intimacy, deep caring Companionate love · Takes place of romantic love in enduring relationships (not totally) · Refers to secure, trusting, stable partnership characterized by deep affectionate attachment to those whose lives are intertwined · Characterized by self-disclosure · Applies to friends and lovers Best predictor of relationship satisfaction and endurance (demonstrated in college students and middle aged married adults) What is it like when you first start dating someone? Romantic love is often started and extinguished quickly "honeymoon phase" Companionate love takes longer to develop, but is often longer lasting -can use personal examples here -think about the very beginning of the relationships you've had, and think about how they changed over time. In the beginning, everything is novel and exciting Romantic love is the first derivative of intimacy (I.e., higher rate of change in intimacy = higher passion; Baumeister & Bratslavsky, 1999) How does love develop? How does it last? Let us now turn our attention to the development and maintenance of close relationships

Construal Processes and Biased Assessments

Self-fulfilling prophecies Stereotypes can also endure because they "benefit" from self-fulfilling prophecies People act toward members of certain groups in ways that encourage the very behavior they expect A teacher who believes a minority student isn't as smart and gives them less attention A person who believes a minority group is unfriendly, so they act cold and distant towards them

What Group Characteristics Promote Deindividuation?

Similar appearances Members disguised Individual decision making is discouraged Appeals to group cohesiveness

Being a Member of a Stigmatized Group

Social psychologists have identified three burdens that come with experiencing prejudice/discrimination: Attributional ambiguity Stereotype threat The Cost of Concealment

Positives and Negative Stereotypes

Some stereotypes include favorable assessments of abilities Some groups may be stereotyped as smarter, nicer, or more athletic than others Many stereotypes we hold of groups consist of both positive and negative stereotypes "African Americans aren't as smart as Caucasians" "African Americans are more athletic than Caucasians"

The Opposite of Social Facilitation

Sometimes people do worse on easy tasks in a group setting Why? Social loafing The tendency to exert less effort when working on a group task in which individual contributions cannot be monitored When in a group that is working toward a single goal, an individual's performance cannot be evaluated Thus, there is no evaluation apprehension and no increased arousal (as there was in social facilitation situations) People respond by minimizing their effort toward the goal, or "slacking off"

Consequence 2: Stereotype Threat

Stereotype threat The fear of confirming the stereotypes others have about one's group -before taking a math test, some women were told that women tended to do worse on the test than men. Other women were not told anything. Women who were told women did worse themselves performed worse on the test -stereotype threat elicits negative thinking and physiological arousal

Automatic and Controlled Processing

Stereotypes are composed of both automatic reactions and more deliberate processes Social information may be processed in two different ways Automatic processing Automatic, involuntary, and unconscious Often based on emotional responses Controlled processing Conscious, systematic, and deliberate Controlled processing can override automatic responses -subtyping for example, is a more deliberate process where we rationalize and explain away exceptions -the IAT is tapping automatic processing -this partly explains why the IAT isn't a great predictor of behavior. We can override automatic responses in favor of controlled behavior -Some psychologists have argued that what separates prejudiced and nonprejudiced people is not having a stereotype, but whether they resist that stereotype

Stereotypes and the Conservation of Cognitive Resources

Stereotypes as mental shortcuts Stereotypes are schemas Schemas influence attention, perception, and memory

The Benefits of Stereotypes

Stereotypes help us process social information efficiently Less effort is required when you know what to expect Helps us process ambiguous information Which person is a terrorist? Malala Yousafzai or Samantha Lewthwaite? Stereotypes can conserve mental energy Use of stereotypes can free up mental energy that can then be applied to other things -just like in the above laundry example. When you know what to expect, it requires less effort to process the information -Malala Yooshofzai, Samantha Lewthwait

The Problem With Stereotypes

Stereotypes may be efficient, but may frequently be inaccurate

Practical Applications

Study alone Learning complex material is easier without other people present Study groups may be useful to consolidating material and getting information or perspectives that you may not have, but study groups should not be used to learn new information

Basking in reflected glory

Taking pride in the accomplishments of other people in one's group, such as when sports fans identify with a winning team -students are more likely to wear school t-shirts after their football team has won a game -the triumphs and failures of the group with which we affiliate affect our self-esteem -father-in-law

Behaviors leading to divorce

The "Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse" Studies focusing on how couples interact found that divorce could be predicted with 93 percent accuracy on the basis of four behaviors: Criticism (being overly critical toward partner) Defensiveness (refusing to accept responsibility for conflicts) Stonewalling (withdrawal from partner, refusal to interact emotionally) Contempt (looking down on one's partner; especially predictive of the relationship ending when contempt from women is directed at men) -describe interaction studies -criticism: constantly finding fault with the partner -defensiveness: unable to talk freely and openly about difficulties without being defensive, refusing to consider the possibility that something you are doing might contribute to the conflict -stonewalling: abruptly cutting off the conversation and leaving, not engaging in the conversation at all -contempt: mockery

Stereotype

The belief that certain attributes are characteristic of members of a particular group. Ex: A man insists that "women are bad drivers."

Evaluating the Economic Perspective

The economic perspective on prejudice and discrimination fits many familiar and historic examples of conflict between groups School segregation Anti-immigrant prejudice -believe it or not, there still exists today many problems with school segregation. Just look at this example of how parent's respond to a proposal that students from mostly minority disadvantaged schools be moved into more economically advantaged schools Prejudice will be reduced when working cooperatively can benefit both groups May explain why racial integration may be more successful in the military than in other domains Military success requires cooperative action, but success in work and educational domains often requires more competition

Social Identity Theory

The idea that a person's self-concept and self-esteem derive not only from personal identity and accomplishments but also from the status and accomplishments of the various groups to which the person belongs E.g., being an "American" -might also activate negative aspects, such as shame over slavery or the treatment of Native Americans Denigrating outgroups to boost self-esteem Self-esteem can also be bolstered by negative evaluation of outgroups

Measuring Attitudes about Groups

The most straightforward way to assess how people feel about various groups is to ask them What's the problem with this? Because people want to appear non-prejudiced, it can be difficult to measure true attitudes toward different social groups What to do? Use indirect measures

The Need to Belong

The need to belong is a primary human motive. It might be related to the evolutionary significance of group living. Self-esteem may even be a "sociometer" for how well we are doing socially. Without food, water, air, we die. Similarly, we need healthy and supportive relationships. Relationships help individuals and their offspring survive, increasing the likelihood of passing on one's genes. Long-term relationships facilitate reproduction, parent-offspring attachment ensures that children survive until they can function independently.

The Proximity Effect

The single best predictor of attraction is physical proximity, or nearness. The more we see and interact with people, the more likely they are to become our friends Effects of proximity are based more on functional distance than physical distance How people encounter and interact with each other is more important than just living near another person Festinger et. al (1950) "Housing study" The single best predictor of whether two people will get together is physical proximity. Proximity effect - the tendency to be more attracted to people whom you see and interact with regularly. This may seem like it's changing since people are more connected than ever, but most social interaction still occurs among people who are in the same place at the same time. Social psychologists have noticed how proximity affects attraction and have conducted several studies of the phenomenon. A more comprehensive study was conducted by Festinger, Schachter & Back (1950). Subjects were residents of a student housing complex called Westgate West at MIT. Most people were strangers when they moved in and they were randomly assigned to apartments - a social psychologist's dream. A few months after moving in, residents were asked with whom they associated socially most often.

Group Polarization: Going to extremes

The tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclinations of its members. Toward greater risk if tendency is to be risky Risky shift Toward greater caution if tendency is to be cautious Once a group has formed (with norms, roles, cohesiveness) - most groups do consist of individuals who hold similar views. People are attracted to groups that share their attitudes, and those who disagree with the group usually leave by their own choice (or are ejected by others) Find that group decisions tend to be more risky than individual decisions! This is called the risky shift.

Theory 3

They distract us from the task at hand. Divided attention produces arousal. Consistent with this interpretation, other sources of distraction, such as a flashing light, cause the same kinds of effects as the presence of other people. This is similar to Robert Zajonc's (1980) notion that we need to be alert when in the presence of others, except that it focuses on the idea that any source of distraction—be it the presence of other people or noise from the party going on in the apartment upstairs—will put us in a state of conflict because it is difficult to pay attention to two things at the same time.

Theory 2

They make us apprehensive about how we're being evaluated. Evaluation apprehension People's concern about how they might appear to others When other people can see how you are doing, you feel like they are evaluating you. According to this view, then, it is not the mere presence of others but the presence of others who are evaluating us that causes arousal and subsequent social facilitation (Blascovich, Mendes, Hunter, & Salomon, 1999; Bond, Atoum, & Van Leeuwen, 1996; Seta & Seta, 1995).

Why the Presence of Others Causes Arousal

Three theories to explain the arousal and social facilitation: Other people cause us to become particularly alert and vigilant. Other people make us apprehensive about how we're being evaluated. Other people distract us from the task at hand.

Consequences of Social Identity Theory

Thus, we may be tempted to boost the status and fortunes of those groups and their members Ingroup members evaluated more favorably Desire to give advantages to the ingroup over the outgroup

Group Decision Making

Two (or more) heads are not always better than one. Aspects of group interactions can inhibit effective problem solving Two potential pitfalls: Group polarization Groupthink One of the main functions of groups is often to make decisions. Much of the research on group decision making has been guided by the assumption that decisions made by groups are typically better than those made by individuals. Many heads are better than one Yet in many contexts, group decisions are no better than those rendered by individuals Groups will only make the best decisions IF the most talented member can convince others he/she is correct -but this is easier said than done because of many processes that occur within groups - will talk about two today.

Discrimination

Unfair treatment of individuals based on their membership in a particular group. ex: A police officer notices a young African American man driving an old beaten up car in a wealthy neighborhood and pulls him over to question him.

How Do Stereotypes Influence Our Perceptions? First Way...

We assume members of the ingroup to be more similar to us and members of outgroups to be more dissimilar to us than they may actually be Who would you expect to share more characteristics with? A 20 y/o WKU student A 50 y/o construction worker from California By merely dividing people into two groups, people see less variability within a group and more variability between a group. Even if we divide them along arbitrary lines like in the minimal group paradigm

Physical Attractiveness

We like attractive people! High levels of agreement for facial ratings across ages and cultures. Certain physical features of the face are reliably associated with judgments of attractiveness. Consensus on what is beautiful There is typically a high level of agreement when people are asked to rate faces for attractiveness. There are physical features of the human face that are reliably associated with judgments of attractiveness. Women who are attractive are seen as having large eyes, prominent cheekbones, a small nose, and a wide smile (exactly the features that women tend to emphasize with make-up!). Men are seen as attractive if they have broad shoulders, a narrow waist, and a broad jaw. Interestingly, people like faces more when they are symmetric and when the features are not too different from average. Babies stare more at attractive faces than unattractive faces. Benefits of being attractive The most frequently documented finding is that attractive individuals are much more popular as friends and potential romantic partners than their less attractive counterparts Happier, less stressed, more in control, money Why? Halo effect The common belief (accurate or not) that attractive individuals possess a host of positive qualities beyond their physical appearance Halo effect may be due to self-fulfilling prophecies Assumed to be more successful, likable, intelligent, happier, and so on Some evidence that more attractive people are actually happier, more confident, and more satisfied with their lives, but attractiveness is not linked to such traits as intelligence -physically attractive people assumed to be more dominant and assertive -People perceive physically attractive others as more socially skilled, but they also act in ways towards them that bring out warmth and confidence, thereby confirming stereotypes that they are socially skilled,. -It's also the case that physically attractive people may generate more favorable impressions in others through repeatedly successful interpersonal encounters that build confidence

Why do we like similar others?

We're more likely to meet similar others Similar interests -> similar activities, hangout spots They provide us with social validation for our characteristics and beliefs - they make us think we're right We make negative inferences about someone who disagrees with us on important issues (e.g., he/she is unpleasant, immoral, weak, thoughtless)

Evolutionary Perspective on Attractiveness

What is attractive are features which convey the health, youth, and fertility of potential partners Advantageous because these features may indicate a greater likelihood of conception and successful rearing Overall body size standards may change over time, some things are unchanged

Deindividuation

When group members feel as if they have lost their personal identities, merged into the group or crowd, and become anonymous In that demo, basically you admitted what you would do when you were deindividuated: Deindividuation is a collective phenomenon that only occurs in the presence of others. In many instances this can lead to deviant behaviors which would not have occurred with individuals acting alone

Consequences of deindividuation

Why does deindividuation lead to impulsive and sometime violent acts? Makes people feel less accountable Increases obedience to group norms People do things they wouldn't normally do on their own Why does deindividuation lead to impulsive and sometime violent acts? Makes people feel less accountable Increases obedience to group norms People do things they wouldn't normally do on their own