Punctuation

. If the quotation comes before he said, she wrote, they reported, Dana insisted, or a similar attribution, end the quoted material with a comma, even if it is only one word.

"I don't care," he said. "Stop," he said.

. An often overlooked rule for hyphens: The adverb very and adverbs ending in ly are not hyphenated.

. An often overlooked rule for hyphens: The adverb very and adverbs ending in ly are not hyphenated. Correct: the friendly-looking dog Correct: a family-owned cafe

When starting a sentence with a dependent clause, use a comma after it.

: If you are not sure about this, let me know now.

Example: Mark Twain's book, Tom Sawyer, is a delight.

Because of the commas, that sentence states that Twain wrote only one book. In fact, he wrote more than two dozen of them.

Brackets are far less common than parentheses, and they are only used in special cases. Brackets (like single quotation marks) are used exclusively within quoted material.

Brackets are interruptions. When we see them, we know they've been added by someone else. They are used to explain or comment on the quotation. Examples: "Four score and seven [today we'd say eighty-seven] years ago..." "Bill shook hands with [his son] Al."

Never hesitate to add a hyphen if it solves a possible problem. Following are two examples of well-advised hyphens:

Confusing: Springfield has little town charm. With hyphen: Springfield has little-town charm. Confusing: She had a concealed weapons permit. With hyphen: She had a concealed-weapons permit.

Use double quotation marks to set off a direct (word-for-word) quotation.

Correct: "I hope you will be here," he said. Incorrect: He said that he "hoped I would be there." (The quotation marks are incorrect because hoped I would be there does not state the speaker's exact words.)

Traditionally, if a person's name is followed by Sr. or Jr., a comma follows the last name: Martin Luther King, Jr. This comma is no longer considered mandatory. However, if a comma does precede Sr. or Jr., another comma must follow the entire name when it appears midsentence.

Correct: Al Mooney Sr. is here. Correct: Al Mooney, Sr., is here.

When writing out numbers with fractions, hyphenate only the fractions unless the construction is a compound adjective.

Correct: The sign is five and one-half feet long. Correct: A five-and-one-half-foot-long sign. Incorrect: The sign is five-and-one-half feet long.

Regular nouns are nouns that form their plurals by adding either the letter s or es (guy, guys; letter, letters; actress, actresses; etc.). To show plural possession, simply put an apostrophe after the s.

Correct: guys' night out (guy + s + apostrophe) Incorrect: guy's night out (implies only one guy) Correct: two actresses' roles (actress + es + apostrophe) Incorrect: two actress's roles

Beware of nouns ending in y; do not show possession by changing the y to ies.

Correct: the company's policy Incorrect: the companies policy To show possession when a noun ending in y becomes plural, write ies'. Do not write y's. Correct: three companies' policies Incorrect: three company's policies

When quoted material runs more than one paragraph, start each new paragraph with opening quotation marks, but do not use closing quotation marks until the end of the passage.

Example: She wrote: "I don't paint anymore. For a while I thought it was just a phase that I'd get over. "Now, I don't even try."

For clarity, many writers hyphenate prefixes ending in a vowel when the root word begins with the same letter.

Example: ultra-ambitious semi-invalid re-elect

. If a quoted question ends in midsentence, the question mark replaces a comma.

Example: "Will you still be my friend?" she asked.

. In formal writing, brackets are often used to maintain the integrity of both a quotation and the sentences others use it in.

Example: "[T]he better angels of our nature" gave a powerful ending to Lincoln's first inaugural address. Lincoln's memorable phrase came midsentence, so the word the was not originally capitalized.

Similarly, use commas to enclose degrees or titles used with names.

Example: Al Mooney, M.D., is here.

Use a semicolon before such words and terms as namely, however, therefore, that is, i.e., for example, e.g., for instance, etc., when they introduce a complete sentence. It is also preferable to use a comma after these words and terms.

Example: Bring any two items; however, sleeping bags and tents are in short supply.

If two people possess the same item, put the apostrophe + s after the second name only.

Example: Cesar and Maribel's home is constructed of redwood. However, if one of the joint owners is written as a pronoun, use the possessive form for both. Incorrect: Maribel and my home Incorrect: Mine and Maribel's home Correct: Maribel's and my home Incorrect: he and Maribel's home Incorrect: him and Maribel's home Correct: his and Maribel's home Incorrect: you and Maribel's home Incorrect: yours and Maribel's home Correct: Maribel's and your home As the above examples demonstrate, when one of the co-owners is written as a pronoun, use possessive adjectives (my, your, her, our, their). Avoid possessive pronouns (mine, yours, hers, ours, theirs) in such constructions

Capitalize the first word after a colon if the information following the colon requires two or more complete sentences.

Example: Dad gave us these rules to live by: Work hard. Be honest. Always show up on time.

If a quotation contains two or more sentences, many writers and editors introduce it with a colon rather than a comma.

Example: Dad often said to me: "Work hard. Be honest. Always show up on time."

Use single quotation marks for quotations within quotations.

Example: Dan said: "In a town outside Brisbane, I saw 'Tourists go home' written on a wall. But then someone told me, 'Pay it no mind, lad.' " Note that the period goes inside both the single and double quotation marks. Also note that, as a courtesy, there is visible space between adjacent single and double quotation marks.

If material in parentheses ends a sentence, the period goes after the parentheses.

Example: He gave me a nice bonus ($500).

. Use a comma to separate two adjectives when the order of the adjectives is interchangeable.

Example: He is a strong, healthy man. We could also say healthy, strong man. Another way to determine if a comma is needed is to mentally put and between the two adjectives. If the result still makes sense, add the comma

Use commas to set off expressions that interrupt the sentence flow (nevertheless, after all, by the way, on the other hand, however, etc.).

Example: I am, by the way, very nervous about this.

Use a comma to separate a city from its state, and remember to put one after the state, also.

Example: I'm from the Akron, Ohio, area.

When an introductory phrase begins with a preposition, a comma may not be necessary even if the phrase contains more than three or four words.

Example: Into the sparkling crystal ball he gazed.

Use a comma to separate the day of the month from the year, and—what most people forget!—always put one after the year, also.

Example: It was in the Sun's June 5, 2003, edition. Example: It was in a June 2003 article.

Parentheses, despite appearances, are not part of the subject.

Example: Joe (and his trusty mutt) was always welcome.

Do not capitalize quoted material that continues a sentence.

Example: Lamarr said that the case was "far from over" and that "we will win."

Always capitalize the first word in a complete quotation, even midsentence.

Example: Lamarr said, "The case is far from over, and we will win."

In special cases, such as when forming a plural of a word that is not normally a noun, some writers add an apostrophe for clarity. Example: Here are some do's and don'ts.

Example: My a's look like u's. Imagine the confusion if you wrote that sentence without apostrophes. Readers would see as and us, and feel lost.

Use commas to separate words and word groups in a simple series of three or more items.

Example: My estate goes to my husband, son, daughter-in-law, and nephew.

When quoting something that has a spelling or grammar mistake or presents material in a confusing way, insert the term sic in italics and enclose it in nonitalic (unless the surrounding text is italic) brackets. Sic ("thus" in Latin) is shorthand for, "This is exactly what the original material says."

Example: She wrote, "I would rather die then [sic] be seen wearing the same outfit as my sister." The [sic] indicates that then was mistakenly used instead of than.

However, hyphenate most double last names.

Example: Sir Winthrop Heinz-Eakins will attend.

. A comma should precede the term etc. Many authorities also recommend a comma after etc. when it is placed midsentence.

Example: Sleeping bags, pans, warm clothing, etc., are in the tent.

Use a comma to separate contrasting parts of a sentence.

Example: That is my money, not yours.

Capitalize the first word of a complete or full-sentence quotation that follows a colon.

Example: The host made an announcement: "You are all staying for dinner."

. A semicolon may be used between independent clauses joined by a connector, such as and, but, or, nor, etc., when one or more commas appear in the first clause.

Example: When I finish here, and I will soon, I'll be glad to help you; and that is a promise I will keep.

Use a comma before and after certain introductory words or terms, such as namely, that is, i.e., e.g., and for instance, when they are followed by a series of items.

Example: You may be required to bring many items, e.g., sleeping bags, pans, and warm clothing.

When listing items one by one, one per line, following a colon, capitalization and ending punctuation are optional when using single words or phrases preceded by letters, numbers, or bullet points. If each point is a complete sentence, capitalize the first word and end the sentence with appropriate ending punctuation. Otherwise, there are no hard and fast rules, except be consistent

Examples: I want an assistant who can do the following: input data write reports complete tax forms The following are requested: Wool sweaters for possible cold weather. Wet suits for snorkeling. Introductions to the local dignitaries. These are the pool rules: Do not run. If you see unsafe behavior, report it to the lifeguard. Did you remember your towel? Have fun!

. If the quotation comes before he said, she wrote, they reported, Dana insisted, or a similar attribution, end the quoted material with a comma, even if it is only one word.

Examples: "I don't care," he said. "Stop," he said.

When using numbers, hyphenate spans or estimates of time, distance, or other quantities. Remember not to use spaces around hyphens.

Examples: 3:15-3:45 p.m. 1999-2016 300-325 people Note: Most publishers use the slightly longer en dash instead of a hyphen in this situation. Examples: 3:15-3:45 p.m. 1999-2016 300-325 people

A semicolon can replace a period if the writer wishes to narrow the gap between two closely linked sentences.

Examples: Call me tomorrow; you can give me an answer then. We have paid our dues; we expect all the privileges listed in the contract.

The personal pronouns hers, ours, yours, theirs, its, whose, and the pronoun oneself never take an apostrophe

Examples: Correct: Feed a horse grain. It's better for its health. Incorrect: Who's glasses are these? Correct: Whose glasses are these? Incorrect: Talking to one's self in public is odd. Correct: Talking to oneself in public is odd.

Use a colon rather than a comma to follow the salutation in a business letter, even when addressing someone by his or her first name. (Never use a semicolon after a salutation.) A comma is used after the salutation in more informal correspondence.

Examples: Dear Ms. Rodriguez: Dear Dave,

Use commas to introduce or interrupt direct quotations.

Examples: He said, "I don't care." "Why," I asked, "don't you care?" This rule is optional with one-word quotations. Example: He said "Stop."

Quotation marks are often used with technical terms, terms used in an unusual way, or other expressions that vary from standard usage

Examples: It's an oil-extraction method known as "fracking." He did some "experimenting" in his college days. I had a visit from my "friend" the tax man.

The placement of question marks with quotation marks follows logic. If a question is within the quoted material, a question mark should be placed inside the quotation marks.

Examples: She asked, "Will you still be my friend?" The question Will you still be my friend? is part of the quotation. Do you agree with the saying, "All's fair in love and war"?

Periods and commas ALWAYS go inside quotation marks.

Examples: The sign said, "Walk." Then it said, "Don't Walk," then, "Walk," all within thirty seconds. He yelled, "Hurry up."

Use commas to set off the name, nickname, term of endearment, or title of a person directly addressed.

Examples: Will you, Aisha, do that assignment for me? Yes, old friend, I will. Good day, Captain.

Generally, hyphenate two or more words when they come before a noun they modify and act as a single idea. This is called a compound adjective.

Examples: an off-campus apartment state-of-the-art design When a compound adjective follows a noun, a hyphen is usually not necessary. Example: The apartment is off campus.

Writers often hyphenate prefixes when they feel a word might be distracting or confusing without the hyphen.

Examples: de-ice With no hyphen we get deice, which might stump readers. co-worker With no hyphen we get coworker, which could be distracting because it starts with cow.

For clarity, writers often hyphenate when the last letter in the root word is the same as the first letter in the suffix.

Examples: graffiti-ism wiretap-proof

Hyphenate all words beginning with the prefixes self-, ex- (i.e., former), and all-.

Examples: self-assured ex-mayor all-knowing

Use discretion—and sometimes a dictionary—before deciding to place a hyphen before a suffix. But do not hesitate to hyphenate a rare usage if it avoids confusion.

Examples: the annual dance-athon an eel-esque sea creature

Some writers and editors add only an apostrophe to all nouns ending in s. And some add an apostrophe + s to every proper noun, be it Hastings's or Jones's. One method, common in newspapers and magazines, is to add an apostrophe + s ('s) to common nouns ending in s, but only a stand-alone apostrophe to proper nouns ending in s.

Examples: the class's hours Mr. Jones' golf clubs the canvas's size Texas' weather Another widely used technique is to write the word as we would speak it. For example, since most people saying "Mr. Hastings' pen" would not pronounce an added s, we would write Mr. Hastings' pen with no added s. But most people would pronounce an added s in "Jones's," so we'd write it as we say it: Mr. Jones's golf clubs. This method explains the punctuation of for goodness' sake.

Hyphenate all compound numbers from twenty-one through ninety-nine.

Examples: thirty-two children one thousand two hundred twenty-one dollars

Use an apostrophe with contractions. The apostrophe is placed where a letter or letters have been removed

Examples: doesn't, it's, 'tis, can't, you'd, should've, rock 'n' roll, etc. Incorrect: does'nt

If something or someone is sufficiently identified, the description that follows is considered nonessential and should be surrounded by commas.

Freddy, who has a limp, was in an auto accident. If we already know which Freddy is meant, the description is not essential.

Use parentheses to enclose information that clarifies or is used as an aside. The use of parentheses indicates that the writer considered the information less important—almost an afterthought.

He finally answered (after taking five minutes to think) that he did not understand the question.

A capital letter generally does not introduce a word, phrase, or incomplete sentence following a colon.

He got what he worked for: a promotion He got what he worked for: a promotion that paid a higher wage.

A colon instead of a semicolon may be used between independent clauses when the second sentence explains, illustrates, paraphrases, or expands on the first sentence.

He got what he worked for: he really earned that promotion.

Follow the same policy with introductory phrases. Example: Having finally arrived in town, we went shopping.

However, if the introductory phrase is clear and brief (three or four words), the comma is optional. Example: When in town we go shopping.

prefix (a, un, de, ab, sub, post, anti, etc.) is a letter or set of letters placed before a root word. The word prefix itself contains the prefix pre. Prefixes expand or change a word's meaning, sometimes radically: the prefixes a, un, and dis, for example, change words into their opposites (e.g., political, apolitical; friendly, unfriendly; honor, dishonor).

Hyphenate prefixes when they come before proper nouns or proper adjectives. Examples: trans-American mid-July

When writing out new, original, or unusual compound nouns, writers should hyphenate whenever doing so avoids confusion.

I changed my diet and became a no-meater. No-meater is too confusing without the hyphen.

If the subject does not appear in front of the second verb, a comma is generally unnecessary.

If the subject does not appear in front of the second verb, a comma is generally unnecessary. Confusing: I saw that she was busy and prepared to leave. Clearer with comma: I saw that she was busy, and prepared to leave. Without a comma, the reader is liable to think that "she" was the one who was prepared to leave.

Avoid a semicolon when a dependent clause comes before an independent clause.

Incorrect: Although they tried; they failed. Correct: Although they tried, they failed.

Do not use an apostrophe + s to make a regular noun plural.

Incorrect: Apostrophe's are confusing. Correct: Apostrophes are confusing. Incorrect: We've had many happy Christmas's. Correct: We've had many happy Christmases.

In sentences where two independent clauses are joined by connectors such as and, or, but, etc., put a comma at the end of the first clause.

Incorrect: He walked all the way home and he shut the door. Correct: He walked all the way home, and he shut the door.

Many inexperienced writers run two independent clauses together by using a comma instead of a period. This results in the dreaded run-on sentence or, more technically, a comma splice.

Incorrect: He walked all the way home, he shut the door.

Never use single quotation marks in sentences like the previous three.

Incorrect: I had a visit from my 'friend' the tax man.

Use commas to set off nonessential words, clauses, and phrases (see Who, That, Which, Rule 2b).

Incorrect: Jill who is my sister shut the door. Correct: Jill, who is my sister, shut the door. Incorrect: The man knowing it was late hurried home. Correct: The man, knowing it was late, hurried home. In the preceding examples, note the comma after sister and late. Nonessential words, clauses, and phrases that occur midsentence must be enclosed by commas. The closing comma is called an appositive comma. Many writers forget to add this important comma. Following are two instances of the need for an appositive comma with one or more nouns.

Do not hyphenate proper nouns of more than one word when they are used as compound adjectives.

Incorrect: She is an Academy-Award nominee. Correct: She is an Academy Award nominee.

Never use an apostrophe to make a name plural.

Incorrect: The Wilson's are here. Correct: The Wilsons are here. Incorrect: We visited the Sanchez's. Correct: We visited the Sanchezes

Use a semicolon to separate units of a series when one or more of the units contain commas.

Incorrect: The conference has people who have come from Moscow, Idaho, Springfield, California, Alamo, Tennessee, and other places as well. Note that with only commas, that sentence is hopeless. Correct: The conference has people who have come from Moscow, Idaho; Springfield, California; Alamo, Tennessee; and other places as well. (Note the final semicolon, rather than a comma, after Tennessee.)

Commas are more likely to follow parentheses than precede them.

Incorrect: When he got home, (it was already dark outside) he fixed dinner. Correct: When he got home (it was already dark outside), he fixed dinner.

Things can get really confusing with the possessive plurals of proper names ending in s, such as Hastings and Jones

Incorrect: the Hastings' dog Correct: the Hastingses' dog (Hastings + es + apostrophe) Incorrect: the Jones' car Correct: the Joneses' car

English also has many irregular nouns (child, nucleus, tooth, etc.). These nouns become plural by changing their spelling, sometimes becoming quite different words. You may find it helpful to write out the entire irregular plural noun before adding an apostrophe or an apostrophe + s.

Incorrect: two childrens' hats The plural is children, not childrens. Correct: two children's hats (children + apostrophe + s) Incorrect: the teeths' roots Correct: the teeth's roots

. If a quotation functions as a subject or object in a sentence, it might not need a comma

Is "I don't care" all you can say to me? Saying "Stop the car" was a mistake.

If a quotation functions as a subject or object in a sentence, it might not need a comma

Is "I don't care" all you can say to me? Saying "Stop the car" was a mistake.

comma is usually unnecessary when the sentence starts with an independent clause followed by a dependent clause.

Let me know now if you are not sure about this.

Hyphenate all spelled-out fractions. But do not hyphenate fractions introduced with a or an.

More than one-third of registered voters oppose the measure. More than a third of registered voters oppose the measure.

In describing family relations, great requires a hyphen, but grand becomes part of the word without a hyphen.

My grandson and my granduncle never met. My great-great-grandfather fought in the Civil War. Do not hyphenate half brother or half sister.

Avoid using a colon before a list if it directly follows a verb or preposition that would ordinarily need no punctuation in that sentence.

Not recommended: I want: butter, sugar, and flour. Recommended: I want butter, sugar, and flour. OR Here is what I want: butter, sugar, and flour. Not recommended: I've seen the greats, including: Barrymore, Guinness, and Streep. Recommended: I've seen the greats, including Barrymore, Guinness, and Streep.

Periods go inside parentheses only if an entire sentence is inside the parentheses

Please read the analysis. (You'll be amazed.) This is a rule with a lot of wiggle room. An entire sentence in parentheses is often acceptable without an enclosed period: Example: Please read the analysis (you'll be amazed).

A suffix (y, er, ism, able, etc.) is a letter or set of letters that follows a root word. Suffixes form new words or alter the original word to perform a different task. For example, the noun scandal can be made into the adjective scandalous by adding the suffix ous. It becomes the verb scandalize by adding the suffix ize.

Suffixes are not usually hyphenated. Some exceptions: -style, -elect, -free, -based. Examples: Modernist-style paintings Mayor-elect Smith sugar-free soda oil-based sludge

For extended quotations introduced by a colon, some style manuals say to indent one-half inch on both the left and right margins; others say to indent only on the left margin. Quotation marks are not used.

The author of Touched, Jane Straus, wrote in the first chapter: Georgia went back to her bed and stared at the intricate patterns of burned moth wings in the translucent glass of the overhead light. Her father was in "hyper mode" again where nothing could calm him down.

Use a comma to separate a statement from a question.

Use a comma to separate a statement from a question.

Use a comma after certain words that introduce a sentence, such as well, yes, why, hello, hey, etc.

Why, I can't believe this! No, you can't have a dollar.

Use a hyphen with the prefix re when omitting the hyphen would cause confusion with another word.

Will she recover from her illness? I have re-covered the sofa twice. Omitting the hyphen would cause confusion with recover. I must re-press the shirt. Omitting the hyphen would cause confusion with repress. The stamps have been reissued. A hyphen after re- is not needed because there is no confusion with another word.

Hyphens are often used to tell the ages of people and things. A handy rule, whether writing about years, months, or any other period of time, is to use hyphens unless the period of time (years, months, weeks, days) is written in plural form:

With hyphens: We have a two-year-old child. We have a two-year-old. No hyphens: The child is two years old. (Because years is plural.) Exception: The child is one year old. (Or day, week, month, etc.) Incorrect: We have a two-year old child. Without the second hyphen, the sentence is about an "old child."

Dashes, like commas, semicolons, colons, ellipses, and parentheses, indicate added emphasis, an interruption, or an abrupt change of thought. Experienced writers know that these marks are not interchangeable. Note how dashes subtly change the tone of the following sentences

You are the friend, the only friend, who offered to help me. You are the friend—the only friend—who offered to help me. I pay the bills; she has all the fun. I pay the bills—she has all the fun. I wish you would ... oh, never mind. I wish you would—oh, never mind.

Use a colon to introduce an item or a series of items. Do not capitalize the first item after the colon (unless it's a proper noun).

You know what to do: practice. You may be required to bring many things: sleeping bags, pans, utensils, and warm clothing. I want the following items: butter, sugar, and flour. I need an assistant who can do the following: input data, write reports, and complete tax forms.

Hyphens' main purpose is to glue words together. They notify the reader that two or more elements in a sentence are linked.

there should not be spaces around hyphens. Incorrect: 300—325 people Incorrect: 300 - 325 people Correct: 300-325 people