Public Speaking: Chapters 8-11, 14-16

Capture your Listeners' Attention Early in your Speech, Refer To Beliefs That Many Listeners Share, Relate Your Topic Not Only to Your Listeners but also to Their Families, Friends, and Loved Ones. Be Realistic about What you Can Accomplish.

Challenges for a Neutral Audience

The quality of a conclusioin that makes a speech "sound finished"

Closure

Competence: To be a competent speaker is to be considered informed, skilled, or knowledgeable about one's subject.

Competence

Offer your credentials. Tell your listeners about your commitment to your topic.

Establish your credibility.

Use an illustration, a startling fact or statistic, a quotation, humor, a question, a reference to a historical event or to a recent event, a person reference, a reference to the occasion, or a reference to a preceding speech.

Get the audience's attention

1) Use any of the techniques for an effective introduction. 2) Refer to the introduction of you speech. 3) Issue an inspirational appeal or a challenge.

Techniques for effective conclusions

General words, ideas or qualities.

abstract

A way we structure reality to accept something as true or false

beliefs

Reasoning that moves from a general statement of principle to a specific, certain conclusion.

deduction, deductive reasoning

personal appearance

good physical delivery

volume, articulation, dialect, pronunciation, pitch, rate, pauses

good vocal delivery

A signpost in your speech tells the listeners what to expect by enumerating the ideas or points that you plan to present.

signpost

A recap of what has been said

summary

An enduring concept of good and bad, right and wrong.

values

1) Summarize the common misconceptions about the misconceptions about the ussue or idea you are discussing. 2) State why these misconceptions may seem reasonable. 3) Dismiss the misconceptions and provide evidence to support your point. 4) State the accurate information that you want you audience to remember.

4 part strategy for unreceptive audience

Introductions, Toasts, Award presentations, Nominations, Acceptances, Keynote addresses, Commencement addresses, Commemorative addresses and tributes, and Eulogies.

9 types of special occasion speaking

Imagery, Drama, and Cadence 1) Word Structures with Figuative IMAGERY. METAPHOR: Makes an implied comparison. SIMILE: Compares by using the word LIKE or AS. PERSONIFACATION: Attributes human qualities to inamimate things or ideas. 2) Word Structures with DRAMA. Short Sentence: Emphasizes and important idea by stating it in a few well-chosen words. OMISSION: Boils an idea down to its essence by leaving out understood words. INVERSION: Reverses the expected order of words and phrases. SUSPENSION: Places a key word at the end of a phrase or sentence. 3) Word STructures with CADENCE. REPETITION: Repeats a key word or phrase several times for emphasis. PARALLELISM: Uses the same grammatical pattern. ANTITHESIS: Uses parallel structures but opposing meanings in two parts of a sentence. ALLITERATION: Uses the same consonant sound twice or more in a phrase.

CRAFTING Memorable Word Structures. List and explain three types of memorable word structures.

Reasoning BEGINS with...Something known. Reasoning ENDS with...A speculation about something unknown occurring, based on what is known. Conclusion of reasoning is that something is...Likely or not likely. Goal of reasoning is...To link something know with something unknown. Example: Since the 70-mile-per-hour speed limit was reinstated, traffic deaths have increased. The increased highway speed has caused an increase in highway deaths.

Causal Reasoning

Don't Announce Immediately That you Plan to Change Their Minds. Begin Your Speech by Noting Areas of Agreement before You Discuss Areas of Disagreement. Don't Expect a Major Shift in Attitude from a Hostile Audience. Acknowledge the Opposing Points of View That Members of Your Audience May Hold. Establish your Credibility. Consider Making Understanding Rather Than Advocacy.

Challenges for a Unreceptive Audience

The meaning listeners associate with a word, based on their experience.

Connotation

Reasoning BEGINS with...A general statement Reasoning ENDS with...A specific conclusion Conclusion of reasoning is that something is True or False. Goal of Reasoning is To reach a specific conclusion by applying what is known. Example: Instituting tough drug laws in medium-sized communities results in diminished drug-related crime. San Marcos, Texas, is a medium-sized community. San Marcos should institute tough drug laws in order t o reduce drug-related crimes.

Deductive Reasoning

The literal meaning of a word

Denotation

The second phase in the evolution of your credibility is called derived credibility. This is the perception the audience develops about you after they meet you an as they see you present yourself and your message. Establish common ground with your audience. Support your key arguments with evidence. Present a well-organized message. Deliver your message well.

Derived credibility

1) Oral Stylr if more personal than written style. 2) AOral Style is less formal than written style. 3) Oral style is more repetitive than written style.

Describe three (3) differences between oral and written language styles.

To communicate successfully with the diverse group of listeners who comprise your audience, make sure your language is understandable, appropriate, an unbiased.

Discuss how to adapt your language style to diverse listeners.

Competence, Trustworthiness, Dynamism 1) Competence: To be a competent speaker is to be considered informed, skilled, or knowledgeable about one's subject. 2) Trustworthiness: You earn trust by demonstrating that you have had experience dealing with the issues you talk about. 3) Dynamism or Energy. Dynamism is often projected through delivery. Charisma is a form of dynamism. A Charismatic person possesses charm, talent, magnetism, and other qualities that make the person attractive and energetic.

Elements of Credibility

Tell you listeners how the topic directly affects them.

Give the audience a reason to listen

Consider the audience: 1) Select & Narrow Your Persuasive Topic 2) Determine Your Persuasive Purpose 3) Develop Your Central idea & Main Ideas 4) Gather Supporting Material 5) Organize Your Persuasive Speech 6) Rehearse & Deliver Your Speech.

How do you Develop Your Audience-Centered Persuasive Speech?

Reasoning BEGINS with... Specific examples Reasoning ENDS with...A general conclusion Conclusion of reasoning is that something is...Probable or Improbable Goal of reasoning is...To reach a general conclusion or discover something new. Example: When tough drug laws went into effect in Kansas City and St. Louis, drug traffic was reduced. Each city in the United States should therefore institute tougher drug laws because there will be a decrease in drug use.

Inductive Reasoning

The first phase is called initial credibility. This is the impression of you credibility that your listeners have even before you speak. Giving careful thought to your appearance and establishing eye contact before you begin your talk will enhance both your confidence and your credibility. It is also wise to prepare a brief description of your credentials and accomplishments so that the person who introduces you can use it in hes or her introductory remarks. Even if you are not asked for a statement beforehand, be prepared with one.

Initial credibility

Present your central idea to you audience.

Introduce the subject

Semanticists use a continuum called a ladder of abstraction to model how something can be descibed in either concrete of abstract language. A "ladder of abstraction" is used by semanticists to show how a concept, idea, or THING can be described in either concerte or abstract terms.

Ladder of abstraction

1) Use Specific, Concrete Words - Specific, concrete nouns create memorable images. crickets, lion, my father. The concrete verb phrase; "gasping for breath", but it is not dead. 2) Use Simple Words 3) Us words Correctly- denotation of a word is its literal meaning, the definition you find in a dictionary. Example: the denotation of the notorious is "famous". Connotation-of a word is not usually found in a dictionary, but it consists of the meaning we associate with the word, based on our experiences. Notoriors connotes fame for some dire deed. Notoriors and famous are not really interchangeable. It is just as important to consider the connotations of the words you use as it is to consider the denotations.

List and explain three ways to use words effectively.

WRITTEN STYLE: Less personal, with no immediate interaction between writer and reader. More formal and less repetivtive. ORAL STYLE: More personal, facilitating interaction between speaker and audience. Less formal and More repetitive.

ORAL VERSUS WRITTEN STYLE

A detailed outline of a speech that includes the central idea, main ideas, and supporting material; and that may also include the specific purpose, introduction, conclusion, and references. Allows speaker to examine speech for completeness, unity, coherence, and overall effectiveness. May serve as first rehearsal outline.

Preparation outline

Tell your audience what you are going to tell them.

Preview your main ideas.

Use complete sentences, use standard outline form and numbering, Include your specific purpose, Include your full introduction and conclusion.

Proper outlining techniques

The degree to which the information affects your listeners directly. Just as proximity is important to supporting materials, it is also important to speech introductions. "This concerns me" is a powerful reason to listen.

Proximity (supporting material)

Summarize the speech. Reemphasize the central idea in a memorable way. Restate the main ideas. Provide closure. Give verbal or nonverbal signals of the end of the speech. Motivate the audience to respond.

Purposes of your speech conclusion

Reasoning by analogy is a special type of inductive reasoning. An analogy is a comparison. This form of inductive reason compares one thing, person, or process with another to predict how something will perform and respond. What questions should you use to check the validity of your conclusions? 1) Do the way in which the two things are alike outweigh the ways they are different? 2) Is the assertion true?

Reasoning by Analogy

A brief outline used when a speech is delivered. Include supporting material, signpost, and delivery cues.

Speaking notes

Use an illustration or anecdote. Present startling facts or statistics. Share a quotation. Employ appropriate humor. Ask a rhetorical question. Refer to historical or recent events. Reveal something about yourself. Make note of the occasion. Acknowledge the speeches before yours.

Techniques for effective introductions

The last phase of credibility, called terminal credibility, or final credibility, is the perception of your credibility your listeners have when you finish your speech. The lasting impression you make on your audience is influence by how you were first perceived (initial credibility) and what you did as you presented your message (derived credibility). It is also influenced by your behavior as, and immediately after, you conclude your speech. For example, maintain eye contact with your audience as you deliver your speech conclusion.

Terminal Credibility

1) Initial 2) Derived 3) Terminal

Three (3) Phases of Your Credibility

Telling listeners about existing problems or information that is inconsistent with their currently held beliefs or known information creates psychological discomfort. Example: Do you value your family's security? Then you're probably worried to learn that many of us would not be able to support our families if we were injured and couldn't work. You can restore your peace of mind by buying our disability insurance policy.

Use Cognitive Dissonance

People are motivated by unmet needs. The most basic needs are physiological, followed by safety needs, social needs, self-esteem needs, and finally, self-actualization needs. Example: You could be the envy of people you know if you purchase this sleek new sports car. You will be perceived as a person of high status in you community.

Use Listeners' Needs

People seek to avoid pain and discomfort. They will be motivated to support what a speaker advocates if they are convinced that bad things will happen to them unless they do. Example: If there is a hurricane, tornado, earthquake, or other natural disaster, the electrical power may be out and you may not be able to fill you car with gas. Without the basics of food and water, you could die. You need to be prepared for a worst-case scenario by having an emergency stockpile of water, food, and gas for your car.

Use Negative Motivation

People will be more likely to change their thinking or pursue a particular course of action if they are convinced that good things will happen to them if they support what the speaker advocates. Example: You should take a course in public speaking because it will increase your prospects of getting a good job. Effective communication skills are the most sought after skills in today's workplace.

Use Positive Motivation

1) To summarize your speech and to 2) provide closure. Verbal and nonverbal clues that the speech is ending will help to provide your audience with closure. You can also use the conclusion as an opportunity to suggest an action to you audience to motivate your audience to respond in some way to your message. Conclusions may take any one of the forms used for introductions. In addition, you can refer to the introduction or make inspirational appeals or challenges.

What are the 2 main purposes of the conclusion?

Identifying your main ideas.

What helps organize the message and enhances listeners' learning?

An illustration or story. An anecdote is the most inherently interesting type of supporting material, an illustration or anecdote can provide the basis for an effective speech introduction. In fact, if you have an especially compelling illustration that you had planned to use in the body of the speech, you might do well to use it in your introduction instead. A relevant and interesting anecdote will introduce your subject and almost invariably gain an audience's attention.

anecdote

the production of clear and distinct speech sounds.

articulation

A learned predisposition to respond favorably or unfavorably toward something; likes and dislikes.

attitude

Reasoning in which the relationship between two or more events leads you to conclude that one or more of the events caused the others.

cause, causal reasoning

Identify with your Audience, Clearly State Your Speaking Objective, Tell your Audience Exactly What you Want them to do, Ask Listeners for an Immediate Show of Support, Use Emotional Appeals Effectively, Make it Easy for your Listeners to Act.

challenges for a receptive audience

The sense of mental discomfort that prompts a person to change when new information conflict with previously organized thought patterns. Telling listeners about existing problems or information that is inconsistent with their currently held beliefs or known information creates psychological discomfort.

cognitive dissonance

Specific words, which appeals to the 5 senses

concrete

The meaning listeners associate with a word, based on their experience.

connotative (connotation)

Credibility is the audience's perception of a speaker's competence, trustworthiness, and dynamism.

credibility

widely accepted definition, found in the dictionary. (The literal meaning of a word)

denotative (denotation)

Dynamism or Energy: Dynamism is often projected through delivery. Charisma is a form of dynamism. A Charismatic person possesses charm, talent, magnetism, and other qualities that make the person attractive and energetic.

dynamism

A speakers credibility. The term Aristotle used to refer to a speaker's credibility. Ethic and Ethical.

ethos

A restatement of the main ideas of a speech, occurring near the end of the speech.

final summary

Get the audience's attention, Give the audience a reason to listen, introduce the subject, establish your credibility, preview your main ideas.

five purposes of introduction

Manuscript speaking, Memorized speaking, Impromptu speaking, and Extemporaneous speaking.

four methods of delivery

Reasoning that uses specific instances or examples to reach a general, probable conclusion.

induction reasoning

A statement in the introduction of a speech of what the main ideas of the speech will be.

initial preview

A statement in the body of a speech that introduces and outlines ideas that will be developed as the speech progresses.

internal preview

A restatement in the body of a speech of the ideas that have been developed so far.

internal summary

Literally, "the word"; the term Aristotle used to refer to Logic-the formal system of using rules to reach a conclusion.

logos

An implied comparison between two things or concepts

metaphor

1) Use Cognitive Dissonance 2) Use Listeners' needs 3) Use Positive Motivation 4) Use Negative Motivation

motivate listeners

Can help you develop a common bond with audience members. Defined: A shared belief based on the underlying values, cultural heritage, and faith of a group of people.

myths of persuasion

A facial expression, vocal cue, or physical movement that indicates that a speaker is moving from one idea to the next.

nonverbal transition

Oral style is more personal, facilitating interaction between speaker and audience, less formal and more repetitive. Written style is less personal, with no immediate interaction between writer and reader, more formal, less repetitive.

oral vs. written

topical, chronological, spatial, cause and effect (causal), and problem-solution

organizational patterns

primacy, recency, specificity, complexity, or soft-hard evidence

organizing supporting material

The term used by Aristotle to refer to appeals to human emotion.

pathos

The attribution of human qualities to inanimate things or ideas.

personification

A statement of what is to come.

preview

the use of sounds to form words clearly and accurately.

pronunciation

A proposition that focuses on whether something is true or false or whether it did or did not happen. A statement that focuses on whether something is true or false. Debatable propositions of fact can be good topics for persuasive speeches. Example: Undebatable: The state legislature has raise tuition 10% during the last three years. Debatable: There are more terrorist attacks in the world today than at any previous time in human history.

proposition of fact

A proposition that calls for the listener to judge the worth or importance of something. A statement that advocates a change in policy or procedures. Example: Our community should adopt a curfew for all citizens under eighteen. All hand guns should be abolished.

proposition of policy

A proposition that calls for the listener to judge the worth or importance of something. A statement that either asserts that something is better than something else or presumes what is right and wrong or good and bad. Example: The electoral college is a better way to elect presidents than a direct popular vote would be. It is better to keep your financial records on a personal computer than to make calculation by hand.

proposition of value

metaphors, similes, and personification

recognize various stylistic devices (figures of speech)

Finish drafting your speech outline at least two days before your speech performance, before you prepare the speaking notes you will use in front of you audience, rehearse your speech aloud, time your speech, prepare your speaking notes, rehearse your speech standing up, if you can present your speech to someone else so that you can practice establishing eye contact, if possible, make an audio or video recording of your speech during the rehearsal stage. Spend more time preparing and rehearsing, to earn a higher grade. Seek feedback, and self-critique video of your rehearsal.

rehearsal tips

A question intended to provoke thought rather than elicit an answer. A thoughtful rhetorical question can prompt your listeners' mental participation in your introduction, getting their attention and giving them a reason to listen.

rhetorical question

a comparison between two things that uses the word like or as

simile

Use a Least Two Subdivision, if Any for Each Point. Logic dictates that you cannot divide anything into one part. If, for example, you have only one piece of supporting material, incorporate it into the subpoint, or main idea it supports. If you have only one subpoint, incorporate it into the main idea above it. Although there is no firm limit to the number of subpoints you may have, if you have more than five, you may want to place some of them under another point. An audience will remember you ideas more easily if they are divided into blocks of no more than five.

subdivision

1) To persuade the receptive audience 2) To persuade the neutral audience 3) An unreceptive audience. (Receptive, Neutral, and unreceptive.)

three target audiences

A verbal or nonverbal signal that a speaker has finished discussing one idea and is moving to another.

transition

Trustworthiness: You earn trust by demonstrating that you have had experience dealing with the issues you talk about.

trustworthiness

to summarize your speech and to provide closure.

two purposes of conclusion

Preparation outline and speaking notes.

two types of outlines

Initial previews, internal previews, verbal transitions, nonverbal transitions, final summaries, internal summaries.

types of signposts

A word or phrase that indicates the relationship between to ideas

verbal transition