PY 793 - Exam 3

Internal Loop

Basal ganglia&supplementary motor area(SMA)-dominates during self-guided,well-learned movements

Lateral and Anterior Regions of the Temporal Lobe

Maybe for retrieval of info from LT stores

Korsakoff's Syndrome

anterograde and retrograde amnesia;alcoholism-vitamin deficiencies-brain damage;degeneration in diencephalon(dorsomedial nucleus of the thalamus and mammillary bodies)

Heterozygous

diff alleles at 1or more genetic loci(Aa)

Required func of supervisory attentional system(ACC?) essential for ensuring behavior is flexible

difficult situations(blood flow inc during divided attn studies in comparison to focused attn studies),novel situations(blood flow inc during word generation task in comparison to word repeat task),error correction(evoked potential studies),overcoming habitual responses(blood flow inc during incongruent Stroop trial in comparison to congruent Stroop trials)

Progressive senile dementia

difficulty assigning object to a semantic category;often name a too general category when asked to name a picture(shown horse-say "animal");neurological evidence provides support for semantic network bc related meanings are substituted,confused,or lumped together as we could predict from the degrading of a system interconnected by nodes that specify info

Matching vs Maximizing in Unilateral Brain Damage

left damage-maximization;right damage-matching

Basal Ganglia Context Visual Cell

Activity in this cell dynamically shifts as a function of hand position,&would be useful for coordinating visually guided movements

Cerebellum

Acts of feed-forward control system(learn by practice the correct sequence-throwing ball-in contrast&complementary) to the spinal cord feedback system;Project to the contralateral cerebral hemisphere via the thalamus or the contralateral brainstem nuclei;result:ipsilateral organization;does not send direct output to brain-relays info to nuclei buried within midst of the cerebellar enfolding-all cerebellar output comes from these nuclei;Controls timing needed to select effectors needed to perform task-sequencing-rapid elbow flexion-agonist biceps produce burst to propel limb braked by activation of antagonist triceps(braking disrupted&loss in cerebellar lesions)

DNA

Watson,Crick,Wilkins-molecular structure of DNA double helix-significant for info transfer in living organisms-inheritance reduced to very basic unit of organization&means by which it replicates itself

Temporal types of memory

We remember & forget things over short and long periods Meaningful to characterize different types of memory by how long the information is retained

excitatory signals to one muscle, the agonist...

accompanied by inhibitory signals to the antagonist muscle via interneurons

Connections of Limbic

from hypo-PFC;from cingulate gyrus-association cortical areas;from hippo-entorhinal

Basolateral complex receives most sensory inputs to amygdala

from sensory nuclei in thalamus&primary sensory areas of the cortex

Lesions of the LEFT supra marginal gyrus

Broadmann's area 40, deficits in phonological working memory, reduced auditory-verbal memory spans, cannot hold strings of words in working

Lesion in left premotor region

Broadmann's area 44, rehearsal process of the phonological loop

Long-Term Memory

Information maintained for more than hours 2 Major Divisions: 1)declarative(characteristics of the info that is stored), 2)non-declarative memories(take into account the observable fact that non all stored is knowledge is of the same type)

Episodic (Autobiographical) Knowledge about time and place

Involves the prefrontal (could remember personal facts about friends and celebrities but couldn't remember any specific events with them) Patients with frontal lobe damage is their tendency to forget how info was acquired, a deficit called source amnesia

Kana(Katekana)

Japanese writing style;uses syllabic system-each symbol reflects syllable;works bc Japanes only has 100 unique syllable-Englis close to 1000

Kanji

Japanese;logographic system-symbol for word or concept

Long term memory

Measured in days or years, an event from childhood or last week

light-intensity detectors

inversely proportional to light intensity-response in dim light

Chomsky

language is deeply biological in nature-not a product of nat selection-perhaps an accidental result(preadaptation) of human brain's massive collection of 84 billion neurons

music:left ear-right brain advantage

listened to dichotic message in which each ear was presented w/a series of letters sung to short melodies;given recog memory test(more accurate on letter task for heard in right ear;tested on melodies-left ear advantage)

Frontal Inhibition Decay Model

loss of inhibitory mechanisms following frontal lobe damage will lead to a slower decay process;judgements on recency memory task may be based on a comparison of residual activation of series of stimuli;in healthy ppl,rapid decay of activation allows temporal tag for each item to be distinct;in frontal lobe patients,sustained activation leads to errors due to similar activation states associate w/successive items

Orbitofrontal Lesions in NHP

loss of social guidance of behavior can be observed in primates after they receive lesions to their ventromedial PFC;social status of animals that receive lesions of the orbitofrontal cortex plummets immediately;treated as outcasts by the group-incurring aggression&being forced to withdraw to a solitary existence-determines access to food&sex partners

Strategy of Comparative Neuroscientists(bullock)

roots(deducing evo process)evo history of brain&behavior-how are brains similar&diff-brains can tell us how evo happened),rules(mechanisms that give rise to changes in NS in course of evo-are there constraints under which evolving NS develop),&relevance(general principles of organization&funcs that can be extrapolated from particular animal studied to all animals(include ppl)brain research uncovered unique aspects of human behavior that may be supported by specialized neural circuitry

TG Brown

sectioned the SC&dorsal roots,animal still generated rhythmic walking movements; neurons in SC can generate an entire sequence of actions w/o any external feedback signal

Convex-edge detectors

small,dark objects w/convex outline like beetle

OFC lesions in NHP

social status plummets;not clear why rejected;aberrant behavior seen after surgery-hard to detect by researchers-restlessness,aimless pacing,aggression sometimes,failure to groom;cannot act in manner appropriate for position&threaten social order

Genetic pleiotrophy

1 gene has many funcs

3 Types of Writing

Alphabetic(symbols approx phonemes);syllabic(symbols approx syllables);logographic(symbols approx words or concepts;chinese)

Motor Control

Cerebellum&basal ganglia;Receives extensive sensory inputs(somatosensory, vestibular,visual,auditory channels)

External Loop

Cerebellum,parietal lobe,lateral premotor cortex(PMC)-dominated during visually guided movements

The Basal Ganglia

Collection of 5 nuclei; similar to cerebellum; input-restricted to the 2 nuclei forming the striatum-caudate&putamen-extrapyramidal; output-ascending-internal segment of the globes pallidus&part of the substantia nigra to the thalamus& then to motor&frontal regions of cortex;rest of the substantia nigra, sub thalamic nucleus,&external segment of the globes pallidus modulate the output of the globus pallidus

Candidates

Compete over which movement will be selected;Motor cortex final tallying point of competition process

Brainstem

Contains 12 cranial nerves(breathing,eye move,facial express);send projections down the SC(extrapyramidal tracts-do not originate in pyramidal neurons-primary source of control over spinal activity)

Situated logic

Cosmides;beer under 21

Left Right Mood

Davidson-tension involves interplay bw processing within medial regions of prefrontal cortex in right&left hemis;PFC is convergence point in CNS for info from cortical,subcortical,&emotion processing regions;Left-approach;right-withdrawal

Evidence for Separate Auditory & Visual Components of Working Memory

Dissociations between verbal and visuospatial task such that they tend not to interfere with one another in working memory Engaged ni acoustic coding task-intro of a secondary visuospatial task does not disrupt performance as much as another acoustic task You can drive and sing a song; but you can't drive two cars, or drive two songs at once

Grapheme to Phoneme Conversion

English;translating letters(graphemes)to sounds(phonemes)-deep orthography;"ph" pronounce diff based on word

Exemplar vs Prototype Rep

Exemplar(particular breed of dog-right hemi) vs prototypical(composite blend-average dog-left hemi)

Procedural Memory

Form of non-declarative Involves the learning of a variety of motor (ride bike) and cognitive skills (acquisition of reading skills)

Understanding co-articulation:characteristics of sound spectrogram

Formants & Formant transitions

Voluntary Movement: Alpha Motor Neuron Extra-Pyramidal Tract Input

From interneurons within the spinal segment&descending fibers in the SC-originate in subcortical non pyramidal tracts&other spinal segments

F. Lhermitte

Frontal lobe patients dominated by percep info;black humor for exploiting this tendency;invite patient to meeting,place hammer,nail,&picture on table;frontal patient might hang the pic or patient might give shot;coined utilization behavior-exaggerated dependency on environmental cues in guiding behavior;intact knowledge of uses of object-lack ability to evaluate social context&appropriateness;shows up as imitative behaviors in OFC patients-tap leg or pray on knees-they mimic

Population Vector Coding

Georgopoulos;Global event-movement in certain direction-result from summed activity of many small elements,each its own vote;powerful for analyzing motor neurophysiology;Command to move in a direction is distributed across all cells devoted to a certain limb;response of each cell is a function of how closely the target direction corresponds to its preferred direction;target&preferred direction identical-maximal increase in responsiveness;if target&direction are opposite direction-maximal decrease;two axes not parallel-responseiveness is a function of their difference;coding scheme-summed activity of all cells-most accurate

Frontal vs Temporal Lobe Memory

Glisky; low frontal func associated w/poor performance on source memory test;low temporal func associated w/relatively poor performance on item memory test

Endel Tulving

Mental time travel; re-experience that past in the present

Unconditioned Stimulus

Normally produces a strong, consistent, overt response (the unconditioned response), such as salivation or withdrawal of the leg

Recency Effect

Occurs bc items at end of the list are available in STM, having been recently seen, and therefore not yet decayed

Normal Adult Speaker

Passive knowledge(50,000 words);active use(5,000-10,000words);rates(of recog&production of about 3 words/second)

Neocortex Projections to Parahippocampal Area

Perirhinal,parahippocampal,entorhinal which project to dentate gyrus,CA3&CA1 fields of the hippocampus,subiculum

Evolutionary psychology

Pinker,Cosmides,Tooby-use evolutionary framework to explain cog behavior;do not believe all behaviors are driven by genetic mechanisms rather brain has built in adaptations that constitute a set of rules that govern behavior;behavioral tendencies applied differently based on environment;behaviral flexibility as determined by environment allows for a view of human behavior compatible w/traditional psychology-based interpretations-conditioning

Libet Readiness Potential&Free Will

Potential shows increased negativity, the Bereitschaft potential;observed bilaterally;last 300msec of reaction time-the potential becomes larger over the contralateral hemisphere-probably originates in the SMA

Location-Based Representation

Practice might improve the representation of an endpoint configuration of the limb that matches the target location

Marcel Lexical Priming

Presented a word such as bread at a sub threshold level, word quickly replaced by a cross patch of letters, lexical decision taks the subject was presented with a string of letters and asked if the letters formed a word or not; presentation of sub threshold words influences the response times to related words but had no effect on the response to unrelated words

Experiments support the idea that primacy & recency effects resulted from separate memory processes

Primacy effect reflects transfer from STM to LTM through rehearsal Recency effect reflects retention in STM for items at the end of the list

Learning

Process of acquiring new info, often by repetition Need not involve the conscious attempt to learn Improve based on exposure

Unconditioned Responses are innate

Produced without learning; CS followed by a US, the CS will begin to elicit a new response (CR); if US is rewarding the conditioning is termed appetitive; if US is noxious (an electrical shock) the conditioning is termed defensive; colors

Conditioned Stimulus

Produces no overt response or a weak response usually unrelated to the response that eventually will be learned

Recall

Reconstruction replaces the original memory

Human: Sensory Neuropathies

Severe sensory deficits or neuropathies;some-peripheral sensory fibers are destroyed or become non-functional(diabetes),the motor fibers are relatively spared,due to their smaller size and reduced metabolic demands;patient oblivious to pinprick or electrical stimulation of moderate intensity could still make complicated movements;they can make movements&this emphasizes that movements can be centrally generated w/o feedback;feedback is important though-errors accumulate quickly in its absence-even in initial tracings the movements are not as precise-feedback is essential for learning,&keeping the motor system calibrated

Distance-Based Representation

She might have learned that a certain pattern of muscular activity will displace the limb a desired distance

High vs. Low Level Learning

Some aspects of motor learning are independent of the muscular system used to perform the actions. Writing with your non-dominate hand.

Living vs Non-Living Agnosia: Kinesthetic Codes?

Spared ability to recog common objects has been attributed to the fact that our visual knowledge is supplemented by kinesthetic codes developed through out interactions w/these objects;When a picture of the scissors is presented, the visual code may not be sufficient for recognition. However, when supplemented with priming of kinesthetic codes, the person is able to name the object. Kinesthetic codes are unlikely to exist for most living things

Fourier Decomposition&Synthesis

States any complex pattern can be described as the composite of sinusoids that vary in power&phase-have to include a large range of component frequencies that are oriented in all possible directions;grating pattern on left is created by combining all 3;

Memories

Stored as distributed representations throughout neocortex, involving 1)regions that originally encoded the perceptual info 2)regions representing info that was associated with this incoming information; medial temporal lobe-may coordinate the consolidation of this info over time; amnesia can be caused by damage to regions of the neocortex

Laterality, Scale, & Receptive Fields

Striate cortex neurons sensitive to size of stimulus;determined by width of excit&inhib regions of cell's RF;on-off cell responds when a light stimulus falls in the excit regions&dark stimulus falls in inhib regions;small stimulus produces high response rate in small RF neuron bc excit center regions is also stimulated by the dark background-opposite occurs w/the large stimulus

Strychnine

Sub-convulsant doses of excitant drug;Can improve the retention of learning in animals even when the drug is administered immediately AFTER the training trials(but not when given several hours after training)

Primacy and Recency in the Serial Position Effect

Subject presented a list that of up to 10 words presented on after another at 1 second intervals; following presentation, subject asked to repeat the list in free recall, better at recalling early items (called primacy) and ending items (recency); serial position effect is a U-shaped cure when accuracy of recall is plotted against the item's position on the list

Storage

The result of acquisition and consolidation, and creates and maintains a permanent record

Soap Opera Amnesia

Transient global amnesia(TGA); temp loss of memory; caused by vascular effects but limited to transient ischemia(reduced blood flow to brain area) that does not lead to cerebral infarct (permanent damage to brain tissue);tissue recovers and so does the patient's memory(medial temporal);impaired ability to form new episodic memories;may forget days, months, or years (24 to 48 hours); triggered by physical exertion; normal implicit learning or memory

Sensitive to speech sounds

Ventrolateral to area in superior temporal sulcus(left)

Left vs Right Hemisphere Intelligence

Verbal IQ of patient remains intact;left hemi(problem-solving cognitive capacity of the left hemi unaffected;the disconnected);Right hemi(easily engages in cog funcs-incapable of higher-order thought processes-spatial perceptual&atten skills;poor at prob solving)

Craik&Lockhart Experiments

Written words presented in 3 conditions (1)subjects asked to identify if words were composed of uppercase or lowercase letter-considered a superficial processing task, 2)asked to determine whether a word rhymed w/another word-condition was intermediate, 3)asked to make a judgement about the meaning of the word(e.g.does it fly?)-considered a deep level of processing because the task involved semantic(meaning)analysis);showed better subsequent memory for items more deeply processed during learning-indicating that the manner in which new info is processed affects how it is remembered

Lemma info

contains not only info about syntactic properties of the word but also info about sentence structures(verb)

Alphabetic:Shallow vs Deep Orthography

correspondence bw letters&sounds(shallow-strong-finnish&spanish)(deep-lacks-english)(shallow-morphologically related-ing)

Wernicke's Area

crucial to word comprehension;left temporal parietal(include STG)-spoken&written language;anterior to superior temporal sulcus,posterior lateral sylvan sulcus-speech processing(ventral to STG-1st primary acoustic analyses)

Learned Emotional Responses

damage to amygdala does not impair emotional responses to innately aversive or rewarding stimuli but these learned emotional responses(implicit,explicit memory,social responses,vigilance)

3 stages of learning and memory

encoding, storage, and retrieval

ACC Activation

func of ACC-monitor conflict in processing;ACC activate by errors in performance-but also just by taks difficulty(stroop task) were errors are likely;in stroop task,ACC activated when red written in blue bc in conflict according to Norman&Shallice's model even though few ppl make errors;Stroop effect is manifest in Rx data&only minimally in measure of accuracy;evoked potentials for incorrect deviated from those obtained on trials w/correct just after onset of peripheral motor activity;onset of electromyographic EMG activity

Sustained-edge detectors

ganglion cell respond to small moving edge entered&remained in RF

Genotype

genetic comp of organism;pheno result of geno(not directly observed)

Genes

heritable part of nat selec equation is gene;composed of complex organic molecule DNA;gene are seq of DNA strung along chromosomes within nucleus of cell

Neo-Meso-AlloCortex

most neo,then meso,then allo

Muscles are called "effectors"

part of body that can move

middel temporal gyrus

phonological processing

3 types of memory

sensory, short-term, long-term

Ventricular Zone

ventricles of developing brain layer of cells adjacent form cortex;radial dis-stretches from ventricular zone to surface of developing cortex

Dissociation of Location and Distance Planning

(Abrams and Landgraf) A dot was moved to the right, traversing a distance of either 4 or 7 degrees in half of the trials, the frame moved to the right; in the other half, the frame moved to the left. Subjects were asked to moved a lever, indicating in separate conditions the distance the target dot moved or the final location of the dot Distance judgments were more susceptible to the motion of the frame than were the location judgments.

Experiential Response

(Found when Penfield was stimulating cortical surface) Flashback in which patients described a coherent recollection of an earlier experience-these memory like responses were elicited only from the temporal lobes, never anywhere else Rare (8% of attempts) All of Penfield's subject suffered from epileptic seizure foci in temporal lobe and the sites of experiential responses were near those foci - this, experiential responses might have been the result of localized seizure activity This was further explained by experiments by Brenda Milner of the effects of therapeutic bilateral removal of the hippocampus and neighboring regions of the temporal lobe in a few patients with temporal lobe epilepsy such as HM

Internal representations of movement patterns

(taub)monkey dorsal roots cut, animals were deafferented-deprived of all sensory or afferent feedback from the affected limb;locomotion prob represents a special situation, an action for which specialize mechanisms have evolved;low-level mechanisms make the necessary postural adjustments to keep our body from tipping over;Patients who are functionally de-afferented must have an internal representation of the expected consequences of a motor command;they must have learned the required series of motor commands, commands that can be accessed without requiring any sort of feedback signal. A central issue is how to characterize properties of these representations and how they translate into actions

Small World Networks

1)If every node were connected to every other, the total wiring length would be prohibitive (the network to the upper right is totally connected), but 2)If nodes were only connected to nearby nodes (lower right), effective communication across the entire network would be impossible because too many synapses would separate most nodes. The solution is to have: 1)dense local wiring, but 2)sparse long-distance wiring. In such networks, called small world, any node is only a few nodes from any other (6 degrees of separation).

This set of basic emotions is used to investigate:

1)diff neural systems underlying reported emotional states or moods, 2)neural&developmental basis of facial expression&evaluation

2 primary approaches to cog neuro of emotion

1)discrete emotion type-universal expression-there are finite set of emotional states;2)continuum axes-valence,intensity-there several major emotional dimensions w/independent variation across them

Advantages of Working Memory Conceptualization over Short-Term

1)fills in details about the relation b/w STM and LTM 2)working memory concept does not assume a unitary STM store 3)working memory accounts for short term forgetting & for processing new info in a context that describes the codes used

2 func pre-frontal systems

1)lateral prefrontal cortex-conceptualized as working memory devoted to sustaining reps of info stored in cortex's more posterior regions through selection mechanisms-rep info not immediately present in environment-to rep goals these reps must persist for an extended period of time,2)anterior cingulate work in tandem w/PFC monitoring op of system

Delays associated w/ transcallosal communication no only might

1)limit cooperation bw 2 hemis but also 2)have provided impetus for development of hemi specialization; independent processing systems would be more likely to evolve nonidentical computational capabilities

Neural Basis of Memory

1)memory has stages 2)memory is often localized in different places throughout the nervous system

Association Cortex

1)sensory input from subcortical to primary receiving areas of neocortex(V1) 2)primary areas send sensory info to secondary sensory or psychic cortex which more complex percep funcs are performed 3)info finally relayed multimodal "association areas" for higher-order processing;dramatic revision of view necessary as most neocortex is sensory or motor rather than associative in nature(Kaas)

Motor Organization Hierarchy Principles

1)somatopic rep of each motor structure,2)motor areas form a hierarchy with multiple levels of control,3)SC lowest level,4)highest level-premotor&association areas;motor cortex&brainstem structures assisted by cerebellum&basal ganglia translate the action goal into a movement

Short-term forgetting from the sensory store: decay or interference?

1950s & 1960s debate about whether forgetting was 1)interference from newly learned items or 2)decay of previously learned material dominant thinking then was that loss of info from memory was interference in late 1950s, Petersen developed an experimental paradigm to measure how long it takes to forget info over the course of seconds-short term memory and forgetting (presented w/3-letter consonant strings, varying time intervals, light to cue person to recall and say letter aloud-even after 30 secs subjects remembered the consonant strings when able to REHEARSE(silently))(in another experiment, in time interval, subjects distracted from rehearsing by doing math,distraction caused %correct responses to drop below 10%by 18 secs) These studies showed that interference wasn't cause of forgetting - forgetting could happen when no new information was actually being learned - decay of info from short term must be the mechanism of forgetting

Binder Model of Brain Area Word Processing Chain

1st distinct is in superior temporal sulcus(no lexical-semantic info processed);proceeds to middel temporal gurus&inferior temporal gyrus(where phonological&lexical-semantic aspects of words may be processed);next,angular gyrus(posterior to temporal areas but then in more anterior regions in temporal pole;only latter 4 areas seem to be lateralized more to left hemi

Face processing from subcortical to cortical

2 Stages: 1)subcortical visual pathways fully functional in neonate-pathwyas predisposed toward processing face-like stimuli-activity in subcortical pathways that shapes the development of the cortical structures to which they send neural projections 2)over time looking behavior&correlated neural activity set up the cortical regions that are known to be involved in face processing in adults

Levelt Model

2 aspects of message preparation:macroplanning(setting goals&subgoals-best serves communicative plan)&microplanning(how info is expressed,taking observer perspective;determines word choice&grammatical role the words play)

Language is categorical or "digital"

2 categories of songs from wide range of acoustic signals' demonstrated via modulating acoustic signal called voice onset time(delay bw beginning of sound(/da/17ms&/ta/91ms)&vocal cord vibration);computer vary VOT in small from 17to91ms-across this subs report only hearing 2 sounds/da/&/ta/(transition called phonetic boundary)

Right Hemisphere Inference Ability for Language Limited

2 objects presented in serial order-the right hemi(left hand)asked to point to a picture that depicts what happened (pan water-water in pan)-the left hemi finds these tasks trivial while the right cannot perform the task

Amygdala&General(Hippocampal)Learning

2 primary ways amygdala interacts w/hippocampal-dependent declarative memories 1)necessary for normal indirect emotional responses to stimuli who emotion properties are learned explicitly(other than fear conditioning) 2)enhance strength of explicit or declarative memories for emotional events by modulating storage of these memories

Natural Selection

3 conditions(1.animal pop individuals vary 2.some variation heritable 2.not all individuals within pop survive);variability not appreciated until Mendel's principles of heredity were rediscovered;evo proceeds by differential reproductive success-nat selec of some traits w/benefit over others

Spatial Frequency

3 sinusoidal gratings;intensity varies across horizontal;freq varies-lowest for stimulus on top-highest for stimulus on bottom;firing rate varies depending on width of RF;in this way-visual neurons operate as spatial freq filters

Stephen Kosslyn

3 ways the hemispheres differ: neuroanatomical differences(implication for func),differ in how efficiently they can perform specific "elementary" ops(specifiying object location,mental list,detecting basic shape),combinations of basic ops to a specific "strategy";focus cutting the brain to what the patient does professionally

Frontal Lobe

3rd of cortex;posterior border w/parietal marked by central sulcus(only sulcus to extend entire length of lateral surface down along medial surface of brain);frontal&temporal lobes separated by lateral fissure;undergone tremendous expansion in human evolution-especially anterior-related to emergence of cog capabilities

Testing Physical Law Knowledge

4-1/2 to 6-1/2 months old tested for looking time;screen strikes hidden object in one trial,object removed&screen falls to floor in other;babies look longer/perplexed by 2nd trial(only older babies-w/object permanence)

Central Executive Mechanism

A command and control center that presides over the interactions b/w the 2 subordinate systems & LTM; modality nonspecific cog system that coordinates processes in working memory, and control actions

Phonological Loop

A hypothesized mechanism for acoustically coding information in working memory Has 2 parts:1)short-lived acoustic store for sound inputs,2)articulatory component-plays a part in the subvocal rehearsal of items to be remembered over the short term-articulatory component rehearses visually presented information in working memory

Visuospatial Sketch Pad

A hypothesized mechanism for visual imagery used in working memory (is the student union on the right or left of campbell hall looking from heritage hall?) A short-term representation that parallels the phonological loop and permits info storage in sensory iconic purely visual or visuospatial codes

Imitation Learning

A key factor in the acquisition of language, has no obvious associational element

Subliminal Perception

A picture of a boy (either presenting a cake or throwing one) is presented so fast that the subject is unaware; then a neutral picture is shown, and subject asked to speak to character. The subject's view is subject to the action in the picture

Blocking Phenomenon

A striking illustration of the inadequacy of contiguity to explain classical conditioning; Leon Kamin 3 part experiment (1-paired a light as a CS w/shock;2-light w/ new CS tone;3-presented the tone alone-found little or no conditioning to tone-despite repeated light-tone compound stimulus-the tone never evoke fear by itself If the unconditioned stimulus (US) is completely novel and unexpected because it has not been previously paired with a conditioned stimulus (CS), the rate of learning is maximal. But as the US gradually becomes expected, and the rate of learning becomes zero: no further learning takes place

Lichtheim's Language Circuit

A-store permanent info about word sound M-speech planning&programing B-conceptual info stored lesioning one could cause problem

Callosotomy with Splenial Sparing

Ability of visual info to be transferred bw cerebral hemi

A lesionin the interpositus nucleus (a deep cerebellar nucleus)

Abolishes the conditioned eyeblink

Damage to the vermis of the cerebellum

Abolishes the conditioned response, but does not affect the unconditioned response (eye blink in response to a puff of air)

Semantic Activity Specialized in Normal Brain

Alex Martin conducted studies w/PET&fMRI to reveal how dissociations in neurological patients can be identified in neurologically normal brains for faces,animals,&tools;Animals-when subs read names of unanswered questions about animals,or when names pictures of animals,differential activation occurred in 1)lateral aspect of fusiform gyrus(on the brain's ventral surface) 2)superior temporal sulcus 3)left medial occipital lobe;Tools:id&name tools produce activation in 1)more medial aspect of fusiform gyrus 2)left middle temporal gyrus 3)left premotor area,a region also activated by imagining hand movements;findings consistent w/ idea conceptual reps in our brains of living things vs man-made tools rely on separable neuronal circuits engaged in processing perceptual vs. func info

Adjacent Object Discrim Properties

Amy Needham;4.5 months old can use object shape to segregate objects;object are touching&similar shapes-do not recog them as distinguishable;do recog if shapes are dissimilar;cannot use color to distinguish(must be 5-9mons);physical relation bw objects in display-play role in infant's segmentation of a display into its component;research suggest infants' visual world is richer&much better organized that any of us may have suspected

Alternative to Hierarchy: 2 Phase Control Sequence

An alternative conceptualization is that location and distance planning represent 2 independent forms of representation. This hypothesis provides an interpretation for why pointing movements generally have 2 phases: 1)a rapid, ballistic phase when the arm is transported to the vicinity of the target, 2)followed by a secondary phase when the target location is achieved Although the second phase has been interpreted as showing the activation of feedback processes, it could reflect a transition from a representation based on distance to one based on location

Extended Cohort Data

Anne Cutler;competition plays a role in word recog;subs slower to recog real words embedded in nonsense strings that can activate competing words-mess in domess which could activate domestic THAN real word embedded in nonsense stings that have no overlap w/real words-mess in bemess-no real word activation

Is cellular activity correlated with movement direction or movement location?

Apostolos Georgopoulos; studied monkeys; move lever to designated starting position; after a brief hold, a light comes on at a target position&the animal moves the lever to this position to obtain a food reward;movement similar to a reaching action&usually involves rotating 2 joints, the shoulder,&the elbow; movements originated at the 8 peripheral locations&always terminated at the center location;neuron's activity when movements were initiated from a center location to eight radial locations-this cell was most strongly activated when the movement was toward the animal; movements were initiated at radial locations&always ended at the center position; cell most active for movements initiated from the most distant position; movement was again toward the animal

Primary Motor Cortex

Area 4, anterior to central sulcus,bw frontal&parietal

Somatosensory Cortex

Area 6;divided into lateral region,premotor cortex,medial region(supplementary motor area)

Scale&Specialization

Asked to describe image to the right-you would say right-if prodded, then detailing on front door,windows, roof-this is a hierarchical description(finer details);described on multiple levels

Induction of LTP: Postsynaptic Effects

B. When the postsynaptic membrane is depolarized by the actions of the non-NMDA receptor-channels, as occurs during a high-frequency tetanus that induces LTP, the depolarization relieves the Mg2+ blockage of the NMDA channel. This allows both Na+ & Ca2+ to flow through the NMDA channel. The resulting rise in Ca2+ in the dendritic spine triggers calcium-dependent kinases (Ca2+/calmodulin kinase and protein kinase C) and the tyrosine kinase Fyn that together induce LTP. **The Ca2+/calmodulin kinase phosphorylates non-NMDA receptor-channels and increases their sensitivity to glutamate thereby also activating some otherwise silent receptor channels. Thus, depolarization induced by tetanus gives rise to a postsynaptic contribution for the maintenance of LTP.

Basal Ganglia Hierarchical Loops Without Feedback

BG initiate&transition movement sequences;control the sequence of implementations of motor actions as they proceed from prefrontal cortex planning areas to primary motor cortex execution by inhibiting thalamic projections to mot areas for the non-implemented paths

Internal loop

BG&Supplementary motor area(SMA);self-guided,well-learned movements

Working Memory Model (Central Executive or SAS)

Baddeley and Hitch 1974; 3 part working memory system:1)central executive mechanism-controlling 2 subordinate systems involved in rehearsal,2)a phonological loop,3)a visuospatial sketch pad

Homologous Brain Areas 2

Barrel cortex primary somatosensory in possum&mouse demonstrated w/Nissl&cytochrome oxidase stain;reps mystatial vibrissae in these mammals

Truth

Bilateral hippocampal regions were more activated for true and false than for new items, with no difference between activations for true and false items. A left posterior parahippocampal region that was more activated for true than for false and new items, with no difference between activations for false and new items.

Laterality in Birdsong

Birdsong production depends on structures in left hemi;Fernando Nottebohm-sectioned canary's hypoglossal nerve in its left heme-disrupted song production;right lesion-little effect;lesion to either hemi can interfere w/song production

Simple Flexion and Extension of Index Finger on the Right Hand

Blood flow increases were restricted to primary motor&somatic sensory cortical regions in contralateral hemisphere;blood flow also increased bilaterally in SMA(supplementary motor area)&prefrontal regions;supplementary motor area was also active,bilaterally, when the sequence was mentally rehearsed, no increases were present in the primary motor cortex

Language Inputs

Brain cope w/spoken or written input to derive meaning

High Func w/Half a Brain

CC severed IQ remains intact-no major change in cog funcs;integrated 1200- to 1300-gm brain becomes 2 isolated 600- to 650-gm brains(inability to perform tasks);cortical cell # does not account for intelligence

Interhemispheric Competition

CC underlies this competition-primary func of CC inhibitory rather than excitatory;activation builds in region within hemi,the homologous, corresponding region in other hemi would be inhibited;split brain behavior=fluctuating dominance of hemis

Comparative MT anatomy

CUT DOWN!!!visuotopic organization&relative location of MT are similar in Prosimians (galagos), New World monkeys (owl monkeys), & Old World monkeys (macaque monkeys);In addition, the architectonic appearance of area MT & the presence of direct connections from the primary visual area add further support to the hypothesis that area MT is homologous in all Of these primates. An out-group analysis Of a more distantly related group (tree shrews: archontans) indicates that some features of an MT-Iike area are present in the area labeled TD, which may be homologous to MT in primates. Area MT probably evolved some time before the emergence of prosimians, but after the radiation of archontans such as tree shrews.

Categorical vs Coordinate Representation

Categorical-basic relational info-relative position of 2 objects from specific POV(task-"above or below"-faster when stimuli in right visual field-left hemi;difficult to make from low frequency info alone);coordinate-exact positions of the objects&the distances bw the objects(task-"near or far"-faster in left visual field-right hemi)

Caramazza Challenge:Theories of Semantic Organization

Challenged Warrington's hypothesis-studeits did not use well-controlled linguistic materials(ex.comparing living things vs.man-made things;some objects tested in either category were matched on visual complexity,visual similarity across objects,the freq of use,&familiarity of objects;can't draw conclusions about diff in rep in semantic network from single dissociation lesions studies;Caramazza proposed-an alternative theory in which semantic network is organized along lines of conceptual categories of animacy&inanimacy

Levels of processing model

Challenges Atkinson&Shriffrin modal model based on data that other factors besides simply holding information in STM seemed to influence LTM; hypothesize that the "deeper" (i.e., more meaningfully) an item was processed, the more it was consolidated and stored in LTM Deep or elaborate rehearsal and encoding create meaning-based codes that relate info directly to previously acquired knowledge; result is better learning compared to when info is merely repeated and stored as simple visual or phonological codes; this feature of memory is inconsistent with the concept of a STM store bc it distinguishes between: 1)merely holding info in STM long enough to get it into LTM storage,2)the type(superficial or deep)of encoding necessary to accomplish this process Supported by Craik and Lockhart experiments

2 Other Domains of Non-Declarative Memory

Classical Conditioning and Non-Associative Learning

Associative Learning

Classical conditioning involved learning a relationship between two stimuli (Pavlov-what animals and humans learn when they associate ideas can be examined in its most elementary form by studying the association of stimuli) Operant conditioning involves learning a relationship between the organism's behavior and the consequences of that behavior (trial-and-eroor learning) (Unlike classical conditioning, which tests the responsiveness of specific reflex responses to selected stimuli, operant conditioning involves behaviors that occur either spontaneously or without an identifiable stimulus) If we think of classical conditioning as the formation of a predictive relationship between two stimuli (the CS and the US), operant conditioning can be considered as the formation of a predictive relationship between a stimulus (eg, food) and a behavior (eg, lever pressing) classical conditioning involves learning an association between two stimuli whereas operant conditioning involves learning the association between a behavior and a reward In operant conditioning the reinforcer usually must closely follow the operant behavior. If the reinforcer is delayed too long, only weak conditioning occurs. The optimal interval between behavior and reinforcement depends on the specific task and the species. Similarly, classical conditioning is generally poor if the interval between the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli is too long or if the unconditioned stimulus precedes the conditioned stimulus. In addition, predictive relationships are equally important in both types of learning. In classical conditioning the subject learns that a certain stimulus predicts a subsequent event; in operant conditioning the animal learns to predict the consequences of a behavior.

Dichotic Listening Right Ear Advantage for Language

Competing messages are presented one to left ear&one to right ear(auditory info projected bilaterally-although majority of ascending fibers from the cochlear nucleus project to the contralateral thalamus-some fibers ascend on the ipsilateral side);subject asked to judge whether a probe stimulus was part of the dichotic message-comparisons focus on whether info had been hear in right or left;found:more accurate in reporting info presented to the right ear

Muscles

Composed of elastic fibers-can change length&tension;attached to skeleton at joints;arranged in antagonist pain which enable the limb either to flex or to extend;biceps&triceps form an antagonist pain-regulates forearm position;contract or shorten of bicep cause flexion about the elbow;bicep relaxed or tricep contracted-forearm extended;alpha motor neurons drive muscles

Episodic Memory

Conscious awareness of events in our personal history-personal autobiographical Contextual memory associated with events-and other things associated with an event that have no semantic relationship to it, but occurred with it in time Evolved from navigational memory-example, not only the path to the waterhole, but that yesterday, at sunset, a lion was near the waterhole

Amygdala damage do not show gross impairment in ability to respond to social cues

Consciousness of Emotional States Does Not Require Amygdala;Does not cause a wide range of emotional response but someow must be involved in emotional reasoning;Bruce Kapp-activity of amygdala neurons sensitive to threathening stimuli is correlated w/spontaneous inc in excitability of cortical neurons;basal forebrain neurons release NT acetylcholine to sensory cortical neurons-facilitate responses of these neurons;attentional blink-rapid serial visual presentation-15 words 1 word ever 100msec;sub instructed to ignore most of words&concentrate on reporting only 2words that are presented in green ink;role in positive affect&rewarding stimuli

Rescorla-Wagner

Contingency b/w conditioned&unconditioned stimuli; These experiments show that the animal is not just counting the number of CS-US pairings. Rather the animal determines the overall correlation or predictive relationship between the CS and the US Thus, in addition to being paired in time, efficient learning requires that the CS and reinforcer (the US) be positively correlated; the CS must indicate an increased probability that the US will occur

Cortical Somatotopic Representation

Contralateral especially for distal effectors;cortical spinal tracts almost all cross,or decussate,junction of medulla≻extrapyramidal fiber also decussate

Hypothalamus

Controls pituitary gland&thereby regulate endocrine system;temp,HR,BP,water,food intake

Category Specific Deficits:impairment for foods&living things

Correspondence bw sites of lesions&type of semantic deficit;patient impairment involved living things had lesion in inferior&medial temporal cortex,often anterior;anterior inferior temporal cortex located closed to areas of brain crucial for visual object percep, the end station for the so-called what-info or object recog stream in vision;medial temporal lobe contains relay projections from association cortex to hippocampus-funcs in encoding of info in LT stores

Isolated retrograde amnesia

Damage of the anterior temporal lobe-not essential for acquiring new info; dense retrograde amnesia but able to still form new LTM, some anterograde memory capability is spared

Lesions affect word retrieval

Damasio;correlated brain areas that were lesioned in these patients must play a role in word retrieval;bc person had concept wo name they 1)did not assume that findings reflect the organization of a conceptual network in brain but 2)proposed that their finding reflect the organization at the word lexical level;argued results indicate the brain has 3 levels of rep for word knowledge(top level-conceptual-preverbal semantic features furry;lexical-word form that matches concept-cat;phonological level-sound info of word repped;no rep of lemma(level for word production);several neuronal structures in left&right hemis connected to lexical networks in left temporal lobe&might contain specialized info for persons, animals, or tools;activate phonological network that touches off the sound pattern needed to pronounce the word

Cerebellum Output

Descending:axons from more medial nuclei synapse on spinal interneurons&nuclei of the extrapyramidal tracts-majority Ascending:output from lateral regions of cerebellum influence motor&frontal cortical regions by way of relays in the thalamus

TMS over Posterior Parietal Cortex(PPC)

Desmurget;Disrupts rapid correction at the end of reaching movements-no correction if target moved

Working Memory

Developed to address shortcomings in STM modal model Limited-capacity store:1)retaining info over short term,2)performing mental ops on contents of store Contents originate from:1)sensory inputs by way of sensory memory(as in the STM model)2)loaded from LTM Contents acted on and processed, not merely maintained by rehearsal Entails more than STM; arithmetic calculations, for example, or describe an event that occurred a month ago, long-term memory contents are loaded into working memory, and mental operations are done there

George Wolford

Difference bw 2 hemis in problem solving style;simple task of trying to guess which of 2 events will happen next;each event has diff probability of occurrence but in random order(red 75% of time;green 25%);2 possible strategies for responding in this task:matching(freq match would involve guessing red 75%&green25%)&maximizing(guessing red every time-animals like rats&goldfish maximize;humans match;result:nonhuman animals perform significantly better than humans in this task&human's use of suboptimal strategy has been attributed to a propensity to TRY to find patters in seq of events,even if told they are random)

Lesions in the right parieto-occipital region

Difficulty with nonverbal visuospatial working memory tasks (like coping pattern blocks)

Techniques to measure (vs manipulate) emotion

Direct assessment(ask sub-self report);indirect assess(choosing among possible actions-examine choices reveals values they assign-offer kid 2 diff toys)

Planum temporal

Discovered by Geschwind&Galaburda;generally larger in left hemi&that asymmetry in this region of the temporal also extended to subcortical structures connected to these areas;dorsal surface of temporal

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) on memory performance

Disrupts 1)consolidation of previous learning from the previous 6 months, 2) consolidation of new material into the future for 2 months; retention of memory can suffer from ECT bc of:1) destruction of the contents of a memory store, or 2)interference with the consolidation of the search-and-retrieval mechanism(temporarily disrupts memory but considerable memory for past events gradually returns; if stored memory were completely destroyed by the ECT, it obviously could not be recovered); Retrieval of recent memories is easily disrupted until the memories have been converted into a long-term memory form

Distracting in Primacy & Recency

Distracting task after a list of items was presented distracting task eliminated the recency effect (as one would predict if distracting task disrupted STM rehearsal after list presentation primacy effect was unchanged; however, primacy effect could be eliminated if the list items were presented more quickly, bc less time for rehearsal of early items fast presentation did not affect the recency effect, bc this depends on the last items being available in STM for transfer to long term

Supervisory Attentional System (SAS)

Donald Norman & Tim Shallice; SAS overrides routine execution of learned behaviors when novel circumstances require modified actions, and it also coordinates and plans activities

Taub Deafferentation Procedure

Dorsal root section;two stages:1)op restricted to a single arm-animals did not use affected limb-no activity like climbing-which requires coordinated actions of the two forelimbs; 2)severed dorsal root in remaining intact limb-animals now use both limbs-hard to notice abnormalities;supports that sensory signals are not essential for movement although an animal prefers to use a limb that has intact sensory signals

Sociobiology

EO Wilson;reformulate social sciences&biologicize;marry zoology&population biology;biological basis of all social behavior;allowed for logical explanation of animal behavior;relatedness of individuals within colony-high net contribution to reproductive fitness that such lifestyles allow;primary function is not to reproduce other organisms but reproduce genes-serve as temp carrier

Occipital-Temporal Brain Areas for Processing Words

ERP Data-large negative polarity potential around 200msec(N200) in these regions in response to visual presentation of letter strings;area no sensittive to other visual stimuli like face-insensititve to lexical or semantic features of words;Lesions here give "pure alexia"-cannot read words even though other aspects of language are normal

Motor Cortex Somatotopy 2 Principles

Each motor structure is an organize somatotopic representation of the body;electrical stimulus applied to medial wall of the percentile gyrus move foot,applied at ventral lateral sit move tongue;cortical area devoted to certain effector reflects the importance of that effector for movement&level of control(also # of receptors)required for manipulating the effector(fingers more than dexterity);demonstrated non invasively with TMS place coil over motor cortex,move coil down stimulation moves from upper arm to wrist to fingers

Eyewitness Testimony

Elizabeth Loftus; half saw red stop sign and other red yield sign; then half were presented with questions referring to the correct sign and other half with the incorrect sign; 75% of the subjects correctly recognized a previously seen slide if the correct sign had also been mentioned in the questioning session; but when subjects previously had been questioned with the wrong sign being mentioned, only 41% had correct recognition for the slides; CHILDREN:control group made no false reports during free recall or with the dolls, but with leading questions, three children made false reports

Semantic Category Aphasias

Elizabeth Warrington-research on semantic dementia;probs can be localized specifically to certain semantic categories-animals vs objects;reported studies of patients who had 1)great difficulty pointing or naming pics of food or living things when presented word 2)whereas performance w/man-made objects like tools was much better;the reverse pattern found in another (smaller) group of patients: 1)their ability to id foods&living things was preserved 2)their ability to id manmade objects was impaired

Central Rep Based on Location Code

Emilio Bizzi; Deafferented monkeys trained in a simple pointing experiment; After the light was turned off, the animal was required to rotate its elbow to bring its arm to the target location.

Response Inhibition or Facilitation

Emotion can facilitate or inhibit response;emotion variant of Stroop task-subs asked to perform same task--name color of ink-but words are either emotional or neutral-emotional content of words inhibits latency of response-content of stimuli processed auto&captures our attn resource-inhibiting out ability to respond to other stimulus properties

Patient HM

Epilepsy that progressed in severity Seizures originated in the medial portions of the temporal lobe then spread Surgery remove medial temporal lobe-temporal lobectomy Impact on memory Had preserved STM but a near total loss in the ability to form new LTM; this provides a double dissociation for retention of info over the short and long term If short term stores are not the gateway to long term storage, what is? Lost capacity to form new LTM STM intact Could remember life before Couldn't transfer info from STM to LTM Wen he learned a new task, he failed to retain the info for more than a minute Asked to remember #584, could repeat immediately for many minutes, when distracted briefly, he forgot Didn't remember new people he met Took a year to learn way around new house Could learn new motor skills normally (draw star which looking at hand and star in mirror; slowly got better at it) - able to retain various forms of simple reflexive learning, including habituation, sensitization, classical conditioning, and operant conditioning Milner found that they are able to learn and remember certain types of tasks as well as normal subjects for long periods

Elbow Flexion

Excitation of the biceps&passive stretch of triceps;unchecked would trigger via stretch reflex excitation of the triceps&the limb would return to its original position

Two Fundamentally Different Ways of Learning

Explicit (we learn WHAT the world is about acquiring knowledge of people, places, and things that are available to consciousness - using a form of memory that is commonly called explicit -- involves the medial temporal lobe system-encode autobio info as well as factual knowledge - evaluation, comparison and interference;recalled by deliberate recollecting;established in single trial or experience;declarative sentences) & Implicit (we learn HOW to do things - acquiring motor or perceptual skills that are unavailable to consciousness - using implicit memory; does not depend directly on conscious processes&is stored in perceptual, motor, and emotional circuits; builds up slowly through repetition over many trials)

Left Brain

Finer details;rep local info;drew global shape but w/o local components;Prototypes;analytic,logical;letter task for music;match;withdrawal

Motor Sequence Learning in M1

Finger movement task-doubled their speed;fMRI scanning sessions-metabolic activity was greater in the primary motor cortex when the subjects were producing the learned sequence;learning-related changes can be seen in primary motor cortex

Richard Davidson(approach/withdraw)

Fundamental tension for any mobile organism is bw approach&withdrawal;even primitive organisms;evolution of more complex nervous systems has provided mechanisms to modulate the tension bw these 2 behavioral poles

The Importance of Categorization

George Lakoff;category balan-includes women, fire,&dangerous things-alson includes birds that are not dangerous,as well as exceptional animals-platypus, bandicoot,&echidna;nothing more basic than categorization to our thought, percept, action&speech

Two forms of non associative learning

Habituation (a decrease in response to a benign stimulus when that stimulus is presented repeatedly) Sensitization-pseudoconditioning(an enhanced response to a wide variety of stimuli after the presentation of an intense or noxious stimulus) Moreover, a sensitizing stimulus can override the effects of habituation, a process called dishabituation Sensitization and dishabituation are not dependent on the relative timing of the intense and the weak stimulus

Patient EE

Had a tumor centered in left angular gyrus, affecting the inferior parietal cortex & posterior superior temporal cortex Showed below-normal short-term memory ability but preserved long-term memory Deficit was in STM. the pattern of behavior displayed by EE and similar patients demonstrates a selective loss of so-called STM abilities but preservation of LTM Implication of new data is that STM cannot be the gateway to LTM in the manner aid out in the modal model, bc there is a clear dissociation bw LTM ability and ST retention of info Thus, info from sensory memory registers can be encoded into LTM directly

Sensory (iconic) memory

Has a lifetime measurable in seconds, as when we mentally recover & maintain an internal image of what we just experienced although we were not paying attention 3 key features 1) decays relatively swiftly 2) exists as a a)sensory based representation of info, b)not a semantic (meaning-based) representation 3) has a larger capacity than short-term memory Sensory traces are not directly accessible to conscious awareness until the info can be 1)read out of sensory memory, 2)analyzed, and 3)brought into awareness *sensory memory is something like the afterimage from staring at a bright light bulb

2 pathways to amygdala

High(slower,more thorough&complete;sensory info to thalamus then info to sensory cortex for finer analysis then projects results to amygdala)&low(quick&dirty-subcortical projects to thalamus then directly to amygdala;thalamus does not produce sophisticated analysis of sensory info but can send crude signal to amygdala whether stimulus resembles CS)roads;low road allows fast info to prime or ready amygdala so it can respond when info is confirmed by high road

Temporary Depository for LTM

Hippocampus! Does not store LT info but facilitates storage initially processed by the inferno-temporal cortex (could either be a way station for LTM or facilitation system) "For example, the sensory information needed for recognizing a face is processed in visual areas of the cerebral cortex concerned with face recognition - the infero-temporal cortex. Concomitantly, this visual information about faces is also conveyed to the entorhinal cortex, which is the source of the perforant pathway, the major input pathway to the hippocampus. The hippocampus and the related temporal lobe areas are then thought to process this newly learned information for a period of weeks to months - and then transfer the information to the cerebral cortex, perhaps to the area of the visual cortex concerned with face recognition."

The Location Hypothesis

If the animal has learned that a muscular burst will transport its limb a certain distance, applying an opposing force should result in a movement that falls short of the target. But if the animal generates a motor command to the desired position, it should achieve this goal once the opposing force is removed. The results clearly favor the location hypothesis.

Larger Arm Perturbation

If the animal is programming muscular events that will result in movement of a desired distance, then the arm should be propelled well past the target. Yet if the animal is programming a desired final location, there should be no movement--the arm has already been moved to the target location. Neither of these predictions was confirmed. When the torque was removed, the limb moved toward the original location, followed by a reversal after a few hundred milliseconds toward the final location.

Alternative to Hierarchy: Independent Location&Trajectory Control

In the hierarchical model, goals are specified initially as target locations. A translation process is then required to determine the trajectory and corresponding muscle activity required to move a limb to the goal. That location and trajectory planning provide two different representations for determining muscle activity

Non-Associative Learning

Includes forms of simple learning that do not involve the association of 2 stimuli to elicit a behavioral change: 1)habituation-decrease in a response with repeated presentations of the stimulus, 2)sensitization-increase in a response with repeated presentations of the stimulus These simples forms of learning/plasticity can be seen at single synapses and occur in invertebrates as well as mammals

Location Planning

Indeed, a similar return toward the starting position is also seen when this manipulation is done in the monkey with intact feedback mechanisms. These results provide even more compelling support for the location hypothesis and reveal insights into the dynamics of location-based representations. At the time the target was illuminated, the monkey was still generating a motor command corresponding to the initial location (Figure 11.1 2). Thus, the arm began to drift toward this position once the torque force was removed. When the target's location is identified, the representation of action commands corresponding to this location are instantiated and the arm moves toward the target location. The experiment demonstrated how movement can be viewed as a shift from one postural state to another. Location planning is computationally appealing when considered from a hierarchical perspective in which the highest level of the planning system is concerned with achieving a final configuration, a movement that reaches a goal.

Cellular Substrates for Visual Processing for Reading:Where does reading diverge from other vision?

Initial perceptual analysis of written symbols bilaterally activates areas of the brain that are specialized for visual processing(striate cortex&adjacent areas of the extrastriate visual cortex)

Wiring of the BG

Inputs from the cortex primarily project to the striatum;direct pathway goes to the output nuclei, the internal segment of the globus pallidus&substantia nigra.The output projections to the thalamus are relayed to the cortex.The dopaminergic projections modulate activity.

Lesions of the amygdala (2)

Interfere with conditioned fear responses

Lesions of the cerebellum

Interfere with various forms of motor learning

Unitary or Multiple Semantic Systems

Is same conceptual rep of robin activated when one hears the word robin or sees one flying? argued 1)a unitary semantic system that utilizes only a verbal-or proposition-based format 2)a multiple code system in which diff types of info can be stored on the basis of percept&verbal-based codes;question related but not identical to question of whether our conceptual or semantic system is modal or whether modality-specific&independent meaning systems exist

William James

James Lange- theory of emotion-emotion of fear comes after lower level percep recog of danger&physical reaction

Limbic System

James Papez propsed circuit theory of brain&emotion,suggesting emotional responses involve a network of brain regions including hypothalamus, anterior hypothalamus,cingulate gyrus&hippocampus(learning&memory);Paul MacLean later named these structures the "Papez circuit"&extended this emotional network to include the amygdala,OFC&portions of BG;medal dorsal nucleus of thalamus;phylogenetically old mesocortex-cingulate gyrus is meso while hippocampus is allo;limbic lobe structures phylogenetically older than surrounding neo&more in brains of non-mammalian-primate mostly neo

Transcallosal Delay Time

James Ringo;looked at distance to be traveled&speed it will be transmitted;distance direct=average distance of CC fiber would be short;175mm used as avg length;speed is func of diameter(6.5m/sec);travel 175mm would take 30sec

ACC Mediates Response Conflict

Jonathan Cohen;key func of ACC is to evaluate response conflict as an umbrella account of the monitoring role of ACC;in Cohen's view,conflict monitoring is a computationally appealing way to allocate atten resources;when monitoring system detect that conflict is high there is a need to increase attentional resources;inc in ACC activity can be used to modulate activity in other cortical areas

Patient PS

Joseph Le Doux;split brain-emotional stimuli into right hemi but left has no idea what right saw could tell if it rep good or bad-CC section but anterior commissure was intact- emotion info traveling from one amygdala to another;danger-freeze blood pressure goes up-release stress hormone;consciousness came after emotion;diff bw rat&ppl is not that the system producing responses but cog layering above the more basic systems;cog came after,uses emotion as input

Semantic Memory

Knowing things such as how to tell time World knowledge that we remember in the absence of any recollection of the specific circumstances surround its learning Although items in semantic may have once included episodic links, the links have been forgotten but not the memory item itself The world knowledge content in our semantic network

Source Memory

Knowledge concerning source of info or context in which the info was learned;student recalls specific episode where she learned about Freud-this is episodic

Declarative Memory

Knowledge that we have conscious access to, including personal and world knowledge, that we can literally talk about 2 types:1)episodic-things that we recall about events of our own lives, 2)world knowledge that does not relate to events in our lives

Shift After Motor Learning

Learning-increased blood flow in lateral premotor&prefrontal areas;performance of previously learned sequences-increased blood flow in supplementary motor area(SMA)&hippocampus;early-external PMC mediating feedback control most active;after learning,task internalized,SMA most active

Christin Chiarello

Left-visual-field/right-hemi advantage for processing of words that come from the same semantic category-but have no associative relation like dog horse;in short-right hemi does have language abilities that may be important role in processing of meaning

Ethology(study animal behavior)&neuroethology(study of neurobio animal behavior)

Lorenz&Tinbergen contributed in 2 ways(focused attn on innate aspects of behavior&provided empirical data from animal studies bio-behavior)

Patient RB

Lost memory after an ischemic episode and developed dense anterograde amnesia (unable to form new LTM-similar to HM); also retrograde amnesia(medial temporal damage) that extended back 1 or 2 years slightly less severe than HM retrograde loss; lesions restricted to his hippocampus; on gross exam of medial temporal lobe of RB hippocampus appeared to be intact, histological analysis revealed that within each hippocampus RB had sustained a specific lesion restricted to the CA1 pyramidal cells; hippocampus-forming LTM; supports distinction:1)areas that store LTM,&2)areas for forming memories of content located elsewhere in the brain;

Garden-path model

Lynn Frazier;sentences have preferred interpretation;minimal attachment(makes sure syntactic analysis is done that minimum# of additional syntactic nodes must be computed)&late closure(assign incoming words to syntactic phrase or clause currently being processed)

Inventor of Semantic Networks

M.Ross Quillian;development of society superior to both capitalist democracy&socialism

Connectionist Orthographic Processor

McClelland&Rumelhart-model for visual letter recog;computation model assumes 3 levels of rep:1)features of letters of word,2)letters,3)rep of words;model allows for top-down&interactive info to influence earlier processes that happen at lower levels of rep;has excit&inhib links bw layers;word node trip activated-send out inhabit signals to lower layers&letters&features that don't match;processes can take place in parallel-severla letters processed at once;selfridge model-one in a serial manner;contrast Selfridge(bottom up);diffs bw these models provide ex of crucial theoretical distinction bw modularity&interactvity

Word Superiority Effect

McClelland&Rumelhart;when sub shown 3 stimuli(word,non-word,letter)&asked to say whether they had seen a t or k;better in id task when letter presented within a real word relative to a nonword;better when it is presented in the word than when it is presented as the individual letter;indicates words are probably not perceived on a letter-by-letter basis;explained by McClellan&Rumelhart model bc model proposes top-down info of words can either activate or inhibit letter activation-helping the recog of letters

Left-Hemisphere Network

Mediates WM,lateral frontal&inferior parietal lobes subserves phonological WM; deficits in working memory auditory-verbal material (digits, letters, words), not been found to be associated with deficits in speech perception or production Clear functional distinction and difference in neurological substrate b/w:1)deficits in auditory-verbal STM vs 2)aphasia-language deficits following brain damage

Corpus Callosum

Mediates synchoronous firing;when receptive fields on either side of fixation are stimulated by 2 separate light bars moving in different direction-firing rates of the two cells are not correlated;animals w/intact CC-cells w/spatially separate RF fire synchronously when stimulated by a common object(light bar spanning both fields);animal w/CC severed-sychroniy rarely observed

Ventral Stream

Mediating perception(parvo-ganglion cell input)

Dorsal Stream

Mediating visually guided behavior(mango-ganglion cell input)

Different Forms of Implicit Memory

Memory acquired through fear conditioning, which has an emotional component, is thought to involve the amygdala Memory acquired through operant conditioning requires the striatum and cerebellum Memory acquired through classical conditioning, sensitization, and habituation--three simple forms of learning we shall consider later--involves charges in the sensory and motor system involved in the learning

Delayed Non-Match to Sample

Method to test working memory that 1)could not be solved by simple association, 2)required subject to hold an internal representation of the situation, and make a choice that was not associated with previous stimuli 1)the monkey has been shown that the cross symbol is over the food well 2)the blind is closed and after a delay the monkey is given a choice At first he will choose the cross well, which is wrong. Eventually learning to choose the symbol he did not see before (to do this, he must have maintained an internal representation of the situation and respond in a way not enabled by simple association learning

Iacoboni

Mirror neurons can be influenced by diff intentions

Movement from Memory Activates SMA to illumination PMC

Monkey press button either to memory(internal condition) or from illuminated targets(external condition);SMA neurons was most active during internal condition;premotor neuron was most active during the external condition

Techniques to elicit emotion

Mood induction(measure effect of particular emotion state on sub's cognitive&neural responses-get sub to use will to achieve emotional state&present stimulus to aid-movie);reward&punishment(elects emotion in animals-food primary reinforcer-humans money a secondary reinforcer bc it is meaningless by self);Presentation of emotionally evocative stimuli(international affective picture system-IAPS-Peter Lang-violence pics-evoke range of emotions-rated for valence&arousal-used these ratings to select scenes that will evoke desired emotion

Patient MS

Most of areas 18&19 (extrastriate cortex) of the right hemisphere were removed surgically to treat epilepsy; intact declarative memory but had a deficit in perceptual priming, an implicit memory process

Hierarchical Representation of Action Sequences

Motor actions are complex combinations of simpler elementary movements;serving a tennis ball;Are these actions simply constructed by linking independent movements, or are they guided by hierarchical representational structures that govern the entire sequence?(the answer is the latter) Chunking: top of hierarchy-conceptual level-rep of the goal of the action-getting someone's attention;system-motor actions-hand waving;lexical level-common concept conveyed through a distinct set of actions;lower levels-translate these units into patterns of muscular activation-verbal response will entail a pattern of activity across the speech articulators or the extension of the hand will require movements of the arm and fingers

Central Pattern Generators and Movement: Functionally Deafferented Patients

Must have an internal representation of the expected consequences of a motor command;to trace a circle,they have to learn the required series of motor commands,commands that can be accessed w/o requiring any sort of feedback signal;a central issue is how to characterize properties of these representations&how they translate into actions

Patient WJ

Named&described info presented to his left (speaking)hemi but did not respond to stimuli presented to his surgically isolated right hemi;split brain reports through speaking hemi only the items flashed on right&denies all left;left hand correctly retrieves object presented in left of which the subject verbally denies having any knowledge;Horseshoes game-had been playing w/right hand(left dominant hemi-talks&thinks)-seemed nonchalant about losing-paused-picked up an ax with left hand(right hemi) gripped firmly-swung w/menacing smile-left hand gains major control from the silent while right is intellectual-an independent conscious entity different from left mind;person w/2 conscious systems

Startle Reflex

Natural response to surprising stimuli-presentation of loud noise;enhanced in presence of fearful stimulus or anxious state(light-CS);following habituation&acquisition-a 3rd stage is extinction-light(CS) presented alone wo shock-after repeated presentation-rat no longer has startle response

Right handed-left hemi dominance specialization for language

Need for a single motor center as the critical factor bc our actions in response to stimuli must be a single motor program-we cannot allow the left hemi to choose one course of action while the right hemi opts for another-by localizing action planning in one hemisphere, the brain can achieve unification

Development of Ocular Dominance

Neural projections from 2 eyes through lateral geniculate nucleus of thalamus&on to primary visual cortex overlap mush more at birth than later when the system is fully developed;activity in 2 eyes helps to refine the projections into ocular dominance columns

Cortical Deprivation Changes

Neville studied deaf ppl using event related potentials&discovered their brains have diff organization than that of normal subjects;visual processing might spread into "abandoned" auditory cortex;visual ERPs several times larger in deaf than in hearing&effects are absent in hearing subs born of deaf parents;changes were specific-they were found in response to peripheral visual stimuli but not stimuli presented foveally;ERPs from deaf&hearing subs are similar in response to parvocellular stimuli;superior temporal polysensory area that normally receives auditory&visual input

Kim Peek "Rain Man"

No CC

Implicit Memory Can Be Nonassociative or Associative

Nonassociative (learning the subject learns about the properties of a single stimulus;exposed once or repeatedly) Associative (learning the subject learns about the relationship between two stimuli or between a stimulus and a behavior)

NHP Handedness

Nonhuman primates-differnce in hemispheric structure or function;anatomical studies of Old world monkeys&apes-asymmetries similar to humans;example-the Sylvian fissure shows greater upward slop in right hemi-similiar forward skewedness of right hemi;anatomical asymmetries&behavioral specializations unclear-case for hemispheric specialization in NHP-not compelling;NHP no show of predominance of right-handedness;no consistent trend for right hand to be favored-although individuals animals may show preference

Perceptual Analyses of the Linguistic Input

Normal language comprehension begin w/prob of how words are represented;next step is to id what enables understanding of the linguistic input;to understand spoken words the listener has to decode the acoustic input into a phonological code that corresponds to lexical reps of auditory word forms stored in mental lexicon;both of these processing steps are automatic&prelexical-do not involve the mental lexicon;then translated phonological code matched to its word rep in mental lexicon-lexical selection;activated/selected word form in lexicon in turn:activates the lemma(store of grammatical info&words' meaning)

NMDA Receptors and LTP: Normal Transmission

Normal, low frequency synaptic transmission glutamate (Glu) is released from the presynaptic terminal and acts on both the NMDA and AMPA type non-NMDA receptors Na+ and K+ flow through the non-NMDA channels but not through the NMDA channels due to Mg2+ blockage of this channel at the resting level of membrane potential

NMDA Receptor

Normally blocked by a single Mg2+ ion 1)Mg2+ ion is attracted to the negative interior of the cell 2)Mg2+ ion fits (loosely in a pocket in the mouth of the receptor); if the cell is depolarized the lower negative potential inside the cell is now inadequate to hold the Mg2+ ion in place, and it unbinds and allows Na+ and Ca+ to flow through the channel, if the channel's receptor sites for glutamate are occupied

Amnestic Patients

Not limites to learning motor skills Able to improve performance on certain perceptual tasks (do well with a form of learning called priming, in which recognition of words or objects is facilitated by prior exposure to the words or visual clues) amnestic subjects, when shown the first few letters of a previously studied word, often correctly select the previously presented word, even though they cannot remember seeing the word before

Extinction

Not the same as forgetting; The intensity or probability of occurrence of a conditioned response decreases if the CS is repeatedly presented without the US; important adaptive mechanism(maladaptive for an animal to continue to respond to cues in the environment that are no longer significant); not adequately explained simply by the temporal contiguity of events-associate events in their environment by detecting actual contingencies rather than simply responding to the contiguity of events

Frontal Dysfunction: Elliot

OFC lesions-other social impairments such as change in personality,irrespondsibility&lack of concern for present or future-dimished social awareness&empathy-lack of concern for social rules;Elliot had tumor bilaterally invade brain's orbital surface;after surgery-demonstrated superior intellectual abilities-performing above normal on LTM&WM tasks;lost all sense of schedule;risky ventures;no difficulty recounting minutest details of failings-but spoke about them as a dispassionate observer-dissociation bw decision making in abstract&decision making about personal&social involvement

Ungerleider and Mishkin Discrimination Tasks

Object discrimination-pick up correct object(difficult w/temporal lobes removed);landmark discrim-pick up food well closer to cylinder(difficult w/parietal removal)

Amygdala:Fear Conditioning

Occurs when neutral stimulus acquires aversive properties by virtue of being paired w/aversive event;form of classical conditioning in which unconditioned stimulus is aversive;primary paradigm used to investigate amygdala's role in emotional learning;one advantage of using fear conditioning paradigm to investigate emotional learning is that it works essentially the same across a range of species from fruit flies to humans

Amphibian RGCs directly mediate behavioral responses

Off cells mediate freeze reflex to avoid predators

Segmentation Probs in Acoustic Decoding

Often do not appear as separated acoustic signals-they lack segmentation; spoken sentences also typically lack clear silence bw phonemes&words bc they are coarticulated;"captain" waveform looks like 2 words-labeled segmentation problem

LTP Causes Retrograde Gaseous Messenger Transmission

Once LTP is induced, the postsynaptic cell is thought to release a set of retrograde messengers, one of which is thought to be NO(nitric oxide), that act on protein kinases in the presynaptic terminal to initiate an enhancement of transmitter release that contribute to LTP

orbitofrontal cortex&divisions

Orbitofrontal cortex part of PFC forms base of frontal&leans on upper wall of orbit above eyes;2 axes:central(ventromedial PFC-Gage-inside)&lateral orbital PFC(outside)

Cortico-bulbar tract

Originates in motor cortex pyramidal cells becomes cranial nerves innervate face,mouth,tongue

Memory

Outcome of learning and memory that can: 1)have a persistent unconscious influence on cognition and behavior 2)be explicitly accessed at a later time *memory access can fail or success under different circumstances (test recall)

Schizophrenia&Depression

PET shows abnormal patterns of blood flow;schizo-hypometabolism in PFC,especially in tasks that produce increased blood flow-auditory discrim,uptake of the tracer is much lower in schizo patients;inc blood flow in left lateral PFC

Acquired Sociopathy

PET shows reduced glucose matabolism in OFC in subs w/violent&antisocial histories;OFC lesions more prone to exhibit antisocial behaviors-stealing or violent outbursts;suffered acquired sociopathy-violent&lack of concern for social consequences-antisocial personality disorders

Executive Monitoring

PFC reservoir of current contents of processing,linking put to stored reps in cortex's posterior regions to help select actions;embedded in a cortex;control of action has a hierarchical nature-no homunculus executive

Summary: 2 Systems

PFC-complex behavior&identified some of critical requirements for goal-oriented behavior;WM essential for repping info not immediately present in environment0allows for interaction of current goals w/perceptual info&knowledge accumulated from experience-not only to rep goals but rep must persist;monitor ongoing behavior;two func systems:lateral PFC-WM devoted to sustaining reps of info stores in cortex's more posterior regions through selection mechanisms;ACC-work in tandem w/PFC-monitoring the op of this system;the control of action has a hierarchical nature

Lynn Robertson

Patients w/unilateral brain lesions w/local &gloabl stimuli to the center of view at the fixation point;found:left side lesion slow to identify local targets&right side lesion slow w/global targets

Functional Asymmetries in Unilateral Cortical Lesions

Patients with unilateral, focal brain lesions compared to lesions only on left or right; assumptions 1)lesions to left result in more disruption in reading tasks,left reading specialization 2)lesions to right in more disruption of spatial tasks,right spatial specialization;double dissociation approach-supported by research

Classical Conditioning

Pavlovian Conditioning; Occurs when 1)a conditioned stimulus(otherwise neutral) paired with 2)an unconditioned stimulus(one that elects some response from the organism)

Cortex&Response Selection

Performing movement.First plan action,initial rep abstract-goal hoped to be achieved;next,decide how to achieve(LorR);response selection involves competitive process bw potential responses;various sources of info-location of cup,what hands are currently doing,experience-all help resolve competition

Bipartite Visual Field Experiments in Split Brain Patients

Presented horse stimulus to left visual field(right hemi) maintain through the left hemi that they saw nothing;when asked to draw what goes on the object the left hand(right hemi) is able to draw a saddle

Basal Ganglia

Proper(Caudate, putamen,&globus pallidus(3 nuclei that surround the thalamus)),functionally(sub thalamic nuclei&substantia nigra-considered part but actually midbrain)

Direct connections of cortex that regulates the activity of spinal neurons in direct and indirect ways

Provided by portico-spinal (pyramidal tract);tract composed of upper motor neurons in cortex-terminate directly or monosynaptically on alpha lower MN or spinal interneurons-stretch 1m;axons arise from different sizes of cells in Layer V of cortex

Motor Innervation

Pyramidal-corticospinal tract originates in motor cortex-almost all cross over to the contralateral side in pyramids of the medulla-down the spine or cranial nerves-synapse on alpha lower motor neurons&spinal interneurons;extrapyramidal-originate in various subcortical nuclei&terminate in both contralateral&ipsilateral regions of the spinal cord

Phineas Gage

Railroad worker;task setting dynamite charges;personality underwent radical transformation;impatient,rude,outbursts of anger&rage;brushed off the well-intended advice of friends&medical;couldn't follow coherent plan of action-constant stream of ideas immediately discarded;no obvious impairment intelligence&perceptual&motor abilities-no longer able to evaluate social significance of events&regulate his emotional responses;human action normally controlled by how we VALUE that action&the EMOTIONAL FEELING proposed action engenders in is&anticipation of consequences from others in social world

Darwin&Alfred Russell Wallace

Random variation&natural selection of the phenotype

Trajectory Components of Hierarchical Control of Movement

Reaching for the coffee cup, we can choose to extend only the arm or can bend forward by rotating about the waist. Viewed in this way, endpoint control reveals the fundamental capabilities of the motor control system; the distance and trajectory planning demonstrate additional flexibility in the control processes

Parkinson's Disease

Reduces the inhibitory activity along the direct pathway;increased inhibition from the globus pallidus to the thalamus&thus reduction in cortical activity&movement

Priming

Refers to a change in the response to or ability to identify a stimulus as the result of prior exposure to that stimulus Occurs in what is referred to as the perceptual representation system (PRS) by which the reaction to structure and form of objects and words can be primed by prior experience The PRS mediates word and non-word forms of priming Non-declarative, implicit memory of this type is not based on conceptual systems but rather is perceptual in nature

Primacy Effect

Reflects the efficiency of transferring items from STM to LTM storage - first being longest (best rehearsed)

Law of Effect

Responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur again in that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again in that situation.

Non-Declarative Memory

Results of learning to which we have no conscious access Procedural knowledge-motor skill(riding a bike) Includes: priming (subliminal perception) & simple learned behaviors (derived from conditioning, habituation, or sensitization) Previous experiences facilitates performance on a task that does not require intentional recollection of the experiences

Short term memory

Retention over seconds to minutes, remembering phone number as we dial it (typically involves verbal rehearsal) George Miller 7+/-2 (more than 7 presented less success)-referred to this as the span of immediate memory, the span of short-term memory

NHP Laterality

Rhesus monkeys are superior in making tactile discriminations of shape when using the left hand-just as humans;split brain monkeys show hemispheric interactions comparable to what is seen with humans on visual perception tasks; in face recog task,monkeys have right hemi advantage-in a line orientation task,monkey have left hemi advantage;left hemi lesion in Japanese macaque-impair animal's ability to comprehend vocalizations of conspecifics;unlike the deficits on some aphasic patients,deficit in macaques is relatively mild&transient

Face Recognition

Right hemi more accurate than the left in recognizing unfamiliar faces

left(match-order in chaos-language?-search for causal explanations-interpreter)right(maximize-random world)

Right hemi outperforms the left hemi bc right hemi approaches the task in the simplest possible manner w/no attempt to form complicated hypotheses about the task

Warrington's Model of Object Recognition

Right hemi performs a specialized op essential for percept categorization;left op for semantic categorization;interhemi communication essential in this model for shuttling info bw 2 processing stages;even in less serially oriented models,interhemi transfer allow each hemi to have access to info that might have been lateralized initially

Mirror Neurons

Rizzolatti;single cells in PFC of monkey(thought to be homologous to Broca's area in humans)when grasped an object;do not fire when about to but only when grasps&when watching someone;understanding motor events;parietal reach regions&area of PFC;areas MT,MST,PFC;funcs-understand another animal's actions&react&imitate observed action

Sherrington Spinal Preparation

SC transection left the local spinal circuit sensory nerves intact;believed intact sensory nerves were triggering the movement sequence via a spinal pattern generator;subsequent cut the dorsal root sensory input,movement was no longer generated by the treadmill

Patient SP(damage to amygdala)

SP responds to shock(US)-control responded to both CS&US;SP failed to show indirect conditioned response measured by SCR-demonstrated intact declarative knowledge of fear conditioning

But, Interference May Transfer from Short-term to Long-term Memory

STM and LTM different w/ respect to loss from interference or decay Rehearsal of info considered critical for keeping info from decaying in STM, therefore important for being able to transfer that info to a LTM store-investigated further via the serial position effect

Brain hemispheres have different processing "styles" that explain their differences in function

Scale (David Navon;letter scale task-HorL,pay attention to local or global;found:rx slower when subjects had to id local elements&interference on local element ID when global&local were discordant-interference was not symmetrical-time required to id global was independent of the id of local

Inhibitors of protein synthesis

Selectively block LTM but not STM when given during the training procedure

Mental Lexion

Semantics(meaning), Syntactics(grammar), Word Forms properties(sound patterns&spelling);structure(words more frequently used are accessed more quicker;highly efficient,use-based manner opp of dictionary);influenced by neighborhood effect;"auditory neighborhood" of word is defined as # words that differ from target by only one phoneme-smallest unit of sound that makes a difference in meaning-indicated by setting them off w/slashes-37 phonemes of english(13 vowel sound/24 consonants)-11 phonemes in Hawaiian-60 in African dialect-defined in terms of the sounds that create meaning in each specific language-produced by the position or the movement of structures within the vocal apparatus-which produce patterns of pressure changes in the air called acoustic stimulus or acoustic signal;english vs japanese phoneme-english I&r are 2 phonemes but not in japanese only 1

Atkinson & Shriffrin Modal Model

Sensory info enter info processing system & stored in sensory register; Items are selected via attentional processes are then moved into STM storage; with rehearsal, item can move from STM to LTM storage; at each stage, info can be lost by decay, interference, or a combination of both This model formalizes the idea that discrete stages of memory exist and that they have different characteristics; this model had a strong serial structure **not supported by recent experimental evidence however

Sensory Memory: Auditory vs Visual

Sensory memories are sometimes called the sensory memory trace, or the sensory register Significant differences in the 1)time course 2)neural instantiation of auditory vs visual sensory memories Auditory/verbal input just presented to you seems to persist as a sort of "echo" in your head (if you retrieve it quickly enough, you can hear internally in great detail, as though hearing for real) Auditory sensory memory is call echoic memory (lasts for ~10 secs) Visual sensory memory called iconic memory or iconic store (lasts only a few seconds at most) Experiments: Helmholz Covert Attention Another experiment: Sensory memory has higher capacity than short term memory (brief 50msec stimuli like letter array with 3 rows of 4 letters; asked to report as many as possible-7+/-2; partial report method-see entire array and report subset indicated by auditory cue-high freq tone means top row-told after) Immediate memory span is large(for some brief period after presentation of the visual stimuli, all 12 letters retained,any row can be reported)

Short-Term Memory: Limited Capacity But Longer Retention

Sensory-high capacity, short lived Conversely, short-term memory (1) severely limited in capacity-with a time course counted in seconds to minutes, but it is 2)readily available to conscious awareness

Patient KC

Severe anterograde and retrograde amnesia; retrograde involved episodic info from his entire life-he did not remember a single personal history event, even though he had factual knowledge of things that pertained to his life-like where he went to high school, his talents, the members of his family Showed priming effects (improved performance) with the word fragments for words he had seen previously - these priming effect remained 12 months later

Penfield & Sherrington

Sherrington-mapped the motor representation in the cerebral cortex of anesthetized monkeys by probing with electrodes Penfield (student of Sherrington) 1945 Montreal - used electrical stimulation methods to map motor, sensory, and language functions in the human cortex in patients undergoing neurosurgery for the relief of focal epilepsy (brain, no nociceptors, painless surgery - able to describe what they experienced)

Sensory Control Loop

Sherrington-severed SC in cats&dogs to disconnect peripheral motor structures (alpha motor)&spinal interneurons from the cortex&subcortex-observed animal could produce complex movements like walking in the absence of higher-level commands-stretch reflex remained intact-exaggerated due to the removal of inhibitory influences from the brain;without any brain signals, the animal movements resembled walking-observed movements depended on intact sensory processes;sensory signal to a limb was eliminated by cutting SC dorsal root,animal ceased using that limb-concluded alpha MN trigger movement but maintenance of descending, efferent motor commands required continual sensory signal from the periphery concerning the consequences of these commands;complex movement seen as the successive chaining of stimuli and responses via reflex processes

Selfish Gene

Smith,Hamilton,Trivers,Barrash;Dawkins wrote Selfish Gene-attn to field of sociobiology&put gene at center-life is simply about replication of genes&propagation of good genes

Split brain can do inter-hemisphere attentional tasks

Spatial test(within field-eye moved to stimulus surrounded by probe;between field-eye moved to corresponding stimulus in other hemifield)Perceptual test(within field-probe appeared center in one array-eeae moved to corresponding stimulus in field in which the probe appeared;on between field-eye moved to the corresponding stimulus(same letter x) in the opposite field)Split brain can do both;2 hemi rely on a common orienting system to maintain single focus of attention

Hemispheric specialization is surely not a unique human characteristic

Specialization occurs in species may reflect a general design principle for brain func;specialized func bw hemis may reflect similar advantages in each hemi;auditory&visual cortices are each uniquely designed to solve problems;asymmetries may provide a similar benefit

Left Hemisphere Motor Sequence Expert

Specialized for the production of sequential movements;speech dependent on such movements;ability to produce speech-result of evolutionary changes in vocal tract shape&articulatory apparatus;these changes allow communication at high rates;competence requires control of sequential gestures of vocal cords, jaw, tongue,&articulators;left hemi linked to seq nonlinguistic movements

Levelt Lexicon Model

Specific networks that exists for: 1)semantic knowledge of words rep at conceptual level 2)grammatical properties of words at the lemma level that controls where it is appropriate to use a certain word 3)word forms(the output)are generated at the lexeme level;conceptual communicates w/lemma level by "sense" connections;words that relate in meaning are connected&tend to be close together in network(sheep-goat)&may be co-activated

Lack of Invariance in the Acoustic Signal

Speech sounds vary on basis of the context in which they are spoken, called the "lack of invariance" due to things such as 1)missing (dropped) phonemes 2)lack of segmentation 3)co-articulation 4)variability w/diff speakers(male or female,or regional accents)

Right Hemisphere Language Function?

Split brain-diconnect right hemi can make semantic judgements&read material presented to right hemi;only grammatically simple sentences can be managed well;Hagoort found patients w/right hemi lesions have (normal priming effects for associatively related words like cottage cheese BUT do not show priming effect for words from same semantic category like dog-horse)

Parkinson's Difficulty with Shifting Task

Subjects performed 2 successive sequences that were either identical or different. Although the movement at the transition point was the same in both the no-shift and shift conditions, Parkinson's disease patients were much slower in the latter condition. In the cognitive task, subjects had to respond to either the color or the shape of a stimulus

Memory System in Medial Temporal Lobe is Extensive

System includes the hippocampus as well as the 1)entorhinal cortex-important input to the hippocampus, 2)the subiculum to which the hippocampus projects, 3)the parahippocampal cortices

Locus of Memory Storage

Temporal neocortex outside the medial temporal lobe; lesions the lateral cortex of the anterior temporal lobe near anterior pole-dense amnesia serve retrograde amnesia-entorhinal-perihippocmapal cortex may be involved

Corballis: Generative Assembling Device (GAD)

The Lopsided Ape: Evolution of the Generative Mind;main characteristic of human cognition-act&think in generative manner-accounting for emergency of language&handedness;16-44 elements-basic speech sounds;believes left hemi is equipped w/generative assembling device(GAD)generating complex reps from a small vocal of primitive units;produce infinite set of seq from a relatively small set of units such as words or gestures;specialization in language became accessible to nonlinguistic funds-also imbued the right hand w/functional advantages for skilled actions;left hemi dominance in language may be consequence of specialization in motor control;comparative studies of language-most sentence forms convey action;asymmetrical use of hands to perform complex actions-tool use-may have promoted the development of language;earliest form of human communication probably centered on action commands such as "look" or "throw"-may have been a selective pressure for the left hemi to be more proficient in establishing these symbolic reps

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis of Linguistic Relativity

The assertion that the speakers of different languages have different cog(categorization)systems-diff cog systems influence the ways in which ppl speaking the various languages think about the world;categories&types that we isolate from the world of phenomena we do not find there bc they stare every observer in the face-on the contrary, the world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by out minds-ad this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds

Phylogenetic Scale

The concept that all living animals can be arranged along a continuous "phylogenetic scale" with man at be top is inconsistent with contemporary views of animal evolution

Neuropsychological Evidence Against the Modal Model of Memory

The effect of brain damage on memory function can help to place constraints on cognitive models Studies of patients with brain damage also led to skepticism about the hierarchically structured modal model of memory Shallice and Warrington reported a patient with damage to the left perisylvian cortex who displayed reduced digit span ability (about two items, vs five to nine items for healthy persons). This meant that he had a deficit in his ability to recall lists of items when the delay intervals between the presentation of the list and the test were short, only a few seconds. Remarkably, however, this patient still retained a relatively normal ability to form new long-term memories.

2 Independent Representation Forms: Exp

The hypothesis of separate forms of representation came from an experiment (Abrams; 1994) in which a dot was displaced across the computer screen, either by 4 or 7 degrees of visual angle. In separate blocks of trials, subjects were asked either to reproduce the distance that the dot had moved or to move to the final position of the dot The critical manipulation was that on half the trials, background elements on the computer display moved in the opposite direction. This opposing motion creates a powerful illusion amplifying the perceived motion of the dot. The effect of this illusion was obvious in the subjects' performance in the distance condition. They overestimated the distance the dot had moved relative to conditions where the background moved in the same direction as the target dot. But the background motion had minimal effect on their performance in the location condition. If responses in the two conditions were based on a single representational system, one would expect the illusion to affect both conditions similarly. The fact that the illusion produced differential effects in the two conditions indicates that the movements were guided by different representations. In the Abrams study, only the distance-based representation was susceptible to the effects of the illusion. The location-based code appeared to be immune to these perceptual distortions. Results such as these suggest the hypothesis that the human brain might have evolved two separate modes for planning movements. Perhaps location planning represents a more ancient and primitive system, one in which the representation is simply to specify the goal, or target location of an action, This system could produce movements that reach a final target location, but without much flexibility. In contrast, a second system might be capable of distance planning, of specifying the exact form with which an action will be achieved. This system would provide flexibility but with the additional costs of planning.

Anterior vs Posterior Hippocampal Coding of Experience

The memory system in the medial temporal lobes is shows a dual dissociation by which it generates two different types of messages when information is presented. 1)The anterior hippocampal activity suggests that false items are like true items (we are familiar with both), 2)The posterior parahippocampal activity suggests that false items are like new items (not known to be true). These two messages are not contradictory: 1)False items are like true items in terms of their semantic properties, but 2)they are like new items in terms of their sensory properties.

Flashbulb Memories: Are They Particularly Accurate?

The vivid memories of the circumstances surrounding shocking or emotionally charged news Chances are you can recall the details of you whereabouts, the source of the news, and who was with you at the time Neisser and Harsch; Challenger explosion; over 40% of participants were inconsistent in descriptions of the incident, even though high confidence ratings in the later recollections; phenomena of fiashbulbs; flashbulbs no more accurate than other memories

Stereotyped behavior

Tinbergen&Lorenz-on egg rolling in greylag geese-when egg has rolled out of nest-goose fixates on misplaced egg,rises&extended her neck to touch egg-place her bill over egg-carefully rolls it back into nest;first believed goose was thoughtfully performing behavior to return egg to nest;however, when scientists removed egg once goose had initiated behavior-goose continued despite absence;this behavior has initial releaser-sight of egg out of nest that triggers it&innate stereotypic pattern termed fixed action pattern

Language Outputs

Transition from concept to verbal or written in brain

LTP Causes Synaptic Efficacy Increase, Then New Synapses

Transmission bw a single CA3 cell and a single CA1 cell A. a single CA3 cell can be stimulated selectively to produce a single elementary synaptic potential in a CA1 cell When the CA3 cell is stimulated repeatedly at low frequency, it gives rise to either an elementary response of the size of a miniature synaptic potential or a failure B. in control cells there are many failures; the synapse has a low probability of releasing vesicles C. With the early phase of LTP the probability of release rises significantly, but the two Gaussian curves in the distribution of responses is consistent with the view that a single release site still releases only a vesicle but now with a high probability of release. D. When the late phase of LTP is induced by a cAMP analog (Sp-cAMPS), the distribution of responses no longer fits two Gaussian curves but instead requires three or four Gaussian curves, suggesting the possibility that **new presynaptic active zones and postsynaptic receptors have grown. These effects are blocked by anisomycin, an inhibitor of protein synthesis.

Temporal Lobe Amnesiacs

Two things in common: 1)all have an automatic quality, 2)tasks do not require conscious recall or complex cog skills(comparison and evaluation) Give a highly complex mechanical puzzle to solve, the patient may learn it as quickly as a normal person, but on questioning will not remember seeing the puzzle or having worked on it previously

Basal Ganglia FeedForward Loops

Unlike cortico-cortical&thalamo-cortical connectivity,there are no reciprocal projections back from the striatum to the cortex;instead,striatum neurons project forward to nuclei within the basal ganglia in circuits that are exclusively feed-forward&are not organized reciprocally

Associative Learning is Constrained by the Biology of the Organism

Unlike most other forms of conditioning, food aversion develops even when the unconditioned response (poison-induced nausea) occurs after a long delay (up to hours) after the CS (specific taste)

Retrieval

Utilizes stored info to create a conscious representation or to execute a learned behavior like a motor act

Continuum Axes

Valence(emotions can be expressed as their place along a continuum w/diff discrete emotions at the ends of the continuum;pleasant-unpleasant or good-bad)&arousal(intensity of that feeling may still vary or internal emotional response-high vs. low)

Meseo Ito

Vestibulo-ocular reflex that keeps the visual image fixed by moving the eyes when the head moves; speed of movement of the eyes in relation to that of the head (the gain of the reflex) is not fixed but can be modified by experience; with experience however the gain of the reflex gradually increases and the eye can again track the image accurately; as with eyeblink conditioning, the learned changes in the vestibulo-ocular reflex require not only the cerebellum (the flocculus) but also one of the deep cerebellar nuclei (the vestibular) in the brain stem

Wisconsin Card Sorting

WM test;damage in lateral PFC difficulty;subs place top card of deck under one of four target cards;told correct or incorrect-must learn to sort by trial&error;but rule changes after 10 correct;fMRI finds Wisconsin Card Sorting activates inferior frontal cortex

Collins&Loftus Model

Word meanings are represented in a semantic network in which words, rep by conceptual node, are connected w/each other;this model assumes that activation spread from one conceptual node to other,&nodes that are closer together will benefit more from this spreading activation than will distant nodes

Left Hand (Right Brain) Drawing

Word pairs presented to left&right visual fields (toad-stool);split brain draw asked to draw something indicated by both words;conceptually ambiguous word pairs(hot-dog) depicted literally (dog panting in sun)&never as emergent objects

Zajonc vs Lazarus define cog

Z cog-slower mental transformation of sensory input or info processing;L cog-including early evaluative percep as well as later stages of info processing

Interconnecting All Neurons Makes the Wiring Increase as the Square of the Number of Neurons

[n(n-1)/2]

Simple Associative Memory Task

a symbol (white cross) indicates the correct well that has food, and the money learns to pick the well covered by that symbol not others

Decoding Phonemes via Spectral Properties

acoustic decoding built on spectral properties(freq content)of incoming signal bc auditory nerve is organized according to freq selectivity in diff axons;spectral patterns across auditory nerve firings might be the access codes to phonological rep

superior sulcus

activated for speech sounds over nonsuch sounds

dorsal superior temporal gyri

activated in freq modulated tones than by random noise

Goal

activates all movements that could produce desired action

middle temporal gyrus,inferior temporal gyrus,angular gyrus,temporal pole

active for words over psuedowords&nonwords

Emergency Room

age 26-42;conscious but immobile-unable to speak,frozen facial expressions,extreme rigidity in arms;injected w/heroin;CT&MRI showed no structural abnormalities;William Langston;looked like advanced Parkinson's;Akinesia-inability to produce volitional movement;caused by new synthetic drug;PET confirmed hypometabolism of dopamine;meperidine-synthetic opioid that creates the sensations of heroin-given the name MPTP-destroys the substantia nigra

Lesions of the amygdala

also impair conditioned fear

Allele

alternative forms of genes AA;differential success of phenotypes coded by alleles

Overactive in depression

amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex, and thalamus

Species Difference in Cortex

anterior commissure is neural connection bw 2 bring halves at anterior ventral end of CC but much smaller;structure left intact but CC sectioned-visual info easily transfer in monkey but not humans;lesion to human V1 render humans blind-monkeys w/similar lesion are capable of residual vision that is apparently mediated by non-cortical visual system pathways;gray matter 3x larger in rhesus Macaca mulatta&5x in owl monkeys-cortical area has same # of cells in rhesus&humans

Primary motor

area 4;most posterior part of frontal lobe;encompassing gyrus in front of central sulcus,extending into central sulcus itself;anterior&ventral to this are 2nd motor areas including lateral premotor cortes&supplementary motor area(area 6),frontal eye field(area 8),broca's(44-45),&posterior portion of cingulate cortex;remaider of frontal is PFC-includes had of entire frontal

Descartes' Error

argued for duality of mind(conscious entity of pure reasoning&thinking)&body(limited by striving to satisfy physical needs);Damasio-such segregation is a myth;argued emotion influences rational decision making bc actions do not occur in abstract, impersonal state-but have personal&social consequences;dismissed belief that reasoning&emotion are separate cog domains-rather reasoning guided by emotional eval of action's consequence;mind is an adaptation designed to better our chances of satisfying physical&psychological needs that must be informed by neural structures that process affective responses to stimuli&memories

Basic Embryologic Development

arise from single fertilized Jeff;following fertilization,multicellular blastula has begun to specialize;blastula contains 3 main types of cell lines:ectoderm(NS-outer skin-lens of eye-inner ear-hair)-from which neural ectoderm will form,mesoderm(skeletal system-voluntary muscle),endoderm(gut&digestive organs);blastula undergoes further development during gastrulation when invagination&cell migration prompt ectoderm to surround entire developing embryo;embryo now has mesoderm&endoderm layers segregated dorsally&ventrally-thence undergoes neurulation-ectodermal cells on dorsal surface form called neural plate

ANN Simulated Fast vs Slow Interhemispheric Transfer

artificial neural network to demonstrate the consequences of slow interhemi conduction;consisted of 2 identical sets of processing modules-each rep a cerebral hemi;included intra&interhemi connections(latter more sparse);critical comparisons bw networks in interhemi conduction times during learning had been either slow or fast;network trained to perform pattern recog task-found interhemi connection were disconnected so performance could be assessed when each hemi had to operate in isolation;for network trained w/fast interhemi connection-the disconnection procedure led to a substantial deterioration in performance;thus,object recog was dependent on cooperative processing for the network w/fast interhemi connections;in contrast network trained w/slow interhemi connection-perform was minimally affected by the disconnection procedure-recog was dependent only on intra-hemispheric processing-ends up w/each hemi operating in a relatively independent manner

Galvanic Skin Response

assess arousal response in skin conductance response or SCR also called GSR-place electrode on finger-send mild elec current through skin-determine skin conductance affected by sweating-measure in subtle, transient arousal response-sub not noticeably sweating

Liepmann's Model of the Neural Regions

associated with production of skilled actions;premotor areas on contralateral-skilled movements of limbs;receive input from parietal lobe of the left hemisphere-store the reps of the actions;lesion posterior region-lead to apraxic movements w/both contralesional&ipsilesional limb-most pronounced in pantomime actions

Cohort Model of Marsden-Wilson&Tyler

assumes processing in speech starts w/first sound or phoneme listener has identified as the onset of a word;not all perceptual info yet available, more than one lexical rep activated; bc more than one rep will fit 1st part of output of percep system;activated word form reps-one that best matches sensory input has to be selected called lexical selection;ca in captain,capital...etc

Population Vector Evolves to Movement Direction

at cue-1of8 targets illuminated-indicate direction for subsequent movement;animal must refrain from moving until "go";population vector calculate every 20msec-orieted in direction for planned movement-EMG activity silent in muscles

ACC

attending to motion-inc blood flow in lateral prestriate cortes,while color stimulated blood flow in more medial regions;during divided attention task-most prominent activation was in ACC;suggest selective attention causes local changes in regions specialized to process certain features-requiring higher-level attentional system-simultaneously monitors info across these specialized modules

Speech Sound Development

babbling same;young infants can tell diff bw all of phonemes used in world's languages;but by 1-lost ability to tell diff bw sounds not associated w/diff phonemes in their language(exposed to)

Testing Object Permanence

ball behind screen,baby doesn't know its there,but comes to know-object permanence;if baby is shown ball being hidden in same location for repeated trials, but shown ball hidden at new location,baby looks at new location but reach to old hiding;perseverative reaching behavior changes as infarct age-replace by normal looking&reaching to new

Temporal Lobe Not the Primary Memory Storage Locus

bc we would NOT find patients who 1)lost all previously acquired memories, 2)still acquired new ones

Split Motor Control

bimanual movement following resection of CC;look at fixed point-subject shown 2 pattern-instructed to simultaneously draw the left w/left hand&right w/right-normal subs able to draw mirror symmetrical pattern but difficulty w/90 degree turn of one-split brain performed equally well in both

Physical vs Functional Properties Representations

biological categories (fruits,foods,animals)-rely more on physcial properties or visual features-what color is apple;man-made objects identified by functional properties-how to use a hammer

Lesions of amygdala

block learned&innate responses to fearful stimuli

Autoradiography

brain sections of brain tissue coated w/photosensitive film&left in dark;radiation exposes film;neurons born at early stage of cortical development end up in deepest cortical layers,born at later times end up in progressively more superficial;neurons born later migrate past neurons that already reached their final position in cortex;inside out sequence of neuronal differentiation

Frontal Eye Fields&Acuity

bw ages of 3-6mons-infants make anticipatory eye movements;like resultt of maturation of projection from upper layers of striate cortes to frontal eye fields,regions in dorsal-lateral frontal cortex-participate in voluntary eye movements;frontal eye field maturation fits closely in tim w/onset of more controlled oculomotor programs

Implicit Emotional Learning-amygdala

can't remember person but uneasy when talking to them;fellow commuter in accident

Connectionist Semantic Model

category-based hypothesis proposes that semantic knowledge is organized according to categories of the world, such as a split b/w living&nonliving things;property-based hypothesis is that semantic knowledge is organized according to the properties of objects-visual or functional;Farah&McClelland's connectionist model of property-based-initial activation in 2 input systems&semantic system;final activation determined by initial pattern&connection weights bw units;no connection bw 2 input systems;names&pictures linked through the semantic system

3H-Thymidine Labeling

cell-labeling methods tracking timeline of neuronal development in NHP;inject early in development;taken up by neurons-used to form DNA;permit localization of final fate of neurons born at time of injection

External loop

cerebellum,parietal lobe,lateral pre motor cortex(PMC);visually guided movements

1 Month: Visual Cortex Taking Over

change in overt visual orienting to stimuli;manifest obligatory overt attention during which they fixate their eyes on objects for long periods;development of projections from striate cortex to subcortical structures that inhibit activity in SC;state where peripheral stimuli could trigger automatic over orienting is replaced by one in which the SC is less able to effect acidic eye movements

Approach/withdrawal dichotomy

characterizes emotions by the actions&goals they motivate;PFC major point of convergence in CNS(left-approach;right-withdrawal);damage to left frontal(reduces approach;severe depression);damage to right(reducing its withdrawal func;socially engaging);right frontal damage appear manic

Ordinality: Numerical Ability

children age 2 can distinguish sets of more boxes(larger #s)from sets of fewer boxes even when boxes in larger set are actually smaller than those in smaller set;ordinality-ability to recognize greater-than less-than relationships bw #s

Letter Priming

compatible&incompatible words-latencies for both much longer for the left visual field (right hemi)

Extended Cohort for Embedded Words

competition bw word candidate not limited to words w/same word initial cohort-instead,all lexical from partially overlap w/input activated

Both the vermis and the deep nuclei of the cerebellum play an important role in...

conditioning the eye blink, and perhaps other simple forms of classical conditioning involving skeletal muscle movement

Indirect control of muscles

cortico-cortical connections;brainstem nuclei-cortically influencing extrapyramidal tracts;basal ganglia&cerebellum;cortico-bulbar tract-cranial nerves

Direct cortex to spinal control of muscles

cortico-spinal tract;

Damasio discovered

damage in left temporal pole correlated w/probs in retrieving the names of persons;lesions in anterior part of the left inferior temporal lobe-probs in naming animals;damage to posterolateral part of left inferior temporal along w/lateral temporo-occipito-parietal junction was correlated w/probs in retrieving the names of tools;in coordinated study w/neurologically normal subs used PET these same brain ares were activated when engaged in naming persons,animals,&tools

Patient WR

damage to frontal lobe;lost ego;inability to form a coherent plan of action&meet goals;lawyer;loss of goal oriented behavior

Damage in left right approach-withdrawal

damage to left frontal lobe-severe depression-withdrawal&inactivity;damage to right frontal damage-manic-socially engaging even when inappropriate

Right Brain

deals w/holistic,large scale;rep global info;accurate in producing local,but unable to arrange in global config;fastest rx of left visual field(right hemi)to low freq stimuli;Exemplars;creative, intuitive;melody task for music;maximize;withdrawal

Damask's Evaluation Hypothesis

decisions on how to act require an analysis of the costs&benefits of the options,played out in WM;ideal of ration decision maker is not appropriate for organism that continually faces choices bc decisions frequently must be made quickly from the "gut"

Explicit Learning via Amygdala

declarative learning that blue square shock correlation is dependent on hippocampal memory system-but amygdala is critical for expression of instructed fear responses to blue square;instructed fear paradigm(patients w/amygdala damage-able to learn&explicitly report some presentation of square being paired w/shock even though none received shock;unlike normal control subs,did not show potentiated stares response when blue square was presented-noraml showed inc SCR when presented w/blue square that is correlated w/amygdala activity

Parsing Written Input:Colonel vs Loconel

decoding input to make contact w/word form reps in mental lexicon present comprehender w/challenges in writing&speaking;pseudo-words cannot read by directly mapping the orthographic output onto a word form bc there is non-letter into corresponding phonemes

dimming detectors

decreases in light intensity-shadwo cast suddenly over frog by hawk

Early Development of Projection to superior colliculus)

deep layers of cortex(project to SC)develop earlier than superficial layers;SC is primary subcortical target of retinal ganglion cells-structure involved in saccadic eye movements&involuntary oculomotor movements toward salient events in environment;SC virtually normal pattern of neuronal lamination even before birth&fiber of retina-collicular projection are partially myelinated prenatally&completely myelinated by 3 months postnatally;first neural circuit supporting visual behavior to develop&become myelinated-subcortical projection of retina to SCoculomotor system

2 types of acquired dyslexia

deep or phonological dyslexia-rely on direct lexical route when reading-loss of phonological reps-unable to read aloud pseudowords like grimp but no problem reading irregular words;surface dyslexia(over regularizing the pronunciation of irregular words heed for head-propensity for direct translation from the letter to sound rep-rely only on rules based on regularity-appear to be directly translating from letter to sound reps-giving probs w/irregular words

Damage to OFC

deficits in social decision making(overly dependent on percep info-ignore social cues;insensitive to social norms or goals-inability to follow through w/social expectations;difficulty inhibiting inappropriate social responses-aggressive impulses)

squirrel monkey&bush baby

differing connection of interblob region in visual cortices;busy baby-layer3B non blobs receive input from lamina IVa while squirrel monkey layer input from lamina IVbeta;bush nocturnal-magno&squirrel-diurnal-parvo

Coltheart

direct route from reading text to word rep:whole word orthographic input to reps in mental lexicon;dual routes(grapheme-to-phoneme translation-assembled route) or written input directly to the mental lexicon (or the direct route)

Stretch Reflex

doctor hits,quadriceps is extended,helps maintain stability,stretch triggers receps in muscle spindle to fire,sensory signal through dorsal root of SC and directly activates an alpha motor neurons to contract quadriceps

Lesions in the left parieto-occipital region

does NOT impair visuospatial WM, but leads to impairments in STM for visually presented linguistic material

Modular brain systems characterized by

domain specificity(input system receives info from several sensory systems,but processes the info w/codes that are specific to the system),info encapsulation(processing goes in one direction&step 1 has to be completed before 2nd, strictly bottom up direction,no influence from higher cog modules on lower,non top-down influence in language processing),localization of func(each module implemented in particular brain region;regions have inputs&outputs-but their internal op is not accessible to rest of brain)

Info Func of OFC

dorsolateral PFC-select info in WM task;OFC-select of action based on evaluating social context cues

Syncing Probs bw Hemis

due to processing delays-effecting cooperation-due to propagation of long CC fibers

Sound Spectrogram Yields Formants

each vowel sound;1st formant-lowest freq;2nd formant-next highest freq.so on;/ae/has formants at 500,1700,&2500Hz;vertical lines in spectrogram are pressure oscillations caused by vibration of the vocal cord;3 horizontal hands marked F1,F2,F3 are 3 formants associated w/ /e/ sound of read;rapid shifts in freq preceding or following formants are called formant transitions(T1,T2,T3)&are associated w/consonants;200&2600Hz-/i/in/di/;200&600Hz-/u/in/du/;formant transitions that precede the formants must be the signal for the consonant/d/;/di/2200Hz/du/1100Hz-even though we perceive the same /d/sonud in /di/&/du/-the acoustic signals associated w/these sounds are diff

moving-edge detectors

edges moving in&out of RF

Basic Emotion

elation,joy,&glee-variation of feeling happy;finite set of universal,basic emotions;Darwin-finite set of basic emotional states

Woolsey

electrophysiological recording techniques subdivide neo into inc subdivision;Kaas empirically demonstrated what Brodmann proposed-separated architectonic neo areas related to diff funcs;human neocortex composed predominately of association ares;association cortex was defined by default as cortex that was no sensory-high level percep&cog processing;complex brains evolve not by simply expanding association cortex-by inc # of sensory&motor areas&interconnections

Physiological Correlates of Emotion

emotion cause # of bodily reactions;scared=autonomic NS,startle more easily

Face Recog Development

event related potentials recorded in response to face suggest that face processing does not fully mature until puberty(inverse face pic)although precocial skills are seen in newborns

ACC activated by conflict, not just error

event-related fMRI used to assess role of ACC in monitoring response conflict;study used flanker task(arrows going opp direction;neural activity in ACC higher on incompatible trials compared to the compatible trials;inc was observed when subjects responded correctly;activity on incompatible trials was lower when the preceding trial also was incompatible;ACC signaled presence of conflict&recruited necessary attn resources required to handle conflict;ACC works in tandem w/PFC-coordinated goal-oriented behavior;in flanker-activity in ACC signals presence of conflict-which activates in prefrontal regions

Auditory Attention

evoked response to unattended tones subtracted from response to attended tones;healthy-attention are seen at approx 100msec marked by a larger negativity(N100);patietns w/right PFC lesions show no attention effect for contralesional tones presented in left ear but show a normal effect for ipsilesional tones;patients w/left PFC lesions show reduced attention effect for both contra&ipsilateral tones

Anterior Cingulate

exec control of attn;ensure processing in other regions is efficient given task by 1)interaction w/PFC may select working memory buffers,2)interactions w/posterior cortex can serve to amplify activity in one percep module over others;not always included in PFC-bc older phylogenetically-lacks granular,6layer structure of other cortices;upper rung on attn hierarchy-critical role in coordinating activity across attn systems;selective attn conditions were associated w/enhanced activity in feature-specific regions of visual association areas

Evo func of brain

exists&accumulates particular set of design feature only bc features functionally contributed to organism's propagation

Eimas-Corbit

experiment show /da/ heard on 1side of boundary&/ta/on other;japan "i"&"r"are on same side of boundary

Human vs Chimpanzee Brain

extreme development of cortical structures(cerebellar cortes&association areas of the neocortex)

Jeffrey Binder

fMRI,compare brain activity evoked by diff types of non-speech sounds either:1)noise-no systematic freq or amp modulations,2)tones-freq mod 50-2400Hz,3)speech sounds(contains 1)reverse speech sounds-words backwards,2)pseudowords(pronounceable strings not real words but have same letters sked-desk),3)real words)

spatial frequencies for diff aspects

face recog-gender&age can still be determined when only the low frequencies are left intact;letter of letter-high freq can still support local&global id-stimulus contrast reduced

Smart rats?

failed to selective breed intelligent rats

Piaget Developmental Model

father of developmental psych argued newborns differ significantly from adults;based on bio view of development-differed from prior behaviorally based theories;4 stages:sensorimotor(0-2;integration of senses,no self-id;object permanence-ability to form internal rep of things-perseverative behavior diminishes;behave as frontal lesion;do not have complete myelination of neuronal projections to&from PFC,frontal not yet fully functional),preeoperational(2-7;no conservation of quantity at 7 develop this),concrete operational,formal operational

OFC lesions&risk taking

favor riskier decks bc attracted to freq $100 payments even though they eventually would be offset by severe penalty;SCRs for risky decks-turn card over both group displayed transient increase in SCR autonomic response to rewards&penalties;overtime changes became anticipatory for control-when contemplating choosing card from risky decks SCRs skyrocket-OFC lesions SCR remained reactive only failed to show learned anticipatory changes

Coding of what&where info in diff frontal neurons

firing profile of neuron w/preference for 1 object-activity low once response location is cued;w/preference for 1 location not activate during what delay

Auditory neighbors

for hate-late,rate,eight;words that have more auditory neighbors are identified more slowly

Six basic emotions

happy,sad,fearful,disgusted,angry,surprised

Corpus Callosum Connection

homotopic callosal fibers connect corresponding section of the 2 hemi via CC;heterotypic connections link different areas of the two hemi; both type of contralateral

Looking time: habituation

how long the look at stimulus;infants' looking time habituates-decreases over time when same stimulus is presented repeatedly&shows notable increase(dishabituates) when infants notice a change in stimulus;motion-Kellma&Spelke observed that by 4mons infants use common motions of object to group them together into same unit&spatial separation bw objects to group them into separate units

Language Representation

how&where are words&concepts rep in the brain;theories of language&mental lexicon-1)theoretical experimental models 2)neurophysiological,anatomical,behavioral data

Working memory &lateralization

hypothesis that phonological loop&visuospatial sketchpad corresponds to working memory func of left&right hemis;activation in left lateral PFC especially more ventral regions anterior to Broca's area-found in WM tasks w/verbal stimuli;right PFC activation observed in spatial WM tasks

Left occipital temporal

id of orthographic units

Semantic priming studies

idea organized according to meaningful relationships bw words; subs presented w/word pair 1)1st member of pair,the prime is a word 2)2nd member, the taget can be real word related or not related to prime, a non-word sfhsi, or a pseudoword fisch;subs quickly decide if target is word by pressing button;subs faster&more accurate at making lexical decision when target is preceded by a related prime(car-truck) than unrelated(tulip-truck);related patterns are found when sub is asked to pronounce the target-naming latencies are faster for related words than unrelated-consistent w/network organization of mental lexicon

Homozygous

identical alleles at 1or more genetic loci (aa)

Implication of Split Hemi but One Atten System

if each had own atten resources-ops of one half would have scant influence on the cog activities of the other;brain has limited has limited resources-harder hemi A works,worse hemi B would do

priming as expectancy-induced facilitation

if lexicon is organized as a semantic network,words rated to target after hearing the prime should be activated by spreading&expected;word cat may generate an expectancy set consisting of words that are related such as dog&mouse;Rx to related words at nearby semantic network nodes will be faster or facilitated compared to unrelated target words;expectancy-induced priming tends to occur if the time bw the presentation of primes&targets is long>500msec &proportion of related word pairs in a list is large(50% or more of the pairs are like car-truck,cat-dog);semantic matching is post-lexical-happen after semantic reps in mental lexicon have been accessed

ERPs indicate top-down processing

if&when would be any diff in brain response to words after&before&if that would influence the processing of the rest of the sentence;interactive model predict our conceptual knowledge of order of events can immediately influence the processing of the sentence;modular models predict influence does not occur until later;results support interactive;ERPs to word before are more negative in polarity than they are to the word after-this effect lasts over the course of the sentence;conceptual knowledge of temporal order of even influence sentence processing almost from onset-w/consequences for processing of rest of sentence

OFC lesion

impaired at associating reinforcement properties of stimulus to potential action;bc fail to generate somatic markers

auditory neighborhood effect

indicates that there competition bw activations of different words during recog of speech;suggests a network organization of our mental lexicon

Contrast Percep

infant's ability to perceive contrast is restricted to low freq where contrast sensitivity is lower than adult's by factor of 20 to 100;infarct can see little or nothing at freq above 2 to 3 cycles/degree-freqs where adults are most sensitive

Visual Markers of 2 Months

infants develop smooth pursuit tracking of moving objects;start to show normal orienting to new stimuli presented in visual field;begin to attend to internal features of complex stimuli;development&maturation of striate cortex projection to middle temporal motion areas of extrastriate cortex-essential for smooth pursuit;paying more attn to internal features of stimuli likely results from improving acuity within visual field's central regions

Two Step Movement: Rotation of Pop.Vector

initial direction pop vec toward final component of movement;gradually changes so that at start of movement-corresponds to direction of first component;arrows first up then left;in incompatible condition-animal must move to location opposite that signaled the light

Priming:Semantic Network Storage Models

initially effect of priming thought to be result of automatic spread of activation (ASA) bw nodes in word network;clear now that priming can result from more than these implicit or automatic types of processes

Limits to CC fiber size

interhemi delays could be reduced if CC were larger w/inc conduction speed;but larger fibers would require inc in brain volume;to reduce conduction delay by a factor of 2 would lead to 50% inc in brain volume;inc would have consequence on brain size in term of metabolic demands&for childbirth

Human Dendritic Spines?

isolate human brain tissue;Gordon Shepherd removed from epileptic patients;found variation bw membrane&synaptic properties of human&rodent dentate granule cells( 1.humans less spike freq adaptation than rodents 2.feedbakc inhibited in human tissue, while rodent tissue showed&feedback inhibition-consistent w/shepherd's neuronal modeling 3.diff in calcium channel distribution on dendritic spines may allow more complex computation capacity in humans

Recency Memory

item recog test-one object showed that had been seen before;patient w/frontal lobectomy performed poorly on recency task compared to both control&temporal lobectomy subs;frontal group not impaired on item task;recency memory impaired in patients w/PFC lesions

Amygdala Damage

lack of ability to recog fearful facial expressions;Ralph Adolphs-amygdala damage impaired at evaluating fearful facial expression-ability to evaluate all other facial expression normal;fMRI amygdala much more active to fear than to happy or angry;subliminal fearful face response as strong-doesn't have to be aware

Wernicke's aphasia

language deficit due to left posterior hemi lesion-errors in speech production known as semantic paraphasias-use word horse when meaning cow;similar errors in reading are made by patients w/deep dyslexia who read horse where cow is written

Language does facilitate thought

language may not determine thought but it influences it;affects percep&memory;use language to facilitate mental reps&manipulation;example:nonsense pictures(droodles) are recalled&recalled differently depending on picture's verbal label;semantic labels influence percep;draw shown,more resembles label

Alpha (lower) motor neurons

large size; primary interaction of muscles&NS;originate in spinal cord,exit ventral root,terminate on muscle fibers;AP in alpha release NT acetylocholine(contract muscle);translate nerve signals into mechanical actions(change in length&tension)

Working Memory Buffer in PFC

lateral PFC provides transient buffer for sustaining info stored in other cortex;LTM reactivated&temp maintained thru reciprocal connection bw PFC&posterior PFC

Divisions of Frontal Cortex

lateral prefrontal(lateral 9-12,all45&46,superior 47;SMA&PMC)&anterior cingulate(areas 24,25,32)maybe ventromedial(orbitofrontal presented w/emotions;inferior 47&medial areas 9-12)

Multiple Level Learning

learned action produced by new set of effectors-learning greatest at the lower level;acquire a new action-effects of learning likely to be at more conceptual levels of the action hierarchy;even though they never said the sentence in this language, subjects showed perfect transfer on the task, were just as fast-this learning was at the highest abstract level;simulating sports strengthen higher-level reps of action-lower levels

Brain Regions Activated by Letters

left hemi at the level of anterior occipital cortex;faces-lateral fusiform gyrus;letter strings-occipito-temproal sulcus

processing of lexical-semiantic info

left ventral to superior temporal areas w/speech percep

Speech vs. Space

left-language&speech;right-face recog&attentional monitoring;both-performance of any complex task-contributing in specialized manner

Deficits in Category of Tools

less known about localization of lesions in patients who show greater impairment for man-made things-fewer patients;left frontal&parietal areas;overlap w/areas of brain important for sensorimotor func

Components of word or lexical processing

lexical access(reps activated&spread to semantic&syntactic attributes of word forms), selection,&intergration

Sentence

linear arrangement of phrases&words-can be rep by hierarchical tree that reflects structure

Challenges of Speech vs. Written Input

listening to speech-segment speech at speed of input bc of temporal dimension out of control

McClelland Neural Net Model

living/non-living brain area division has been challenged by an alternative modality-specific hypothesis;Farah&McClelland modeled semantic memory as consisting of (separated visual&functional subsystems,living things representations are based on visual attributes,nonliving things include info about functional attributes);found as Warrington data that if 1)they lesioned visual properties in their model(by removing nodes in their network in the compute simulation)-the model was especially "impaired" in dealing w/living things 2)lesioning of functional properties led to impairments w/nonliving things

Homeostasis

located in hypothalamus&2 effector systems 1)autonomic sys 2)endocrine

Input to Alpha MN

lowest level-input from sensory fibers located in the muscles to mediate reflexes;muscles unexpectedly stretched, a sensory signal is generated in the joints and muscle fibers-enters SC dorsal roots-synapse on alpha MN-signal rapidly increases the output of the alpha MN(process that returns the muscle to it original length

Brain Size

many animals show disproportionately large rep of some sensory&motor regions of cortex;recognized correlation bw large colliculus for echo-locating bats&dolphins&enlarged optic lobes for visual fish;evo of human brain is characterized more by expansion of areas that by radical reconstructions-simple changes in genetic control of growth can have far-reaching effects on form;specialized circuits in human brain

Shorebirds:Reversal of typical sexual forms

mating male stays in nest to incubate egg;female seeks other males;fast-sexed females are larger&more brightly colored-while other species males are more so

Corballis on Left-Brain Right Handedness

may be laterality gene that controls growth gradients; evidence for spurt of left-hemi growth grammar bw ages 2-4;if disrupted,grammar may be acquired later in right hemi;acquired in normal fashion,right does not acquire;so right has potential for grammar but denied opportunity

Changing Stimulus-Response Evaluation Function of OFC

may be necessary for on-line rapid eval of stimulus-reinforcement associations-learning required to link stimulus&action w/reinforcing properties

Adaptation

measure of evo success in terms of trait being rep in future is measure of its fitness;feature suited to environment-adjust to environmental change;evo=acquisition of adaptations of structure,behavior,NS

Lie detector

measuring body's response;lying creates arousing uncomfortable emotional state

Digit Span & Chunking

memory limits discovered in these studies are defined by the number of items, not the content of each item This distinction has sometimes been cast as the difference between a bit of information and a chunk -- a bit being the elementary piece of information and a chunk being a unit composed of bits The use of words allows individual letters to be chunked into one meaningful piece of information. People can remember about 7 simple sentences

Preadaptation

mirror neurons are in an area that is considered homologous to Broca's speech area in humans-indicate neurons may be the ones that have evolved in humans&allow us to make an assumption about another intentions;beginning of neural system sustains a more complex social interaction func in higher animal,leading to enhanced communication&then language

Jerry Fodor

modularity of mind(1983);2 central ideas:1)language is an input system hater than part of central system(where central can influence diff knowledge domains),2)input systems have modular architecture(they process inputs&produce outputs w/their inner workings hidden from rest of system

WM Test in NHPs

monkeys w/PFC lesions-selective impairment on Wm delayed-response task;in WM test,monkey sees on well baited w/food-after delay animal retrieves the food-location of food is random;in associative memory task,food reward is associated w/1 of 2 visual cues-location of cues is random;WM required to perform WM test bc at the time animal response no external cues indicating location of food;LTM required in associative memory task bc animal must remember visual cue associated w/food;following lesions,behavior is stimulus driven;the sight of the door is no longer a sufficient cue to remind the animal of the food

Modern evolutionary neurobiology or comparative neuroscience

more brain centered&systems oriented;emphasized complex interaction bw genes&environment in construction of NS

Apraxia

more likely produced by left hemi lesion; oral movement have left-hemi dominance,regardless of whether the movements create speech sounds or nonverbal facial gestures;gestures more pronounced on facial right side;not able to recognize skilled movements;asked to id movement of turning key;patients w/posterior lesions showed impairment on percep test;apraxic patient w/anterior lesions performed as well as nonapraxic,aphasic control subs on percept test

Homologous Brain Areas 1

motion area in primates called MT is posteromedial lateral suprasylvian(PMLS) in cats-receive direct V1 inputs;Gazzaniga thinks that they are homologous bc 1)very distant phylogenetic relationship bw cats&primates 2)lack of such an area in # of intervening groups;area prob homoplaseous-similiar selective pressures for detecting moving objects in environment

Spatial Frequency Hypothesis

moved laterality research toward a more computational account of hemispheric specialization, seeking to explicate the mechanisms underlying many lateralized perceptual phenomena

McGurk Effect

moves lips /ga-ga/ sound /ba-ba/ listener reports /da-da/ can hear sound if closes eyes

Working memory

must select&amplify reps useful for task at hand&ignore potential distractions;ops require a system that can monitor ongoing behvaior, signaling when we fail or when there are potential sources of conflict

Op of WM

n-back tasks,response required only when stimulus matches one shown n trials before;contents of WM must be manipulated constantly as the target is updated on each trial

3 Divisions Cerebellum

neocerebellum,spinocerebellum,vestibulocerebellum

PFC

network linking motor,perceptual,&limbic regions;extensive projections to PFC from parietal&temporal&prestriate of occipital;subcortical structure that project indirectly to the prefrontal cortex via thalamic connections including BG&cerebellum&brainstem nuclei;coordinate processing across wide regions of CNS;sends reciprocal connection to most areas that project to it&to premotor&motor areas;PFC project to contralateral hemi-homologous prefrontal areas via CC&bilateral projections to premotor&subcortical regions

Theory of Mind

neural instantiation of information about another organism's intentions;mirror neurons recog an agency associated w/movement in another animal&map it to one's own movement;meaning of observed is matched w/&derived from that of a self-action

Neural Tube

neural plate invaginates via neural folds being pushed up at its border;axis of symmetry where the neural folds form neural groove;groove deepens-meet,fuse,form neural tube that runs anteriorly&posteriorly along the embryo;adj nonnerual ectoderm reunites seal tube;forms 3 spaces

Mechanisms that generate neocortex

neuronal proliferation,migration,determination&differentiation,synaptogenesis,synapse elimination

Difference bw capabilities of newborns&adults could be explained in at least 2 ways

newborns have all the capabilities of adults but have not yet attained-via experience;newborns may differ radically from adults in neural or cog capabilities or both-development will involve radical,quantitative change,has dominated theories of development based on both neural&psychological evidence

Braitenberg's Vehicles

no access to internal ops;modeling brings insights to info processing;simplest-responds to temperature,deviate from its course,Brownian motion(erratic),ALIVE;Fear&Aggression-stay away from things that will affect sensor;Avoid or approach-setting sensor;love&inhibition-setting sensor;complex connections-more&more settings;vehicle behavior

Specializations 2

nose of mole-evolved independently in # of lineages;evolved a # of movable appendages used for exploration,prey capture,feeding;magnification of rep in S1&S2 in neo-modification are highly constrained by niche of animal

Superiority of particular allele

not absolute but depends on all other genes(in one organism)&particular niche occupied by organism(including other organisms)

Orbitofrontal Cortex&Amygdala

now-social learning&emotional responses;early emotion viewed as unitary concept localized to one areas-limbic;OFC&amygdala process emotion to mediate response&action in social&risky world using learned info about social&risk impact of situation in decision making-informed of this assessment via emotions

Hypothalamus Projections to

nucleus of solitary tract;brainstem regions in the rostral ventral medulla;autonomic outflow of SC

identification of orthographic units

occipital-temporal regions of the left hemi;fMRI-McCarthy contrasted brain activation in response to letters w/activation in response to faces&visual textures-found regions of occipital-temporal cortex activate preferentially in response to unpronounceable letter strings-similar to earlier finding of intracranial electrical recording of patients who later underwent surgery for intractable epilepsy

Fixed action pattern

once initiated continues through to completion, independent of feedback

Genetic Specificity

one gene is responsible for a single func or behavior(egg laying in slug)

2 Psycholinguistic models for mental lexicons

one model language(comprehension&production are in same mental lexicon)other models(distinct input&output)

Input pathways joined

orthographic(vision-based);phonological(sound-based)

Semantic Knowledge Models

other models proposed that concepts are represented by semantic features or semantic properties(ex.dog-is animate-has four legs-barks)

Macroplanning&Microplanning Formulator

output of macro&microplanning is conceptual message that constitutes the input for the hypothetical formulator(message in correct grammatical&phonological form)lowest level elements of surface structure are the lemmas

Categorical vs Coordinate Probes

pair shown;5sec delay-then asked if same;left-right reversal alters categorical relations;increasing the distance bw constitutes a coordinate transformation

Visual pathways in Non-Mammals

pathways in birds completely crossed;organization reflects the fact that there is little overlap in the regions of space seen by each eye-visual input to left hemi independent of visual input to the right heme-anatomical segregation expected to favor the emergence of hemispheric asymmetries

Phonetic boundary

perceptual constancy on 1 side of boundary-perceived same category even though VOT is changed over substantial range

Auditory Sensory Memory: MMF MMN Evidence for 10 Second Echoic Memory

persistence of the auditory sensory memory trace has been measured by recording a human event-related brain potential known as the electrical mismatch negativity (MMN), or its magnetic counterpart, the mismatch field (MMF) recorded either by electrodes placed on the head (MMN) or with magnetic sensors placed near the scalp (MMF) brain response is elicited by a deviant stimulus such as a high tone frequency presented within a sequence of identical stimuli of a different pitch (e.g., low tones) The MMN is a negative polarity component in the event-related potential elicited by the deviant tone, and the corresponding MMF is a deviation in the magnetic field to the deviant tone response occurs about 150 to 200 msec after stimulus onset and is generated in the auditory cortex, as determined by inverse modeling of the magnetic fields These mismatch responses appear to be sensory memory processes that hold recent auditory experience in echoic memory for comparison to new inputs. When these inputs differ, the MMN and MMF are generated. Hence, these mismatch brain responses indicate how long the echoic memory trace persists. Experimenters varied the interstimulus intervals between standard and deviant tones and found that the MMF could still be elicited by the deviant tone at inter-stimulus intervals of 9 to 10 seconds. After about 10 seconds the amplitude of the MMF declined to the point where it could no longer be distinguished reliably from noise. Some behavioral studies have yielded results that also support about 10 seconds as the duration of the echoic trace.

Specializations

platypus bill contains mechano&electorsenosry receps arranged in stripes;in S1 neurons are aggregated in gourds of mechano&electrosensory inputs;magnification of rep of bill in neo is extreme assuming about 75% of entire neo

Polygamous vs monogamous territories

poly-male home ranges overlap w/numerous smaller female ranges;mono-females&males in monogamous species where parenting by both sexes is necessary for raising of young tend to have smaller,isomorphic home ranges

Alternatives to GAD

possible that mechanisms produce hemispheric specialization in language&motor performance unrelated;not a perfect correlation bw these 2 cardinal signs of hemi asymmetry;not only do a small percentage of righthanders exhibit either left-hemisphere language or bilateral language, but also in at least half of the left-handed population the left hemisphere is dominant for language

Freq-Modulated sounds for simple noise

posterior areas of superior temporal gyrus(bilateral)

3 Phonological Loop Components

premotor/PFC;cerebellum;posterior region of left hemi*recoding process would not be needed if stimuli were presented auditorally

Developmental Origin of Brain Asymmetry

prenatal environment;position of fetus oriented w/right ear facing outward-results in larger vestibular&audiory signal in right hemi;at birth,left side of body more stable-freeing the right hand for exploration

Hemispheric Asymmetry in Prototype vs Exemplar Judgments

presented w/subset of exemplars&learned to categorize them using arbitrary # assigned to each set;test-performed categorization task 1)w/prototype,2)the trained exemplars,3)untrained exemplars;found:classification of the prototype was faster when presented in the right visual field(left hemi);trained exemplars were more rapidly classified when presented in the left visual field-right hemi

Heschl's Gyrus

primary auditory cortices;supra-temporal plane;superior&medial to superior temporal gyrus in each hemi;auditory association cortex;PET&fMRI show Heschl's&STG of both hemi activated by speech&non alike

Deep Acquired Dyslexia

problems reading due to brain damage;modality specific-can comprehend spoken but not produce written language(alexia wo agraphia)

Stream of auditory info

proceeds from auditory cortex in Heschl's gyrus to superior temporal gyrus(no distinct made bw speech&non sounds)

Encoding

processing of incoming info to be stored; two stages: 1)acquisition(registers inputs in sensory buffers & sensory analysis stages for conversion to memory) 2)consolidation(creates a stronger representation over time)

Broca's Area

processing syntactic info-PET;Caplan found increased activation in Broca's area for more complex syntactic structures;superior temporal gyrus

progressive semantic dementia

progressive damage to the temporal lobes,mostly left;superior regions of temporal lobe that are important for lower level hearing&speech processing are spared;show impairments in conceptual system(generating words from pictures),wo impairments in abilities such as understanding&producing the syntactic structure of sentences

Anterograde Amnesia

progressive neurological (Alzheimer's);herpes simplex encephalitis viral infection of the brain

Sapir-Whorf: Language Organizes Thought

propagated the notion that Eskimos have multitudinous words for the single English word snow,implying conceptual structure is richer for snow,due to obvious environmental reasons;contrary to popular belief,Eskimos do NOT have numerous words for snow

WM buffer in PFC

radioactive tracer revela correlated activity in prefrontal&inferior parietal cortex during spatial WM task;principal sulcus,area 7,lateral sulcus

Fear Conditioning

rat in cage-light(CS) neutral stimulus-rat grows used to it(habituation)-presentation of light paired w/shock(US)-rat has natural fear of shock(acquisition)-after pairing light to shock-rat learns light predicts shock-eventually fear at light alone(CResponse)

Damasio's Somatic Marker Hypothesis

referred to gut feeling as somatic marker;bodily sensations-link to physiological experience;memories of events reactivate the physical reaction,at least our memories of these reactions;auto anticipate affective consequences of each action

Orbito-frontal cortex:social decision making

regulates ability to inhibit,evaluate,&act on social&emotional info;integrate incoming stimuli w/values,goals,emotion,social situation

Lesions of OFC

reps required to guide&produce an action are brought into WM but stripped of emotion content-loss of somatic markers-mull over problems in impersonal manner

Audiovisual mirror neurons

respond to action&accompanying sound(may link sensory&motor)

Brain Stimulation for Parkinson's Disease

resulting from dopamine depletion,output from BG produces excessive inhibition on the motor structures in the cortex thus inhibiting movement-surgical methods reduce this by lesioning output structures or implanting brain stimulators within the BG

WM lateral prefrontal activation

revealed by fMRI during WM task;spatial memory condition-responses were required whenever a stimulus appeared at a location that had been used previously-inc in activity in right lateral PFC;in control,color task,reponses were required to all of the red objects;fMRI signal increased in right PFC during 8sec stimulus period for both tasks-%inc in area relative to baseline was more pronounced during spatial WM task

Semantic memory vs the mental lexicon

semantic important for language comprehension&production-clearly connected to mental lexicon-semantic memory&mental lexicon not necessarily the same thing;conceptual or semantic reps reflect our knowledge of the real world;conceptual(semantic)reps can become activated through non-linguistic processes such as our own thoughts&intentions or through our perceptions of words&sentences, of pictures&photos,& of events,objects,&states in real world

Semantic Organization: Semantic vs Linguistic Knowledge

semantic knowledge of words can be distinguished from pure linguistic knowledge;distinction becomes clear when we consider words like bank w/one form rep but 2 or more unrelated meanings;to arrive at meaning-context is needed;contextual processing related to idea Endel Tulving proposed a distinction bw episodic memory, our memory for personal events, semantic memory, our memory for facts&general knowledge

Piaget 4 Stages overview

sensorimotor(0-2;unconnected sensation,representational thought);proportional period(2-7;conservation of quantity&number;ego centrism);concreter ops(7-11;concrete concepts but no abstract thinking);formal ops(11-up;development of abstract thought)

Pandemonium Model of Letter Recog by Selfridge

sensory input(R)temp stored as iconic memory by so-called image demon,refers to desecrate stage of info processing;28 feature demons sensitive to features like curves,horizontal linnets decode features in iconic rep of sensory input;next step,all reps of letter w/features are activated by cog demons;finally,rep that matches input is selected by decision demon

Limited Resources Test

seq of event for a redundant 3 condition trial-stimuli selected from set of 7 geometric forms that appeared for 150msec;delay followed presentation of last stimuus&the unilateral probe stimulus was presented for 150msec;sub made decision if the stimulus had been previously seen;easy condition-all shapes were presented to same hemi;hard condition-shapes were in both hemis-performace was poor in either hemi

Phenotype

set of characteristics of an organisms-obseravble or not but upon which selection-survival&reproductive success acts;can refer to morphological structure(hand foot leg heart as well as neural structure-such as lateral geniculate nucleus,superior colliculus,neocortex,cortical field);brain pheno-on/off ganglion cells,behavior catching food by squirrels

Reading Words

share at least 2 steps of linguistic analysis w/auditory comprehension(lemma&meaning activation) but differs at the earlier processing steps;1st step requires the reader id orthographic units from visual input(then be 1)directly mapped onto orthographic word forms in mental lexicon OR 2)translated into phonological units, which in turn activate the phonological word form in the mental lexicon as described for auditory comprehension

PFC Memory Neurons

show sustained activity during delayed-response tasks;cue indicated location for forthcoming response;monkey trained to withhold response until a "go" signal appeared;cell did not respond during cue interval,rather increased when cue was turned off&persisted until the response

OFC Lesion disrupt emotional processing of affective memories

skin conductance(SCR) intact in that they show an autonomic response to an innately negative stimulus such as a sudden loud sound;patients differ from control subs when SCR changed are evoked by stimuli w/emotional qualities that are not innate&only determined from past

Missing Phonemes

slowly&distinctly-most phonemes are present;normal conversational speech-many phonemes are not even present-we must somehow infer their presence wo any acoustic signal at all

Amygdala

small,almond-shaped in medial temporal lobe adj to anterior hippocampus;kluver&bucy-emotional responses in monkey following damage here;deficit called psychic blindness-tendency to approach objects such as model snake-normally elicit fear response(Kluver-Bucy syndrome)

monkey glabrous hand

specialized structure in primate adapted for tactile exploration,recog,goal-directed grasping&reaching;greatly magnified rep in cuneate nucleus of brainstem,ventral posteror thalamus,anterior parietal somatosensory areas of neocortex

prosodic info

speech rhythm(emphasis,pause duration)&pitch of speaker's voice-right hemi helps break up spoken;in all spoken-obvious(freq of voice at end) when asked question or emphasizing(loudness or pause);emphasize syllables to tell (stress on 1st-lettuce&2nd-let us) apart

Speech production mechanics

speech sound s are produced vis 3 amain modulations of our vocal apparatus 1)voicing-vocal cords vibrate for that phoneme-all vowels are voiced but most consonants are not (sip vs zip) 2)place/point of articulation-part of speech apparatus we use to produce-whether we use both lips or lips&mouth 3)manner of articulation-manner in which the airstream is changed for example a p produced by blocking airstream

Lack of Invariance

speech sounds vary on basis of context in which they are spoken;variability in production of same phoneme also occurs when it is pronounced by diff speaker by a male or female

Central pattern generators

spinal gait control neurons,part of mechanism for the hierarchical control of movement;NS initiates walking but brain structures do not have to specify detailed patterns of muscle activity;activate the appropriate pattern generators in the SC,which in turn trigger muscle commands

Von Economo Neurons

spindle neurons;spnidle shaped soma-tapering into single apical axon in one direction w/ only a single dendrite facing opposite;in hominids(apes&humans)they are found in ACC,fronto-insular cortex&dorsolateral PFC

Split Hemi but One Attention System

split brain cannot divide spatial atten bw 2 halves;only one integrated spatial atten system that remains intact following cortical disconnection;like neuro intact observers the attentional system of split brain is unifocal-unable to prepare for events in 2 spatially disparate locations bc atten partly controlled by subcortical systems that are not disconnected by callosal transection

Gazzaniga

split brain patient research gives most dramatic evidence of hemispheric specialization;flat pattern shape-create w/blocks-unable to w/right hand or left hemi but able w/other hand

no transfer of info from perceptual areas of right hemi to the language areas in left

stimuli entering left visual field-transmitted to right hemi-split brain means info does not get to language dominant left hemi

Amygdala Nuclei

stria terminalis-innervated hypothalamus as well as bed nuclei of stria terminals&nucleus accumbens;ventral amygdalofugal pathway-provides input to brain stem,dorsal medial nucleus of thalamus,&rostral cingulate gyrus

Exaptation

structure that serves a particular func but co-opted for very diff func(inner ear is exaltation of lateral line)

Hannah Damasio

studied large population of patients w/brain lesions asked to perform naming task for 1)famous faces2)animals3)tools;purpose:dissociate conceptual probs(damage to conceptual reps of objects themselves)&from probs at level of word retrieval(accessing the name of an object);procedure was used whereby if a subject was able to describe many feature of pic but unable to name it-scored as naming error(ex.terrible smell animal-couldn't name skunk);but not specific in describing-not included in naming score;left lesion patients(7 impaired naming faces;5 in naming animals;7 in naming tools;11 combination of probs for faces,animals,&tools,or faces&animals,or animals&tools,NEVER faces&tools w/o animals also

Spatial Cuing Task

subjects asked to respond upon detecting a target that appears at one of several possible locations;target preceded by a cue-at location(valid cue)or another location(invalid cue);fastest on valid trials-spatial orienting to the cued location

ACC Activation Time Course

subs hear a noun-repeat word or name a word that is verb associate-to avoid including motor activity in evoked potentials, subs instructed to withhold responses until "go" signal appeared about 1500msec after stimulus)-difference waveform obtained by subtracting evoked potential in generation condition from that in generation condition;dipole modeling techniques were used to id the neural regions associated w/each peak 1)first diff observed about 180msec after onset-attributed to single generator in ACC 2)about 30 msec later-2nd generator required to model data-localized to left lateral PFC 3)around 620msec after stimulus onset-a 3rd generator was linked to the left posterior cortex in left hemi

evoked potentials reveal filtering deficits in patients w/lesions in lateral PFC

subs monitored in response to auditory clicks on small level;1st positive peak occurs at 8msec in inferior colliculus;2nd positive peak at30msec(the P30)in primary auditory cortex;both responses normal in patients w/parietal damage;2nd peak reduced in patients w/temporo-parietal damage-reflect loss of neurons in primary auditory cortex;auditory cortex response amplified in patients w/frontal damage-suggested loss of inhibition from frontal lobe to temporal lobe

Susceptibility ot distraction in patients w/lateral prefrontal lesions

subs performed delayed auditory matching to sample task;unrelated distractor tones presented during delay period;group w/prefrontal lesions made more errors for all delay conditions-deficit became greater as # of distractors increased;patients w/hippocampal damage impaired only at longest delay-consistent w/role of structure in LTM formation

Abnormal SCR to learned negative images

subs view disturbing images;control subs consistent spike in comparison to response to neutral images-SCR flat in OFC patients;showed a dissociation bw their explicit description&physiological, emotional reaction;could use words that convey emotional experience,but lack of affective response meant their words reflected semantic associations,not emotional ones

Wada Test

subsequent to angiography,amobarbital is administered into left hemi anesthetizing the language&speech systems;a spoon is placed in the left hand,right hemi takes note;when left hemi regains consciousness-subject asked what was in hand-they say "nothing";a board of object pinned-can easily point to object due to right hemi directing the left hand during matching to sample task

Pure Word Deafness

superior temporal cortex important to sound percept;bilateral superior temporal lesions;difficulties recog speech sounds-process other sounds normally

Task Switching

switching cost-time required to switch from one task to the other-measured diff in Rx;patients w/PFC lesions showed impairment only on color cue condition;visual word cue-performed normal:PFC coordinating goal-oriented behavior-patients must remember associations bw colors&tasks-but word referencing does not require this;Parkinson's difficulty w/shifting task

Autonomic Divisions

sympathetic(fight-flight;inc cardiac output,body temp,blood glucose,pupillary constriction;preganglionic neurons),parasympathetic(rest-digest,basalHR,respiration,metabolism normal;S2 to S4 SC),enteric(gastrointestinal)

Reversal learning&orbitofrontal cortex

task called reversal learning of stimulus-reinforcemet associations subs-told they can earn points by touching one stimulus when it appears on video monitor-but they have to withhold a response when a different stimulus appear or they lose a point;after subs learn discrim the stimulus reinforcement contingencies are unexpectedly reverse;sub w/OFC lesion able to learn initial task but showed difficulty in correcting after stimulus-reinforcement properties were reverse;difficulty was correlated w/extent to which they shoed socially inappropriate or disinhibited behavior

These forms of dyslexia provide powerful double dissociation

tells us maybe 2 routes(direct to word&assembled)by which test that we read can be recognized&converted into verbal output

Speech is digital (mostly)

the job of the listener is to translate the acoustic input into the exact sequence of phonemes uttered that constitute the words&sentences;ideally, like a computer, one would:1)segment the utterance into the periods corresponding to each phoneme 2)match, as w/template, each utterance piece to the correct phoneme;the output would be the series of phonemes that compose each word of the utterance

Feed-forward for slow thermostat

thermostat controlling power plat which takes a long time to turn on or off; thermostat tripped at desired temp-plant would still run for some time&overheat; feed forward system, the controller (cerebellum) would learn how long it takes to shut down the plant&program accordingly

Pituitary hormones

thyrotropin-releasing hormone, gonadotropin-releasing hormone, somatostatin (Figure 32-7), corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), also called corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), and growth hormone-releasing hormone (GRH)

Newborn vision is subcortical(primarily SC)

track moving object but do not display smooth pursuit eye movements-use saccadic pattern of eye movements(jump in fixation from point to point);stimuli presented to temporal visual field(stimuli for right eye/stimuli on left for left eye)more likely to elicit overt orienting of head&eyes;occurs bc stimuli in temporal hemifields impinge on ipsilateral portion of retina that project more strongly to SC&thus more likely induce oculomotor orienting;tend to ignore internal feature of complex stimuli,owing to poor acuity-bc fovea lags behind in development but also bc processing at higher stage of visual system is limited;newborn visual behavior driven by subcortical visuomotor system

left inferior frontal gyrus

translate orthographic input into phonological info used to pronounce word-includes ventral part of Broca's area

Agrammatic aphasia neural loci

understanding structure of sentences;produce 2 or 3 words sentence of exclusively content words&hardly any function words or grammatical or morphological markers&inflection;damage to Broca's area of let-but not always;

Animal frontal lesion effects

unilateral lesions of PFC produce relatively mild deficits;bilateral lesions-dramatic-purpose lacking;loss of goal oriented behavior

Single Path McClelland Model

use of phonological info just uses more in some cases than others;continuous interaction bw written input units&phonological units,feedback allows the model to learn about correct pronounciations of words;model not good at reading pseudowords

Out-Group Analysis&Trait Origin

used to make inferences about an unknown common ancestor;great apes close to humans;interested in whether brain characteristic exist in humans-do out group comparison to make fairly accurate inference

Brodmann

utilized technique of Franz Nissl-distinguish architecture of cortex in humans-made contribution w/cross-specieis comparisons of cytoarchitecture of cerebral cortex;ubiquity of these field across phyla suggested that they must be inherited from a common ancestor(area 17-primary visual);homologs(areas 17&4 all animals;area 22 only in primates)

Hemi dichotomies

verbal versus perceptual, analytic versus holistic, logical versus intuitive, cooked versus raw

Neural Circuit Development

visual acuity or oculomotor behavior depends on particular neural circuit cannot exist before that circuit develops;foveal visual acuity is impossible in newborn-foveal region is immature at birth-peripheral retina relatively more developed;optic nerve not completely myelinated in newborn occurs during 1st 4 months of life&reaching adult patterns at age of 2 years;lateral geniculate nucleus of thalamus is immature at birth&experiences rapid growth in 1st 6mons after birth(almost doubling in volume)

V1&V2

visual processing but not to specific letters

Learned from Split Brains

visual-perceptual info highly lateralized to one hemi following CC severe as does tactile-patterned info;attentional mechanisms can involve subcortical systems;cortical disconnection produces 2 independent sensory info-processing system that call upon a common attentional resource system in the carrying out of perceptual tasks;2 hemis do not represent info in an identical manner, as evidenced by the fact that each hemisphere has developed its own set of specialized capacities

Lesions affecting visuospatial WM

visuospatial sketchpad is compromised by damage to the parieto-occipital region of both hemispheres, but damage to the right hemisphere produces more severe deficits in visuospatial short-term memory

Traits Essential for Semantic Knowledge Models

we recog a dog even when it doesn't bark;some words are more "prototypical" examples of a semantic category than others-reflected in our recog&production of these words;preferred categorical levels for naming;asked to generate bird names-robin comes to mind faster than ostrich

Lookup vs Phonological Translation

we would pronounce incorrect if we directly translate;prevent error by using a direct route from the orthographic units to the word form rep;dual route reading models(with direct route from orthography to word form;indirect route(assembled route)with the written input is translated into phonology before word form mapped)

Operant Behaviors are Said to be Emitted Rather Elicited

when a behavior produces favorable changes in the environment (when it is rewarded or leads to the removal of noxious stimuli) the animal tends to repeat the behavior In general, behaviors that are rewarded tend to be repeated, whereas behaviors followed by aversive, though not necessarily painful, consequences (punishment or negative reinforcement) are usually not repeated. Many experimental psychologists feel that this simple idea, called the law of effect, governs much voluntary behavior.

ERP anomalous words

words that do not fit semantic specification of preceding context elicit a large negative deflection(plotted upward) in ERP called N400

Collins&Loftus Concept Network Model

words that have strong associative or semantic relations are closer together in the network (car-truck) than are words that have no such relation (car-cloud);semantically related words are colored similarly in the figure&associatively related word (firetruck-fire)are closely connected

Visual Processing for Reading&Evolution

written language only about 5500 years ago;auditory processing of spoken language is older creating neural specialization 100s of 1000s of years ago;written language young make it unlikely that reading is represented by specialized input system;reading relies on general visual to analyze letter features