Pysch 427 Test 3

Non-suicidal self-injury

(NSSI) occurs when individuals repeatedly and intentionally damage the surface of their body in a manner that is likely to induce bleeding, bruising, or pain (Table 13.6, Proposed Diagnostic Criteria for Non-Suicidal Self-Injury). Individuals with NSSI do not have suicidal intent, that is, they do not want to die. Instead, they engage in self-injury with the expectation that they will cause only minor or moderate physical damage. The most common methods of self-injury among adolescents and young adults are cutting (70- 90%), banging or hitting (20- 40%), and burning (15- 35%), although many youths who engage in self-injury use multiple methods (Rodham & Hawton, 2009). Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 18971-18976). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

Features of depressive disorders

1. Depressed mood. People with depression often feel sad, blue, or "down." 2. Diminished interest or pleasure in most activities. Most people with depression, regardless of age, also show a marked loss of interest or pleasure in activities they used to enjoy. 3. Significant change in appetite or weight. Many people with depression show a marked decrease in appetite. 4. Significant change in sleep. The most common sleep problem among people with depression is insomnia. Typically, individuals with depression will wake in the middle of the night or during the early morning hours and be unable to return to sleep. Insomnia is one of the best predictors of mood problems in late childhood and early adolescence. In contrast, hypersomnia (i.e., sleeping too much) is more common among adults than among youths 5. Psychomotor agitation or retardation. Psychomotor agitation refers to a noticeable increase in motor activity. Children and adolescents with psychomotor agitation may appear restless, have problems sitting still, pace or wander about the room, or fidget with their hands or clothing. 6. Loss of energy or fatigue. Most people with depression experience a loss of energy, tiredness, or fatigue. Adults and adolescents may report that even trivial daily tasks seem to require an enormous amount of energy. 7. Feelings of worthlessness or guilt. Many people with depression are preoccupied by feelings of worthlessness or excessive feelings of guilt. 8. Thought and concentration problems. People with depression often report problems with attention and concentration. Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 18059-18060). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

Exposure for specific phobia

Almost all efficacious psychosocial treatments for childhood anxiety disorders involve exposure therapy (Bouchard, Mendlowitz, Coles, & Franklin, 2004). Exposure therapy occurs when the client confronts a feared stimulus for a discrete period of time. Over time, and across multiple confrontations, the client's anxiety gradually decreases. Exposure therapy can occur in many ways. Exposure can occur gradually (i.e., graded exposure) or rapidly (i.e., flooding). The client can confront real objects, people, or situations (i.e., in vivo exposure) or the client can imagine the feared stimulus (i.e., imaginal exposure). Exposure can occur multiple times over a number of weeks (i.e., spaced exposure) or over the course of hours or days (e.g., massed exposure). Although all forms of exposure can be used with children, exposure therapy is usually most effective when it is graded, in vivo, and massed. Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 15176-15182). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

What problems are associated with depression?

Anxiety Anxiety disorders are highly comorbid with depression. Approximately 40% to 50% of adolescents with depression have an anxiety disorder (Kovacs & Devlin, 1998; Lewinsohn, Hops, Roberts, Seeley, & Andrews, 1993). The most common anxiety disorder among children with depression is Social Anxiety Disorder (Treatment for Adolescents With Depression Study Team [TADS], 2005). Both depression and Social Anxiety Disorder can lead to social withdrawal and avoidance. Youths with both disorders show greater impairment in interpersonal functioning than youths with either disorder alone. Disruptive Behavior Childhood depression and conduct problems frequently co-occur; furthermore, the presence of both mood problems and conduct disturbance is associated with high levels of impairment (Angold et al., 1999). The comorbidity of depression and ADHD ranges from 12% to 45% (Biederman et al., 1999; Kennard, Ginsburg, Feeny, Sweeney, & Zagurski, 2005; TADS, 2005). Youths with both disorders show problems with attention and concentration and are easily distractible. They may also have difficulty performing homework assignments and earning high grades in school. Substance Use Some studies have shown a relationship between adolescent depression and substance use problems (Henry, Feehan, McGee, Stanton, Moffitt, & Silva, 1993). The strength of this relationship seems to depend on the age and gender of the adolescent. Older adolescents with depression are more likely to show substance use problems than younger adolescents and children. Furthermore, boys with depression are somewhat more likely than girls to show substance use problems (Maag & Irvin, 2005). In one study, approximately 33% of boys with depression and 16% of girls with depression also showed signs of problematic alcohol use (Windle & Davies, 1999). Suicide Children and adolescents with depression are at increased risk for suicide. Suicide is the third leading cause of death among adolescents (Shain, 2007). Suicide kills more children and adolescents than cancer, heart disease, AIDS, birth defects, stroke, and chronic lung disease combined. Approximately 4,000 youths die by suicide annually (World Health Organization, 2001). Suicidal thoughts and behaviors are alarmingly common among adolescents. In one very large epidemiological study, 28.6% of adolescents reported feeling sad or hopeless almost every day for at least 2 weeks, 16.5% had planned a suicide attempt, 8.5% had attempted suicide, and 2.9% had made an attempt that required hospitalization (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2004). Suicide attempts are twice as common in girls than boys; however, boys are much more likely to complete suicide than girls. The greater lethality of suicide attempts among boys is partially due to their methods of injury. Boys are more likely than girls to use firearms; in contrast, girls are more likely than boys to ingest pills (American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 2001). Approximately 1 in every 100 suicide attempts results in death (Pomerantz, 2005). Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 18262-18271). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

Treatment options

Anxiety disorders in children often go undetected and untreated. As many as 86% of youths with anxiety disorders never see mental health professionals (Costello, 2005). Even among children attending outpatient clinics, almost 70% never receive treatment for their anxiety disorder (Chavira & Stein, 2005). Anxiety disorders are easily overlooked by parents and teachers, the people most likely to refer children for treatment. Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 15170-15173). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

Comorbidity between depression and anxiety

Anxiety disorders tend to persist over time and can greatly affect children's functioning. Children with anxiety disorders are at particular risk for long-term problems with anxiety and depression. GAD is more closely associated with depression than the other anxiety disorders. In most cases, youths develop GAD before the onset of Major Depressive Disorder. Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 15591-15592). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

OCD what ages of children are affected

Approximately 1% to 2% of children and adolescents have OCD. Epidemiological studies suggest that at any given point in time, 90% of these children are not receiving treatment for the disorder. In childhood, OCD is more common among boys than girls, with a gender ratio of 2: 1. By late adolescence, many girls begin to manifest the disorder and the gender distribution becomes roughly equal (Geller, 2010). Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 14960-14963). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

DMDD- Contraversy

Because DMDD is a new diagnosis, we do not yet have a good understanding of its prevalence. However, some data indicate it is fairly common among youths in the general population. For example, Brotman and colleagues (2006) found that 3.2% of youths in the Great Smokey Mountains Study showed chronic irritability and angry outbursts, the essential features of DMDD. Very little is known about the course of DMDD. In one study of children hospitalized because of DMDD, parents reported that the onset of their irritable mood and angry outbursts began in infancy or preschool. Nearly all met diagnostic criteria for DMDD before the age of 10 years (Margulies et al., 2012). These problems with irritability and temper appear to be frequent and long-standing. They tend to persist at least through childhood and early adolescence if untreated. Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 17885-17888). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

Binge Eating Disorder

Binge Eating Disorder (BED) is characterized by recurrent episodes of binge eating without inappropriate compensatory behaviors to avoid weight gain. youths with BN and BED do not have abnormally low weight. Youths with BN are often of average or above average weight. Youths with BED are often overweight or obese. BED often causes obesity and associated health problems, such as diabetes. BED is also associated with family conflict. Youths with BED often have a family history of weight problems or obesity. Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 22849-22850). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

Bipolar I

Bipolar I Disorder is characterized by at least one manic episode. Mania is defined by grandiosity, racing thoughts, increased activity, pressured speech, excessive risky activities, sleep disturbance, and distractibility (GRAPES + D). Grandiosity, decreased sleep, and high-risk sexual activity are relatively specific indicators of mania in children and adolescents. Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 21264-21265). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

Bipolar II

Bipolar II Disorder is characterized by hypomania and at least one depressive episode. Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 21266-21267). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

Understand criteria for Bipolar depression and the controversy over young children's diagnosis

Bipolar Spectrum Disorders (BSDs) are serious mood disorders that are defined by the presence of manic symptoms. Mania refers to a discrete period of elevated, expansive, or irritable mood and increased level of energy and activity. All youths with BSDs have at least some manic symptoms. Many (but not all) youths with BSDs also show symptoms of depression. Consequently, these disorders are referred to as "bipolar" (i.e. manic-depressive) mood disorders, in contrast to "unipolar" depression. In addition to these changes in mood and energy, mania is characterized by at least three other symptoms (or four symptoms, if the person shows only irritable mood). On average, youths show five or six symptoms during a manic episode (Figure 14.1). • Grandiosity or inflated self-esteem • Racing thoughts or flight of ideas • Activity level increase or psychomotor agitation • Pressured speech or excessive talkativeness • Excessive involvement in potentially harmful activities • Sleep disturbance (i.e., decreased need for sleep) • Distractibility Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 19631-19644). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition. Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 19549-19553). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder

Children with Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder (DSED) show a pattern of behavior that involves culturally and developmentally inappropriate, overly familiar behavior with strangers Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 16557-16559). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

Behavioral and cognitive causes

Cognition Contemporary models of child and adolescent depression emphasize the role of cognition in the emergence and maintenance of depressive symptoms (Reinecke & Simons, 2005). According to cognitive models, early stressful experiences adversely affect the way children think about themselves and their surroundings. These experiences also color the attributions they make about other people's behavior and the way they interpret events. Cognitions, in turn, can affect children's moods (Mezulis, Hyde, & Abramson, 2006; Spence & Reinecke, 2003). Beck's Cognitive Theory of Depression Aaron Beck (1967, 1976) developed a model of depression that focuses primarily on people's cognitions. According to Beck, thoughts, feelings, and actions are intricately connected. The way people think influences the way they feel and act. Beck posited that individuals who are depressed show two characteristic ways of thinking that predispose them to negative emotions and maladaptive behaviors: cognitive biases and cognitive distortions. First, people with depression often show cognitive biases. A bias is a cognitive shift toward looking at the world in a certain way. People with depression show a negative cognitive bias in their view of themselves, the world, and the future. Although these people encounter pleasant and unpleasant experiences every day, they tend to selectively attend to negative experiences while ignoring or dismissing positive aspects about themselves and their surroundings. For example, an adolescent with depression might dwell upon a low grade that she receives on a particular math exam rather than on her otherwise good performance in math class. Second, people with depression show cognitive distortions. A cognitive distortion involves adjusting one's perceptions or interpretations of the world in a manner that is inconsistent with reality (Table 13.5). Individuals with depression interpret events in an excessively negative light, causing them to feel helpless and hopeless (Brozina & Abela, 2006). For example, after receiving a low grade on a math exam, an adolescent with depression might believe that she is "stupid" and that she will "never get into college." These distortions are untrue; one low math grade is not sufficient evidence that someone is "stupid." Furthermore, one low grade will probably not affect one's chances of gaining college admission. These beliefs reflect distortions of reality that confirm the adolescent's Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 18501-18513). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition. Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 18493-18501). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

Cyclothymia

Cyclothymic Disorder is characterized by hypomania and depressive symptoms only, lasting at least one year in children and adolescents. The disorder is infrequently diagnosed in youths. Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 21269-21270). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

Social anxiety key symptoms

DIAGNOSTIC CRITERIA: Marked fear or anxiety about one or more social situations in which the individual is exposed to possible scrutiny by others. Examples include social interactions (e.g., having a conversation, meeting unfamiliar people), being observed (e.g., eating or drinking), and performing in front of others (e.g., giving a speech). Note: In children, the anxiety must occur in peer settings and not just during interactions with adults. B. The individual fears that he or she will act in a way or show anxiety symptoms that will be negatively evaluated (i.e., will be humiliating or embarrassing; will lead to rejection or offend others). C. The social situations almost always provoke fear or anxiety. Note: In children, the fear or anxiety may be expressed by crying, tantrums, freezing, clinging, shrinking, or failing to speak in social situations. D. The social situations are avoided or endured with intense fear or anxiety. E. The fear or anxiety is out of proportion to the actual threat posed by the social situation and to the sociocultural context. F. The fear, anxiety, or avoidance is persistent, typically lasting 6 months or more. G. The fear, anxiety, or avoidance causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning. H. The fear, anxiety, or avoidance is not attributable to the physiological effects of a substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication) or another medical condition. I. The fear, anxiety, or avoidance is not better explained by the symptoms of another mental disorder, such as Panic Disorder1 or Autism Spectrum Disorder. J. If another medical condition (e.g., obesity, disfigurement from burns or injury) is present, the fear, anxiety, or avoidance is clearly unrelated or is excessive. Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 14229-14251). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder key symptoms

DSM CRITERIA A. Excessive anxiety and worry (apprehensive expectation), occurring more days than not for at least 6 months, about a number of events and activities (such as work or school performance). B. The individual finds it difficult to control the worry. C. The anxiety and worry are associated with three (more) of the following six symptoms (with at least some symptoms having been present for more days than not for the past 6 months): Note: Only one item is required in children. 1. Restlessness or feeling keyed up or on edge. 2. Being easily fatigued. 3. Difficulty concentrating or mind going blank. 4. Irritability. 5. Muscle tension. 6. Sleep disturbance (difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep, or restless unsatisfying sleep). D. The anxiety, worry, or physical symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning. E. The disturbance is not attributable to the physiological effects of a substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication) or another medical condition (e.g., hyperthyroidism). F. The disturbance is not better explained by another mental disorder (e.g., worry about separation from attachment figures as in Separation Anxiety Disorder; worry about negative evaluation as in Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 14685-14702). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

panic disorder key symptoms

DSM CRITERIA A. Recurrent unexpected panic attacks. A panic attack is an abrupt surge of intense fear or intense discomfort that reaches a peak within ten minutes, and during which time four (or more) of the following symptoms occur: 1. Palpitations, pounding heart, or accelerated heart rate. 2. Sweating. 3. Trembling or shaking. 4. Sensations of shortness of breath or smothering. 5. Feelings of choking. 6. Chest pain or discomfort. 7. Nausea or abdominal distress. 8. Feeling dizzy, unsteady, light-headed, or faint. 9. Chills or heat sensations. 10. Paresthesias (numbness or tingling sensations). 11. Derealization (feelings of unreality) or depersonalization (being detached from oneself). 12. Fear of losing control or "going crazy." 13. Fear of dying. B. At least one of the attacks has been followed by one month (or more) of one or both of the following: 1. Persistent concern or worry about additional panic attacks or their consequences (e.g., losing control, having a heart attack, "going crazy"). 2. A significant maladaptive change in behavior related to the attacks (e.g., behaviors designed to avoid panic attacks, such as avoidance of exercise or unfamiliar situations). C. The disturbance is not attributable to the physiological effects of a substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication) or another medical condition (e.g., hyperthyroidism, cardiopulmonary disorders). D. The disturbance is not better explained by another mental disorder (e.g., panic disorders do not only occur in response to separation from attachment figures as in Separation Anxiety Disorder; in response to circumscribed phobic objects or situations as in Specific Phobia; in response to feared social situations as in Social Anxiety Disorder; or in response to reminders of traumatic events as in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder1). To be diagnosed with Panic Disorder, an individual must have recurrent, unexpected panic attacks followed by (a) one month of persistent concern about having another panic attack, (b) worry about the implications of the attacks, or (c) a significant change in daily routines because of the attack. For example, many people who have had a panic attack fear having another one. They might believe that the attacks are a sign of psychosis or serious physical illness. They may also avoid situations where they experienced attacks in the past to prevent their recurrence. Some people experience unexpected panic attacks but do not worry about them or change their day-to-day behavior because of them. If panic attacks do not cause the person distress or impairment, they do not meet the criteria for Panic Disorder (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 14466-14471). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder what ages of children are affected

DSM-5 warns clinicians that GAD may be overdiagnosed in children and adolescents (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Overdiagnosis likely occurs for two reasons. First, many older children and adolescents report considerable stress or anxiety in their daily lives. It is sometimes difficult for clinicians to differentiate normal concerns from the symptoms of GAD. Second, many other childhood anxiety disorders can by mistaken for GAD. For example, children with Separation Anxiety Disorder often worry about separation from loved ones or the health and welfare of their parents. Similarly, youths with Social Anxiety Disorder often worry persistently about social or performance situations. When worry is better explained by these other disorders, youths should be diagnosed with these other disorders rather than GAD. Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 14759-14765). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

Differences between adult and child presentations of depression

Depression in Childhood. Depression is fairly rare in prepubescent childhood; most young children show few symptoms. Depressive symptoms increase considerably after puberty, with the increase occurring earlier and more dramatically in girls than boys (Birmaher et al., 1996; Lewinsohn et al., 1998). Symptoms tend to be at their greatest during late adolescence, after which they usually decline in a linear fashion into early adulthood (Wight, Sepulveda, & Aneshensel, 2004). Depressive symptoms also show moderate to high stability over time. If left untreated, the duration of depressive episodes ranges from 8 to 13 months in children and 3 to 9 months in adolescents. Approximately 90% of children and 50% to 90% of adolescents recover from these episodes. Relapse is fairly common (Birmaher, Arbelaez, & Brent, 2002; Birmaher, Williamson et al., 2004). Approximately 60% of depressed youths have another depressive episode within 2 years after recovery, whereas 72% have another depressive episode within 5 years of recovery (Simons, Rohde, Kennard, & Robins, 2005). Depression in Adolescence. In order to investigate the course of depression, researchers have conducted longitudinal studies assessing children's mood symptoms from childhood through adolescence. Based on this longitudinal research, researchers have identified four distinct patterns of mood functioning among youths (Brendgen et al., 2005; Figure 13.6). First, 50% of children and adolescents show very low levels of depression across childhood and adolescence. These youngsters are at low risk for developing mood problems. Boys are theoverwhelming majority of children in this group. Second, 30% of youths show consistent but moderate levels of depressive symptoms throughout childhood and adolescence. These youths experience mild dysphoria, but their mood problems usually do not interfere with day-to-day activities. Boys outnumber girls in this group as well. Third, 10% of youths show chronically high levels of depression, beginning in late childhood and continuing through adolescence. These youngsters are disproportionately girls with histories of early parent-child conflict and difficulties with emotion regulation. These girls often show difficult temperaments that interfere with their social and emotional functioning. They are at risk for long-term problems with mood and behavior. The remaining 10% of youths show low levels of depressive symptoms in childhood but dramatically higher levels of depression in adolescence. These youngsters also tend to be girls with difficult temperaments and histories of parent-child conflict. However, they frequently experience peer rejection and social alienation during late childhood or early adolescence. It is likely that peer rejection and other psychosocial stressors of puberty exacerbate social and emotional problems in this group of children. Taken together, these findings indicate that approximately 20% of youths will have mood problems during childhood or adolescence. This is consistent with other longitudinal research that suggests that 20% to 25% of youths show moderate to long-term mood problems (Fombonne et al., 2001). Indeed, youths with depression are 4 times more likely to experience mood disorders in adulthood compared to their nondepressed peers

Core symptoms of the feeding disorders

Feeding disorders characterized by marked disturbances in the ingestion of food cause distress or adversely affect the child's health and development. They are usually seen in infants, toddlers, and young children as well as some youths with developmental disabilities. Pica is the persistent ingestion of nonnutritive, nonfood substances (e.g., dirt, paper). It is often shown by youths with severe or profound Intellectual Disability. Rumination Disorder involves the repeated regurgitation of stomach contents into the mouth. It occurs habitually and is not the result of a medical disorder. Avoidant/ Restrictive Food Intake Disorder (ARFID) is characterized by a lack of interest in eating, avoidance of certain foods, or concern about possible negative consequences of eating (e.g., choking, nausea). Youths with infantile anorexia show little interest in eating. They are often inattentive at meals and resistant to parents' attempts to feed. Youths with sensory food aversion refuse foods based on their physical properties (e.g., taste, temperature, texture). Youths with posttraumatic feeding disorder avoid feeding because of a past stressful event associated with feeding. Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 22798-22800). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

PTSD-Risk for development

Functioning Before the Trauma One fairly consistent finding has been that children's social-emotional functioning before a traumatic event predicts the severity of their posttraumatic symptoms. Several studies have found that children with elevated anxiety and/ or depression levels before the September 11th terrorist attacks in New York were more likely to develop distress and impairment after the attacks Proximity to the Trauma The likelihood of developing PTSD depends on the child's proximity to the traumatic event (McKnight et al., 2004). In 2001, a 15-year-old Santana High School student opened fire during the school day, killing two classmates and wounding 10 other people. Several months after the incident, researchers assessed PTSD symptoms among students at the high school (Wendling, 2009). In total, 247 students witnessed a student being shot or receiving medical treatment, 590 had heard or seen a shot fired in the distance, and 323 were not directly exposed to the trauma. The researchers found a dose-response relationship between proximity to the trauma and PTSD (Figure 12.2). Overall, 4.9% of students met criteria for PTSD. Rates were highest for students directly exposed to the trauma Brain and Endocrine Functioning The amygdala plays a role in the development of PTSD. In healthy people, the amygdala is the starting point for the body's physiological stress response (Figure 12.3). When a person encounters a stressful event, the amygdala causes the periventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus to release a hormone called corticotropin releasing factor (CRF). CRF is detected by a second brain area, the pituitary, which releases the hormone corticotropin. Finally, corticotropin triggers the release of cortisol by the adrenal gland. Cortisol, the body's primary stress hormone, activates the sympathetic nervous system and prepares the body for confronting or fleeing potential dangers. Cognitive Appraisal and Coping Children's cognitive appraisal of traumatic events can greatly influence their response to these events (Yule & Smith, 2010). Cognitive appraisal theory asserts that the way people feel about situations depends on their evaluations (i.e., appraisals) of those situations. Children who experience trauma as personally relevant typically show more distress than children who cognitively distance themselves from catastrophic events (Meiser-Stedman et al., 2005). For example, children who knew someone involved in the 9/ 11 terrorist attacks or who believed that they or their families could be victims of a similar event in the future were likely to develop PTSD symptoms. In contrast, children who believed that it was unlikely that their families would be harmed in subsequent attacks showed relatively few anxiety and mood problems (see Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 16177-16183). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

Distinction between MDD and persistent depressive disorder

In children and adolescents, MDD is characterized by a period of dysphoric or irritable mood that lasts at least 2 weeks and may be accompanied by anhedonia; changes in appetite, weight, and motor behavior; low energy, feelings of worthlessness or guilt, concentration problems, and thoughts of death. In children and adolescents, Persistent Depressive Disorder is diagnosed when youths show depressive symptoms for more than one year. Typically, symptoms are not as severe as in MDD and do not involve suicidal ideation. Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 19385-19389). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

Anorexia Nervosa

Individuals with Anorexia Nervosa (AN) do not maintain normal body weight, show excessive concern over their body shape and weight, and usually deny the seriousness of their eating behavior and low weight. AN is associated with authoritarian parenting style and enmeshment in family interactions. Adolescents are usually given little autonomy in parent-child interactions. Between 0.5% and 1% of girls develop AN. • Onset of AN is typically in middle to late adolescence. Youths who restrict caloric intake are at risk for electrolyte imbalance, cardiac problems, and death. Prolonged caloric restriction can also lead to osteopenia. Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 22839-22840). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

Specific Phobia key symptoms

Individuals with Specific Phobia immediately experience anxiety symptoms when they encounter a feared situation or object. Sometimes, they may show extreme panic, characterized by racing heart, rapid and shallow breathing, sweaty palms, dizziness, and other somatic symptoms. Younger children might cry, tantrum, freeze, or cling to their parents. Often, individuals with Specific Phobia avoid situations in which they might encounter feared stimuli. For example, a child who is afraid of dogs might plan her walk to school in order to avoid encountering a neighbor's dog. Although some people with Specific Phobia recognize that their fears are excessive and unreasonable, many children do not have this degree of insight. The fears displayed by people with Specific Phobia must be out-of-proportion to the actual danger posed by the specific object or situation. Usually, it is fairly easy for a parent or clinician to determine whether a fear is disproportionate to the threat of danger. A child who panics at the sight of a clown at her friend's birthday party is clearly showing a disproportional degree of anxiety. In some instances, however, determining the appropriateness of the child's reaction is less straightforward. For example, a child's fear of storms might be appropriate if she lives in an area plagued by hurricanes or tornadoes. Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 14095-14101). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

Type of abuse

Maltreatment has four components: Physical abuse includes deliberate behaviors that result in injury, or the serious risk of injury, to a child. There is no consensus regarding the definition of child sexual abuse. Berliner argues that child sexual abuse involves any sexual activity with a child in which consent is not or cannot be given. Psychological abuse is a pattern of caregiver behavior that conveys to children that they are worthless, flawed, unloved, unwanted, endangered, or only of value in meeting another's needs. Neglect occurs when caregivers do not meet children's essential needs and when their negligence harms or threatens children's welfare. Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 17539-17547). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

DMDD-WHy it was added

Many clinicians believed that children with DMDD most closely resembled children with ODD. However, because many insurance companies would not pay for the treatment of this disorder, clinicians often assigned the Bipolar Disorder label instead. This is unfortunate because children with DMDD do not show classic symptoms of Bipolar Disorder, they often have family members with depression and anxiety (not Bipolar Disorder), and they are at risk for developing depression and anxiety problems later in life (not Bipolar Disorder). Many of these children also received treatments for Bipolar Disorder, rather than treatments targeting their irritable moods and outbursts. The new diagnosis, DMDD, gives these youths a diagnostic "home" in DSM-5 so that they can be reliably identified and treated (( DSM-5 Childhood and Adolescent Disorders Work Group, 2010b). Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 17868-17874). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

Core features of schizophrenia (incl diff between positive and negative symptoms)

Schizophrenia is a psychotic disorder characterized by hallucinations, delusions, and disturbances in speech, movement, and affect. Symptoms must exist for at least 6 months. Children tend to show the same symptoms as adults. Positive symptoms include hallucinations and delusions. These are more sensitive to treatment. Negative symptoms, such as flat affect, are less responsive to medication and often indicate poorer prognosis. Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 21308-21313). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

panic disorder what ages of children are affected

Panic Disorder is relatively uncommon among adolescents and rare in children. The onset of Panic Disorder is usually between the ages of 15 and 19 (Curry et al., 2004). However, there are isolated instances of its onset occurring before puberty (Ollendick, Mattis, & King, 1994). Most cases of Panic Disorder in children and adolescents go undetected. Parents and physicians usually interpret panic symptoms as medical problems. Consequently, youngsters who are eventually diagnosed with Panic Disorder wait, on average, 12.7 years until their disorder is properly identified and treated (Essau, Conradt et al., 1999, 2000). Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 14563-14567). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

FEAR model of cognitive-behavioral therapy

Philip Kendall and colleagues (Kendall, Hudson, Choudhury, Webb, & Pimentel, 2005) have examined the efficacy of a 16-week cognitive-behavioral treatment for children. The program is divided into two phases: education and practice. In the first phase, children learn about the relationship between thoughts, feelings, and actions, and they are taught new ways to cope with anxiety and worry. Therapy is structured around a personalized FEAR plan. The steps in the plan are represented by the acronym FEAR: feelings, expectations, attitudes, and results (see Table 11.10). When the child confronts an anxiety-provoking situation, she uses the FEAR steps to manage her anxiety. First, children learn to identify feelings and somatic sensations associated with anxiety. Children learn to ask themselves, "Am I feeling frightened?" Children are taught to use muscle relaxation when frightened as a way to reduce distress. Next, children learn to recognize and modify negative thoughts (i.e., self-talk) that contribute to their anxiety. They ask themselves, "Am I expecting bad things to happen?" The therapist uses a workbook, games, and role-playing exercises to show how changes in thoughts can influence changes in feelings and actions. For example, the Coping Cat Workbook (Kendall, 1992) consists of a series of exercises designed to teach children to recognize and alter negative self-talk (see Figure 11.11). Therapists help children reduce the frequency of negative self-statements (Kendall et al., 2005). Children with anxiety disorders engage in many more negative self-statements, but the same number of positive self-statements, as nonanxious children (Treadwell & Kendall, 1996). The therapist's goal is not to increase the child's positive cognitions, that is, to help the child see the world through "rose-colored glasses." Rather, the therapist focuses on helping the child see the world more realistically, rather than negatively or catastrophically. According to Kendall (1992), the goal of therapy is to teach children the power of "non-negative" thinking. Reductions in negative self-talk predict success in therapy (Treadwell & Kendall, 1996; Wilson & Rapee, 2005). In subsequent sessions, children learn cognitive problem-solving skills designed to cope with anxiety-provoking situations. They try to develop attitudes that can help. Problem-solving training is designed to help children view social situations or problems realistically, generate as many solutions to these problems as possible, consider the benefits and costs of each solution, and select the best course of action. Finally, in the results and rewards component of treatment, children are encouraged to realistically judge the effectiveness of their problem solving and to reward themselves for addressing the feared situations. Since anxious children often place unrealistic expectations on themselves or exaggerate negative events, it is important for them to view outcomes in a realistic light and to take pride in attempting to cope with anxiety-provoking situations (Kendall et al., 2005). After children have mastered the FEAR plan, they begin using it in the community. Use of the FEAR steps in the community involves graded exposure. The type of exposure largely depends on the child's disorder. Children with Social Anxiety Disorder might be asked to approach a group of children playing a game; adolescents with SAD might be encouraged to separate from their parents for 15 minutes during a shopping trip. Initially, children report intense anxiety following exposure. However, as children habituate to the anxiety-provoking situation, anxiety levels drop. Children learn that exposure does not result in catastrophe. Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 15269-15272). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

Understand possible influences of temperament, genetic, neurobiological and family influences on anxiety

Psychologist David Barlow (2002) has proposed the triple vulnerability model to explain the development of anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. This model assumes that childhood anxiety disorders emerge from the combination of three factors: 1. genetic and biological risk that is largely heritable, 2. early social-emotional experiences that give children a sense of vulnerability or lack of control, and 3. specific environmental experiences that can determine the nature of the children's fears. First, genetic and biological factors can predispose youths to experience greater levels of negative affect or to develop excessive inhibition and shyness. Second, shared environmental experiences can shape the development of these predispositions in early life. For example, parents who are overprotective may communicate to children that the world is a dangerous place, thereby, reinforcing their children's propensities toward clinginess and inhibition. Third, specific environmental experiences may determine the nature of the anxiety disorder that children are likely to develop. For example, a child at risk for anxiety, who almost drowns while learning to swim, might develop a fear of water. Another child, at risk for anxiety, who is embarrassed while giving a class presentation, might develop a fear of public speaking (Suarez et al., 2008). Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 13903-13915). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

Specific Phobia

Specific Phobia is one of the most common, and most untreated, anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. Specific Phobia is defined as a marked fear of clearly discernible, circumscribed objects or situations (Table 11.3, Diagnostic Criteria for Specific Phobia). Although people can fear a wide range of stimuli, most phobias fall into five broad categories: • Animals— fear of snakes, spiders, dogs, birds • Natural environment— fear of thunderstorms, heights, water • Blood, injections, and injuries— fear of receiving an injection, seeing blood • Specific situations— fear of airplanes, elevators, enclosed places • Other stimuli— fear of choking, contracting an illness, costumed characters Children are only diagnosed with Specific Phobia if (a) their anticipatory anxiety or fear significantly interferes with their day-to-day functioning or (b) their symptoms cause significant distress. An adolescent who fears the sight of blood and avoids watching gory movies might not be diagnosed with Specific Phobia because her fears do not seriously affect her daily activities. However, if she wants to become a doctor, but pursues another career path because of her fear of blood, then the diagnosis of Specific Phobia might be appropriate. Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 14134-14137). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

Bulimia Nervosa

The essential feature of Bulimia Nervosa (BN) is recurrent binge eating and inappropriate compensatory behaviors to avoid weight gain. Binge eating occurs when a person consumes an unusually large amount of food in a discrete period of time, and she feels out of control while eating. youths with BN and BED do not have abnormally low weight. Youths with BN are often of average or above average weight. Youths who binge and purge may also develop electrolyte imbalance and damage to their digestive track. BN is associated with poor family problem solving and high family conflict. Some families are disengaged. Between 1.5% and 4% of girls develop BN. Prevalence of AN and BN is much lower in boys. Women with BN are more likely to have been sexually abused than women without a current mental illness; however, history of sexual abuse is equally common among women with BN as it is among women with other psychiatric problems. Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 22865-22866). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

Specific Phobia what ages of children are affected

The fears showed by children and adolescents usually reflect their level of cognitive development (Warren & Sroufe, 2004). Young children tend to fear concrete objects such as animals and monsters. Indeed, animal phobias tend to emerge between 8 and 9 years old on average. Older children tend to fear situations that might result in injury to themselves or others. The mean age of onset for blood-injection-injury phobia is age 9 to 10 years whereas onset for natural disaster phobias is typically in early adolescence (13- 14 years old). Adolescents' fears also reflect their interest in social interactions and achievement. Common phobias among adolescents include fear of being alone and fear of exams (LeBeau et al., 2010). Girls are more likely than boys to develop most types of phobias. Fear of specific animals (91% female), situations (87% female), and natural disasters (70% female) is much more common in girls. Situational phobias, such as fear of heights, are more equally distributed (60% female). Blood-injection-injury phobia is equally common among boys and girls (LeBeau et al., 2010). Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 14145-14151). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder

The hallmark of GAD is apprehensive expectation, that is, excessive anxiety and worry about the future (Table 11.8, Diagnostic Criteria for Generalized Anxiety Disorder). Adults with GAD worry about aspects of everyday life, such as completing tasks at work, managing finances, meeting appointments, and performing household chores. Children and adolescents with GAD also worry about activities and events in their day-to-day lives, especially performing well on exams, school assignments, athletics, and extracurricular activities. By definition, youths with GAD must worry about at least two activities or events. On average, however, most people with GAD report many domains of worry (Niles et al., 2012). Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 14669-14674). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

Model of causes of depression

The monoamine hypothesis for depression asserts that two neurotransmitters, in particular, play roles in depressive disorders: serotonin and norepinephrine. These neurotransmitters are monoamines, hence the name of the hypothesis. According to the theory, depression is associated with dysregulation in one or both of these neurotransmitters. The peer contagion model posits that depression, like a cold, can be acquired through close contact with peers. As friends share secrets and talk about stressors in their lives, they may inadvertently model and reinforce depressive symptoms and depressogenic attributions (Rose, 2002). In one large study, sixth to eighth graders often adopted the depressive symptoms and attributional styles of their best friends. Friends maintain each others' depressive symptoms by corroborating depressogenic attributions or avoiding other positive social experiences (Stevens & Prinstein, 2005). The intergenerational interpersonal stress model of depression offers a third explanation for the relationship between parent and child depression (Hammen, 1991, 2002). According to this model, children of depressed mothers experience two problems. First, they must face many of the same family stressors that their mothers experience (e.g., conflict between parents, economic hardship). Second, the children of depressed mothers are not taught effective problem-solving and social skills to cope with these stressors. Instead, depressed parents often model ineffective problem-solving skills and discipline their children in less-than-optimal ways. Consequently, the children of depressed mothers often display behavior problems and show difficulty in interpersonal relationships themselves. These difficulties, in turn, lead to their own problems with depression and low self-worth (Goodman & Gotlib, 1999). According to the social information-processing theory of depression, children with depression display two types of biases when solving interpersonal problems (Figure 13.8). First, like aggressive children, depressed children attribute hostile intentions to other people's ambiguous behavior. For example, imagine that a child is playing outside during recess. While playing, a peer kicks a soccer ball, and it hits the child in the head. The child might show a hostile attributional bias by attributing hostile intentions to the peer's behavior (e.g., "That kid is picking on me"). Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 18685-18686). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

Separation Anxiety Disorder what ages of children are affected

The onset of SAD is usually between 7 and 9 years of age. Some children first show symptoms following a stressful event. Events that threaten the availability of parents or the child's security may be most likely to elicit SAD: illness of a family member, parental divorce, a change in home or school. However, many families cannot identify a specific stressor associated with onset (Bernstein & Victor, 2010). Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 14033-14036). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

Tourette Syndrome

Tourette's Disorder is characterized by multiple motor and vocal tics. Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 15615-15616). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

What is anxiety?

a complex state of psychological distress that reflects emotional, behavioral, physiological, and cognitive reactions to threatening stimuli (Barlow, 2002). Maladaptive anxiety can be differentiated from adaptive, healthy anxiety in at least three ways: (a) by its intensity, (b) by its chronicity, and (c) by its degree of impairment. Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 13792-13793). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

OCD

a psychiatric condition characterized by the presence of recurrent, unwanted obsessions or compulsions that are extremely time consuming, cause marked distress, or significantly impair daily functioning (Table 11.9, Diagnostic Criteria for Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder). Although OCD has many features oF the other anxiety disorders, it is placed in a separate diagnostic group in DSM-5 (see text box DSM-IV → DSM-5 Changes: OCD: Not an Anxiety Disorder). Recent research indicates that OCD likely has different causes than the anxiety disorders. Furthermore, OCD tends to respond to different forms of treatment. In this section, we will also consider three other related conditions: (a) Tic Disorders, (b) Trichotillomania (i.e., hair-pulling), and (c) Excoriation Disorder (i.e., skin-picking). OCD, tics, Trichotillomania, and Excoriation often co-occur and are all characterized by obsessive preoccupation, unwanted urges, and/ or repetitive actions (Stein, Fineberg et al., 2010). Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 14860-14865). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

Reactive Attachment Disorder

a rare disorder seen almost exclusively in infants and young children who experience extreme deprivation (Table 12.3, Diagnostic Criteria for Reactive Attachment Disorder). According to DSM-5, infants and young children with RAD show disturbed or developmentally inappropriate attachment behaviors. Most children display attachment behaviors when they are scared, upset, or unsure of their surroundings. Attachment behaviors, such as crying, clinging, and gesturing to be picked up, bring the child closer to his or her caregiver and help the child attain safety (Ainsworth et al., 1978; Bowlby, 1969). Children with RAD do not seek comfort from caregivers when distressed, and they do not respond to comfort when it is provided. Instead, these children are inhibited and emotionally withdrawn from their caregivers. Caregivers sometimes describe these children as "emotionally absent" and lacking the usual social reciprocity that characterizes most parent-infant interactions. Furthermore, children with RAD often show very little positive affect (e.g., smiles, hugs, and kisses) but, instead, present as sad, anxious, or irritable (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 16428-16437). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

Panic Disorder

a serious condition characterized by the presence of recurrent, unexpected panic attacks that cause the person significant distress or impairment (Table 11.6, Diagnostic Criteria for Panic Disorder). A panic attack is an acute and intense episode of psychological distress and autonomic arousal. During the attack, people experience physiological symptoms that fall into three broad clusters: cognitive symptoms (e.g., thoughts of losing control or going crazy), emotional symptoms (e.g., feelings of unreality or detachment), and somatic symptoms (e.g., heart palpitations, chest pain, dizziness). People who experience panic attacks feel as if they are having a heart attack, believe that they are dying or going crazy, or experience a strong desire to flee the situation. Indeed, panic attacks can be extremely scary because they are so severe and because people seem to have little control over their onset. Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 14402-14409). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

Encopresis

involuntary defecation, especially associated with emotional disturbance or psychiatric disorder.

Enuresis

involuntary urination, especially by children at night.

Social Anxiety

by a marked and persistent fear of social or performance situations in which scrutiny or embarrassment might occur (Table 11.4, Diagnostic Criteria for Social Anxiety Disorder). Like individuals with Specific Phobia, people with Social Anxiety Disorder show immediate anxiety or panic symptoms when they encounter feared situations. For people with Social Anxiety Disorder, feared situations involve social settings in which they might be judged, criticized, or negatively evaluated by others. These settings include public speaking, attending a party or social gathering, or performing in front of others. People with Social Anxiety Disorder worry that they will be embarrassed in front of others, that others will think they are "crazy" or "stupid," or that others will notice their anxiety symptoms (e.g., shaking hands, sweaty palms). People with Social Anxiety Disorder often avoid social or performance situations. If forced to attend social gatherings, they endure them with extreme distress. Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 14214-14221). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

PTSD- symptoms

defined by a characteristic set of behavioral, cognitive, emotional, and physiological symptoms that emerge following exposure to a traumatic or catastrophic event (Table 12.1, Diagnostic Criteria for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder). By definition, a traumatic event is a psychosocial stressor that involves actual or threatened death, serious physical injury, or sexual violation. To be diagnosed with PTSD, a person must be exposed to the event in at least one of four ways: by directly experiencing the event, • by witnessing the event in person, • by learning that the event occurred to a close family member or close friend, or • by firsthand exposure to aversive details about the event (e.g., first responders observing the effects of a trauma). First, they experience intrusive symptoms associated with the trauma; they persistently reexperience the event, often in the form of recurrent dreams, transient images, or unwanted thoughts. In some cases, people with PTSD experience dissociative reactions or "flashbacks"; that is, they temporarily feel as if the traumatic event is recurring to them in the present moment. An adolescent involved in an auto accident might have nightmares about the incident or have recurrent images of the accident pop into his mind while attending school. In contrast, a 7-year-old girl who witnessed a violent storm destroy herhouse might have persistent thoughts about the disaster. Her parents might observe her reenacting the event during play (e.g., with Legos or a doll house) or overhear her dolls "talking" to each other about the storm and their relocation to a new house. Second, people with PTSD persistently avoid stimuli associated with the trauma. Avoidance might come in the form of an unwillingness to discuss the traumatic experience or visit people or places associated with the trauma. For example, a child who was sexually assaulted by a relative will likely avoiding thinking about or discussing the incident. He might also try to avoid that relative by refusing to visit him on a family outing or by feigning illness. Third, PTSD causes a negative alteration in the person's feelings or thoughts. These alterations are sometimes referred to as emotional or cognitive "numbing." Emotional numbing might include the inability to experience joy or positive emotions, a lack of interest in activities that used to be pleasurable, or feelings of detachment or estrangement from others (Forbes et al., 2011). Individuals might also experience persistent negative emotions, such as anger, guilt, or shame, regarding the traumatic event. For example, an adolescent who witnesses his friend drown might feel guilty for not having rescued him. Cognitive numbing might manifest as problems in remembering details about the traumatic event, a tendency to blame oneself or others for the trauma, or a dramatic and negative change in the person's view of self, others, or the world. For example, a girl who is sexually assaulted might blame herself for being raped or view herself as "damaged goods" following the incident. Fourth, individuals with PTSD show alteration in physiological arousal or reactivity. These symptoms include over-activity of the "fight" or "flight" response. Symptoms might include difficulty sleeping, irritability or aggression, concentration problems, and excessive vigilance. Many individuals personally involved in traumatic events show exaggerated startle response. For example, if an adolescent involved in an auto accident hears a loud noise similar to the sound of a crash, he might jump or panic (McKnight, Compton, & March, 2004). Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 15876-15891). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

Separation Anxiety Disorder key symptoms

dsm: A. Developmentally inappropriate and excessive fear or anxiety concerning separation from those to whom the individual is attached, as evidenced by at least three of the following: 1. Recurrent excessive distress when anticipating or experiencing separation from home or from major attachment figures. 2. Persistent and excessive worry about losing major attachment figures or about possible harm to them, such as illness, injuries, disasters, or death. 3. Persistent and excessive worry about experiencing an untoward event (e.g., getting lost, being kidnapped, having an accident, becoming ill) that causes separation from a major attachment figure. 4. Persistent reluctance or refusal to go out, away from home, to school, to work, or elsewhere because of fear of separation. 5. Persistent and excessive fear of or reluctance about being alone or without major attachment figures at home or in other settings. 6. Persistent reluctance or refusal to sleep away from home or to go to sleep without being near a major attachment figure. 7. Repeated nightmares involving the theme of separation. 8. Repeated complaints of physical symptoms (e.g., headaches, stomachaches, nausea, vomiting) when separation from major attachment figures occurs or is anticipated. B. The fear, anxiety, or avoidance is persistent, lasting at least 4 weeks in children and adolescents and typically 6 months or more in adults. C. The disturbance causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social, academic, occupational, or other important areas of functioning. D. The disturbance is not better explained by another mental disorder, such as refusing to leave home because of excessive resistance to change in Autism Spectrum Disorder; refusal to go outside without a trusted companion in Agoraphobia; or worries about ill health or other harm befalling significant others in Generalized Anxiety Disorder. 1 Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 13979-13983). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

OCD key symptoms

from the DSM: A. The presence of obsessions, compulsions, or both: Obsessions are defined by (1) and (2): 1. Recurrent and persistent thoughts, urges, or images that are experienced, at some time during the disturbance, as intrusive and unwanted, and that in most individuals cause marked anxiety or distress. 2. The individual attempts to ignore or suppress such thoughts, urges, or images, or to neutralize them with some other thought or action (i.e., by performing a compulsion). Compulsions are defined by (1) and (2): 1. Repetitive behaviors (e.g., hand washing, ordering, checking) or mental acts (e.g., praying , counting, repeating words silently) that the individual feels driven to perform in response to an obsession or according to rules that must be applied rigidly. 2. The behaviors or mental acts are aimed at preventing or reducing anxiety or distress, or preventing some dreaded event or situation; however, these behaviors or mental acts are not connected in a realistic way with what they are designed to neutralize or prevent, or are clearly excessive. Note: Young children may not be able to articulate the aims of these behaviors or mental acts. B. The obsessions or compulsions are time-consuming (e.g., take more than 1 hour per day) or cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning. C. The obsessive-compulsive symptoms are not attributable to the physiological effects of a substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication) or another medical condition. D. The disturbance is not better explained by the symptoms of another mental disorder (e.g., repetitive patterns of behavior as in Autism Spectrum Disorder; impulses as in Conduct Disorder; preoccupation with substances as in Substance Use Disorders; excessive worries as in Generalized Anxiety Disorder; hair pulling as in Trichotillomania1; skin picking as in Excoriation Disorder1; or guilty ruminations as in Major Depressive Disorder. 2 Specify if: With good or fair insight: The individual recognizes that obsessive-compulsive disorder beliefs are definitely or probably not true or that they may or may not be true. With poor insight: The individual thinks that obsessive-compulsive disorder beliefs are probably true. With absent insight: The individual is completely convinced that obsessive-compulsive disorder beliefs are true. Specify if: Tic-related: The individual has a current or past history of a Tic Disorder. Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 14887-14899). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

DMDD- features

is a mood disorder characterized by severe and recurrent temper outbursts (Table 13.1, Diagnostic Criteria for Disruptive Mood Disregulation Disorder). Although many children, particularly preschoolers and young school-age children, display temper tantrums, children with DMDD have outbursts that are out of proportion to the situation in terms of their intensity or duration. These outbursts can be verbal or behavioral. For example, many children with DMDD display sudden, intense verbal outbursts that observers describe as "rages" or "fits." They may scream, yell, and cry for excessively long periods of time, sometimes for no apparent reason. Other children with DMDD show intense physical aggression toward people or property. During an outburst, children may destroy toys or household objects (e.g., furniture, television); throw things; hit, slap, or bite others; or otherwise act in a harmful manner. Often, children's outbursts are both verbal and physical. In all cases, these outbursts are inconsistent with the child's developmental level. To be diagnosed with DMDD, temper outbursts must occur, on average, three or more times per week (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). In addition to temper outbursts, children with DMDD display a persistently irritable or angry mood that is observable by others. Irritability is a feature of many childhood psychological disorders. For example, children with behavior problems anxiety disorders (e.g., Generalized Anxiety Disorder), and other mood disorders (e.g., Major Depressive Disorder) can show irritability. However, the irritability or anger displayed by children with DMDD is "persistent," that is, it is shown nearly every day, most of the day. Their irritability or anger is not episodic; they have displayed these mood problems for months or years. Parents, teachers, or classmates describe these children as habitually angry, touchy, grouchy, or easily "set off." Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 17688-17692). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

What are normal fears?

is primarily a behavioral and physiological reaction to immediate threat, in which the person responds to imminent danger. People respond to fearful stimuli by confrontation (e.g., fighting) or escape (e.g., fleeing). We might experience fear when we discover that we are poorly prepared for an important exam. As we stare at the test, our pulse quickens, our breathing becomes shallow, and we may become dizzy or light-headed. Subjectively, we might experience a sense of panic or terror and a strong desire to run out of the classroom. Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 13779-13783). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

social anxiety what ages of children are affected

it is usually not diagnosed before age 10 (Albano, Chorpita, & Barlow, 1996). The two most common situations that are feared by youths with Social Anxiety Disorder are formal presentations and unstructured social interactions (Beidel, Morris, & Turner, 2004). Most youths with Social Anxiety Disorder report intense anxiety associated with reading aloud in class, giving a class presentation, performing for others on stage, or competing in an athletic event. Youths with Social Anxiety Disorder often experience anxiety when initiating conversations with strangers, asking questions, or attending parties (Table 11.5). Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 14257-14261). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

Separation Anxiety Disorder (distinction from school refusal)

show excessive anxiety about leaving caregivers and other individuals to whom they are emotionally attached (Table 11.2, Diagnostic Criteria for Separation Anxiety Disorder). Typically, these youths are preoccupied by fears that misfortune or harm will befall themselves or their caregivers during the separation period. For example, young children with SAD may believe that monsters might kidnap them while their parents are away. Older children might fear that their parents will become injured at work. Children with SAD usually insist that caregivers remain in close proximity, and they may become angry, distressed, or physically ill upon separation. Many refuse to attend school, summer camps, and activities with friends to avoid separation. Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 13952-13958). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

When does anxiety become a disorder?

• Anxiety is usually adaptive; it helps protect us from immediate danger or motivates us to prepare for negative events in the future. Maladaptive anxiety can be differentiated from adaptive anxiety in three ways: Intensity: Maladaptive anxiety is out-of-proportion to the threat. Chronicity: Maladaptive anxiety begins before the threat and continues after the threat has passed. Impairment: Maladaptive anxiety interferes with functioning. Weis, Robert J. (2013-09-26). Introduction to Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology (Kindle Locations 15500-15503). SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.