Quantitative Physiology Exam 3
dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater
*4.1* 3 layers of meninges
efferents
*4.1* Axons that carry signals away from the central nervous system.
afferents
*4.1* Axons that carry signals to the central nervous system.
observable
*4.1* Behavior is ________________: body movements, tasks, language, nonverbal communication
affective behavior
*4.1* Behaviors related to feeling and emotion
Hindbrain
*4.1* Brain stem and cerebellum
in the brainstem
*4.1* Cranial nerves typically enter the brain ...
intensity
*4.1* For deciding on a behavioral response, the _____________ is encoded by the number of sensory cells activated, and the frequency of the action potentials
quality
*4.1* For deciding the behavioral response, the ______________ of the sensory information is encoded by the type of sensor cell that fires and the connections that the cells make to the brain centers.
Activating the behavior
*4.1* For deciding the behavioral response: -the brain and higher CNS centers initiate a response by the efferent fibers leaving the CNS and returning to the effector cells -the effector cells are frequently motorneurons that will active muscles
emerge directly from the brain instead of from the spinal cord
*4.1* How do cranial nerves differ from spinal nerves?
12
*4.1* How many cranial nerves exist the brain to the body?
4
*4.1* How many ventricles are there in the brain?
e. reduces blood flow to critical areas of the brain
*4.1* Increased intracranial pressure is dangerous because it ... a. reduces CSF volume b. breaks the blood-brain barrier c. increases the CSF volume d. alters action potentials directly e. reduces blood flow to critical areas of the brain
Deciding on the behavior response
*4.1* Part of responding to external environment -once the environment has been sensed, the afferent neuronal fibers transmit the signals from the periphery to the CNS as action potential
Appraisal of the environment
*4.1* Part of responding to external environment: -requires the senses (vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch), but can include balance, pain, temperature, pressure, and our physical position in space
choroid plexus
*4.1* Produces CSF
motor units
*4.1* Reflexes stay within the ______________-
Blood-Brain Barrier
*4.1* Semipermeable membrane that allows gas, nutrients, and lipids through but protects against bacteria.
brain
*4.1* The __________ mediates our behavior after being apprised of changes in either the internal or external world
c. lack of direct access of blood-borne substances to the brain's interstitial fluid
*4.1* The blood brain barrier refers to a. high resistance to blood flow within the brain b. inability of thoughts to be carried in the blood c. lack of direct access of blood-borne substances to the brain's interstitial fluid d. low blood pressure in the brain due to it being higher than the heart e. immunological cells in the brain that clean up the blood before it enters the brain
low, if brain becomes too pressurized will cut off blood supply to brain
*4.1* The brain is (low/high) pressure. Why?
Forebrain
*4.1* The largest and most complicated region of the brain, including the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebrum.
Neocortex
*4.1* The outermost part of the cerebral cortex, making up 80 percent of the cortex in the human brain. -consists of gray matter and has 5 layers of cells, segregated by cell type and neuronal connection
lower, establish gradient to ensure glucose goes to brain
*4.1* The protein and glucose concentration is (lower/higher) in the CSF than in plasma. Why?
hollow spaces within the brain that are filled with cerebrospinal fluid
*4.1* Ventricles in the brain are ...
eyes, cochlea, olfactory epithelium, temp sensors, touch receptors, nociceptors
*4.1* What are some exteroreceptors?
pH sensors, stretch receptors, nociceptors, chemosensors
*4.1* What are some interoreceptors?
1. appraisal of the environment condition 2. deciding the behavioral response 3. activating the behavior
*4.1* What are the 3 components to respond to external environment
vision, perception
*4.1* What does the Occipital lobe control?
consciousness, breathing, heart rate
*4.1* What does the brain stem control?
posture, balance, coordination of movement
*4.1* What does the cerebellum control?
movement, problem solving, concentration, thinking, behavior personality mood
*4.1* What does the frontal lobe control?
sensations, language, perception, body awareness, attention
*4.1* What does the parietal lobe control?
hearing, language, memory
*4.1* What does the temporal lobe control?
Brain & Spinal Cord
*4.1* What is in the CNS?
Spinal cord & brain
*4.1* What is included in the central nervous system?
skeletal muscles, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands
*4.1* What is included in the effector organs?
protects against blunt trauma
*4.1* What is the main purpose of the skull
Sensory information
*4.1* What is the periphery nervous system responsible for?
breathing, heart beat, digestive system
*4.1* What is under autonomic control?
100%, it is energy expensive to have idle brain tissue
*4.1* What percentage of our brain do we use? Why?
b. CSF pressure hover at around 100-150 mmHg
*4.1* Which of the following statements about the cerebrospinal fluid is false? a. CSF is made by ependymal cells in the choroid plexuses b. CSF pressures hover at around 100-150 mmHg c. CSF circulates through the ventricles d. CSF is absorbed by the arachnoid villi e. CSF is like plasma but with lower protein concentration
water goes into CSF to regulate pressure in the brain; osmotic pressure
*4.1* Why does the CSF have lower concentrations of protein that plasma
Midbrain
*4.1* allows simultaneous processing of visual and auditory stimuli
homeostasis
*4.1* balance of all aspects of the human body
Cognitive behavior
*4.1* behaviors related to thinking, reasoning, and solving problems
Arachnoid
*4.1* contains cerebrospinal fluid that bathes the entire CNS, and has the capillaries for blood supply
Cerebellum
*4.1* coordinates complex movements, maintains posture and coordination of the head and eye
frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal
*4.1* four lobes of the Cerebrum
Cerebrum
*4.1* largest portion of the brain and is divided into 4 sections.
Insular lobe
*4.1* lies underneath the lateral fissure which divides frontal and parietal lobe from temporal lobe (also called the Sylvian sulcus)
White matter
*4.1* matter that is mostly composed of glial cells and myelinated axons
Dark matter
*4.1* matter that typically has high concentrations of cell bodies
Brain stem
*4.1* midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata
Cortex
*4.1* outermost covering of the brain consisting of densely packed neurons, responsible for higher thought processes and interpretation of sensory input
endocrine system
*4.1* provides long-term and continuous control to achieve homeostasis
Nervous system
*4.1* provides short-term and rapid control to achieve homeostasis
Medulla
*4.1* regulates blood pressure and breathing, and helps to coordinate swallowing, coughing, and vomiting
Pons
*4.1* regulates breathing
arachnoid villi
*4.1* structures that return cerebrospinal fluid to the venous blood in the dural sinuses
Diencephalon
*4.1* thalamus (relay nuclei) and hypothalamus (multiple nuclei for homeostasis-food, water, body temperature, hormone secretion and autonomic functions)
Sulcus crack/valley
*4.1* the bump or hump of cortical tissue
neuroendocrine system
*4.1* the cooperation of the nervous system and the endocrine system to control all other organ systems
Behavior
*4.1* the way a person or thing acts, usually in response to an external influence
Dura mater
*4.1* thick membrane just under the skull that acts to dampen forces on the brain
Pia mater
*4.1* thin membrane that acts to dampen forces on the brian
Meninges
*4.1* three protective membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord
Neurons
*4.2* "functional" units of the nervous system
Beta
*4.2* (Beta/Alpha) receptors respond to lower concentrations of either NE or E
Metabolic receptors
*4.2* A G-protein-coupled receptor whose primary action is to stimulate an intracellular biochemical response.
Axosecretory
*4.2* A synapse occurs between an axon terminus on a blood vessel
norepinephrine
*4.2* Catecholamine critical to the sympathetic nervous system and the fight or flight response by increasing alertness and focusing attention
dopamine
*4.2* Catecholamine that plays a major role in both motor and cognitive control
-unidirectional -selective: neurotransmitter released activates specific post-synaptic receptors, with appropriate response
*4.2* Characterize a chemical synapse
-bidirectional -non-selective
*4.2* Characterize electrical synapses
c. Reduction in [Ca2+] within the nerve terminus
*4.2* Fusion of synaptic vesicles is stopped by a. Ca2+ binding to synaptotagmin b. Ca2+ entry through voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels c. Reduction in [Ca2+] within the nerve terminus d. Recycling of synaptic vesicles e. depletion of the pool of readily releasable neurotransmitter
metabotropic
*4.2* G-protein coupled receptors for acetylcholine
unidirectional
*4.2* Information transfer across synapses is _____________________ (pre-synaptic to post-synaptic)
rough ER, more, longer
*4.2* Large Dense Core Vesicles: 1. Packaging of precursor proteins that are synthesized in the _____________ 2. Requires ________ calcium, _____________- duration of stimulations to release peptides
d. all answers are correct
*4.2* Neurons receive information and signals from a. axo-somatic synapses b. axo-axonal synapses c. axo-dendritic synapses d.dendro-dendritic synapses e. all answers are correct
acetylcholine
*4.2* Neurotransmitter used primarily at the neuromuscular junction
Tyrosine
*4.2* Norepinephrine is synthesized from ...
Beta/Alpha
*4.2* Parts of Adrenergic receptors that are bound to G protein receptors
ionotropic
*4.2* Receptors for Glutamate/Aspartate are ______________ in that prolonged opening causes too much Ca2+ and becomes excitotoxic.
cell body, slowly, dopamine, glutamine, acetylcholine
*4.2* Small Synaptic Vesicles: 1. Synthesized in ____________ 2. _____________ transported along axon through a specialized set of microtubules 3. In the terminal, specialized transporters will store classical, small molecule transmitters such as ...
Axosomatic
*4.2* Synapse occurs between an axon and a soma
pre-synaptic axonal connection
*4.2* Synapse occurs between an axon and another axon near a synapse onto a third axon
Axoextracellular
*4.2* Synapse occurs between an axon and the extracellular fluid
Dendrodendritic
*4.2* Synapses can occur between 2 dendrites on different cells
Oligodendroglia
*4.2* The cell type that makes myelin in the central nervous system
gamma-aminobutyricacid
*4.2* The primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in mammalian nervous systems
Axon hillock
*4.2* Typically action potentials in neurons begin at the ...
tyrosine
*4.2* What are dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine synthesized from?
1. synaptic vesicles (SSVs) - small clear vesicles 2. large, dense core vesicles (LDCV's)
*4.2* What are the 2 types of vesicles?
1. Cell body (soma) 2. Dendrites (processes that gather information from a sensory device or from other neurons) 3. Axon (processes that convey excitation either towards other neurons or towards effector cells in muscles or glands)
*4.2* What are the 3 common features of all neurons include
1. Enzymatic destruction of neurotransmitter 2. Diffusion away from receptors 3. Reuptake by glial cells or the pre-synaptic cells
*4.2* What are the 3 ways that a neurotransmitter signal can be shut off?
1. AP conducted along pre-synaptic membrane 2. opens voltage-gated Ca2+ channels 3. lets Ca2+ into the cell and increases cytosolic [Ca2+] 3. [Ca2+] binds to synaptotagmin, which causes fusion of vesicles with pre-synaptic membrane 4. Neurotransmitter diffuses across the gap 5. binds to receptors on post-synaptic membrane
*4.2* What is the general mechanism of neurotransmission
glutamate
*4.2* a non-essential amino acid that serves as a neurotransmitter principal in neural activation
epinephrine
*4.2* aka Adrenaline, increases heart rate and blood pressure
ionotropic
*4.2* aka ligand gated ion channels
Motor neuron
*4.2* an efferent neuron found in the ventral horn of the spinal cord
Purkinje cell
*4.2* an interneuron found in the cerebellul
Pyramidal cell
*4.2* an interneuron found in the cerebral cortex
serotonin
*4.2* derived from tryptophan and contributes to feelings of well-being and happiness
Catecholamines
*4.2* dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine
Astrocytes
*4.2* foot-processes cover brain capillaries and parts of neurons; they help from form the BBB, take up ions, and neurotransmitters
Oligodendroglial cells
*4.2* form the myelin sheath in the CNS; usually each cell forms the myelin of several axons
Schwann Cells
*4.2* form the myelin sheath in the peripheral nervous system
Serotonin
*4.2* helps regulate mood, apetite, and sleep
Phenoxybenzamine
*4.2* inhibits alpha but not beta receptors for Adrenergic receptors
Propanolol
*4.2* inhibits beta but not alpha receptors for adrenergic receptors
Ependymal cells
*4.2* line the surfaces of the ventricles and produce the CSF
microglia
*4.2* originate in the blood and enter the brain during inflammation; they have phagocytotic activity -specialized immune cells found only in the brain that detect damaged neurons
dopamine
*4.2* plays roles in motor and cognitive control, motivation, arousal, reinforcement, and reward
Adrenergic receptors
*4.2* receptor sites for the sympathetic neurotransmitters norepinephrine and epinephrine
adrenergic
*4.2* receptors for epinephrine and norepinephrine
Ionotropic receptors
*4.2* receptors that are coupled to ion channels and affect the neuron by causing those channels to open -ligand gated ion channels
Axodendritic
*4.2* synapse occurs between an axon and a dendrite
Axoaxonal
*4.2* synapse occurs between an axon and another axon
Synapses
*4.2* tiny gaps between dendrites and axons of different neurons
inhibitory surround
*4.3* - A mechanism for increasing the signal-to-noise ratio of a neural representation by inhibiting activity corresponding to adjacent but irrelevant representations
Gating theory of pain modulation by sensory fibers
*4.3* -the stimulation of somatic sensory neurons can inhibit activity of neurons that signal pain -only works with second pain -C-fibers share a pathway with A-fibers
position, velocity, and acceleration
*4.3* Adaption to a stimulus allows sensory neurons to signal ...
tonic response
*4.3* Adaption to temperature requires ________________ which adapts slowly to stimulus and continues to send AP
Weber-Fechner Law
*4.3* Difficulty in comparing small differences in large quantities.
b. small myelinated fibers classified as A-delta
*4.3* First pain is carried by a. small unmyelinated fibers classified as C fibers b. small myelinated fibers classified as A-delta c. both large and small unmyelinated fibers d. large myelinated fibers classified as a-beta e. large unmyelinated fibers
receptor potential
*4.3* For frequency coding: an increase in stimulus length results in increase in ______________ --> increase in stimulus strength
temporal
*4.3* Frequency coding is temporal or spatial summation?
Population coding
*4.3* Intense stimuli can excite more sensory neurons than less intense stimuli --> recruiting more sensory input
population, frequency
*4.3* Intensity of a stimulus is encoded by the _______________ of cells that respond and the ______________ of their response
population of neurons firing and their frequency of firing
*4.3* Intensity of sensory stimuli are encoded by ...
spatial
*4.3* Is population coding temporal or spatial summation?
yes, refractory periods
*4.3* Is there a limit to frequency coding?
synesthesia
*4.3* Sensing or experiencing one sensory modality as another is called
adequate stimulus
*4.3* Sensors respond to an ___________________, which is the kind of stimulus to which the sensor responds preferentially
lowest
*4.3* Sensors respond to stimulus with the (lowest/highest) threshold, the (lowest/highest) stimulus intensity that evokes a response
Exteroreceptors
*4.3* Sensory receptors that detect stimuli from outside the body, such as light/heat/pressure/chemicals.
does
*4.3* The difference between the Spinothalamic and Dorsal column pathway is that the spinothalamic (does not/does) immediately cross to the opposite side
frequency coding
*4.3* The intensity of a stimulus is first encoded by population coding or frequency coding?
c. sharpen sensory discrimination
*4.3* The main function of lateral inhibition is to a. enhance alertness by focusing attention b. cause adaption c. sharpen sensory discrimination d. shut off sensory input e. limit pain transmission
lateral inhibition
*4.3* The pattern of interaction among neurons in the visual system in which activity in one neuron inhibits adjacent neurons' responses.
the area of the skin that, when stimulated, alters neuronal excitation
*4.3* The receptive field for a somatosensory system is ...
touch, pain, position, temperature, pressure, velocity
*4.3* What are some examples of cutaneous senses?
olfactory receptors, most visceral receptors, mechanoreceptors of skin, nociceptors, cool and warm receptors
*4.3* What are some examples of long receptors?
taste receptors, photoreceptors, hypothalamic receptors, auditory and vestibular receptors
*4.3* What are some examples of short receptors
1. displacement of skin 2. sensors sensitive to position fire AP 3. rapidly adapting receptors respond only with movement (signal velocity) 4. Even more rapidly adapting sensors inform CNS of acceleration
*4.3* What are the 3 levels of neurons for adaption?
sense organ, sensory receptors, pathways to CNS
*4.3* What is in a sensory system?
makes it convenient for brain to know where signal is coming from
*4.3* What is the benefit of a labeled line?
finger: 2-3 mm forearm: 35 mm calf: 45 mm
*4.3* What is the threshold distance for the finger tip, forearm, and calf
Synesthesia
*4.3* When one modality crosses to another -labeled lines are crossed
short receptors
*4.3* Which uses chemical signaling to convert to action potential, long receptors or short receptors?
Sensory modality
*4.3* a class of sensation (vision)
Labeled line
*4.3* a link between a receptor and a cortical neuron. -each sensory modality conveys information to the CNS over a distinct pathway with distinct connections
Steven's Power Law
*4.3* a principle describing the relationship between stimulus and resulting sensation that says the magnitude of subjective sensation is proportional to the stimulus magnitude raised to an exponent
Receptive fields
*4.3* areas of the body surface or receptors that when stimulated, excite the sensory neuron
Dorsal Column pathway
*4.3* ascending pathway for somatosensory information; runs through dorsal area of spinal white matter
Perception
*4.3* awareness of the sensation
mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, nociceptors
*4.3* examples of cutaneous receptors
Spinothalamic tract
*4.3* nerve pathway from the spine to the thalamus along which pain impulses are carried to the brain
primary somatosensory cortex
*4.3* receives sensory information from the somatic senses, plus proprioceptive senses, and some visceral senses
Interoreceptors
*4.3* relay information about the internal environment -mostly autonomic
two point discrimination
*4.3* the ability to distinguish between two stimuli on the body surface
frequency coding
*4.3* the coding of stimulus intensity by the frequency of action potentials in a neuron, in which a stronger depolarizing stimulus above threshold causes the action potential frequency to increase
Adaption
*4.3* the decrease in sensation that occurs when a stimulus is continually applied
second pain
*4.3* the generally longer lasting, less localized, and more unpleasant pain sensations, conducted along the slower C-fibers
Long receptors
*4.3* typically have a long bipolar axonal connection to a second-order neuron in spinal cord -convert to action potentials and transmit signal over long distances
Short receptors
*4.3* typically very polarized cells which transmit to primary afferent neurons -remain as graded potentials and use chemical signals to elicit a generator potential in primary afferent neuron
activation, inactivation
*4.4* Crossed-Extensor Reflex occurs through (inactivation/activation) of the extensor muscles with simultaneous (inactivation/activation) of the flexor muslces
no, they always occur in the same manner
*4.4* Do spinal reflexes need to be trained?
contralateral (withdrawal on one side and crossed-extesnsor on other)
*4.4* Is the crossed-extensor reflex ipsilateral or contralateral
Ipsilateral activation and reflexive muscle response (all happens on the same side of the body)
*4.4* Is the withdrawal reflex ipsilateral or contralateral
Muscle stretch reflex
*4.4* Knee-jerk reflex; activation of the patellar ligament causes the quadriceps to stretch, activating the muscle to extend the knee
series, parallel
*4.4* Muscle spindles are in (parallel/series) with muscle fibers whereas golgi tendon organ is in (parallel/series)
Ipsilateral
*4.4* Occurs on the same side of the body
Ia (primary) afferent
*4.4* Signals dynamic changes in muscle length Rapidly adapting, quick response (responds to taps) Some static length detection (nuclear bag fibers)
Inverse myotatic reflex
*4.4* The automatic response that causes a stretched muscle to relax when the Golgi tendon organ is stimulated.
c. uses annulospiral rings to sense stretch
*4.4* The muscle spindle a. carries sensory information over the gamma afferents b. all answers are correct c. uses annulospiral rings to sense stretch d. has afferents that travel up the dorsal columns e. uses the golgi tendon organ to sense muscle stretch
muscle spindle
*4.4* The myotatic reflex is based on which sensor?
myotactic reflex
*4.4* The only monosynaptic reflex
Myotatic reflex
*4.4* The reflexive action that returns a stretched muscle to its original length by contracting the muscle.
1. withdrawal reflex 2. cross-extensor reflex 3. myotatic reflex 4. inverse myotatic reflex
*4.4* What are the 4 types of reflexes?
Ib
*4.4* What type of fibers carry information for Golgi Tendon Organ/inverse myotatic reflex
a.the blink reflex
*4.4* Which of the following is not a spinal reflex? a. the blink reflex b. the myotatic reflex c. the inverse myotactic reflex d. the cross-extensor reflex e. the withdrawal reflex
a. it can be voluntary suppressed
*4.4* Which of the following is not characteristic of a reflex? a. it can be voluntary suppressed b. it is the most rapid of nervous response to environmental stimuli c. it is a reflection of the nervous system onto the musculature d. it is hard-wired - it does not require training e. it is stereotypical - it always occurs in the same way
flexor muscles, extensor muscles
*4.4* Withdrawal is accomplished through activation of the __________________ with simultaneous inactivation of the _______________________
Pandiculation
*4.4* a conscious, voluntary contraction of a muscle followed by a slow deliberate lengthening of that muscle and a complete relaxation
muscle spindle
*4.4* a sensory receptor located in a muscle that senses its tension
Withdrawal reflex
*4.4* a spinal reflex that pulls a body part away from a source of pain to protect the limb from further harm
Reflex
*4.4* a stereotyped muscular response to a specific sensory stimulus
Central Pattern generators
*4.4* basis of gait, pattern to our walking steps, running, 4-legged trots, and runs to rabbit 4 legged hopping
ventral horn
*4.4* cell bodies of lower motor neurons reside in the ___________________ and provide the only direct neural control of the skeletal control
Placing reflex
*4.4* helps maintain posture and support (i.e. stubbing a toe - the limb is flexed and then rapidly swung forward and extended to catch the falling body)
Gamma efferent system
*4.4* maintains sensitivity of the spindle stretch receptors over a range of normal muscle lengths during motion
II afferents
*4.4* non adapting fibers in muscle spindles, signal static muscle length
Contralateral
*4.4* occurs on the opposite side of the body
b. reflex contraction of the quadriceps muscle
*4.4* tapping on the patellar tendon causes a. reflex inhibition of the gastrocnemius muscle b. reflex contraction of the quadriceps muscle c. reflex inhibition of the quadriceps muscle d. reflex contraction of the solenus muscle e. reflex contraction of the gastrocnemius muscle
Golgi Tendon Organ
*4.4* the receptor organ at the junction of the tendon and muscle that is sensitive to stretch -works as a pressure sensor
crossed extensor reflex
*4.4* when a withdrawal reflex is initiated in one lower limb, the crossed extensor reflex causes extension of opposite lower limb (to keep balance)
la afferents
*4.4* wrap around muscle spindle fibers and are activated by stretch receptors when the muscle stretches, causing increased firing frequency
anterior canal, posterior canal, horizontal canal
*4.5* 3 semi-circular canals
lower neurons, higher motor neurons
*4.5* Alpha motor neurons that innervate the muscles are called the ______________________, versus the ___________________ that originate from the brain in the motor cortex.
substantia nigra
*4.5* An area of the midbrain that is involved in motor control and contains a large concentration of dopamine-producing neurons -controls balance between activation & inhibition
flexors, extensors
*4.5* Cell bodies of the alpha motor neurons innervating _____________ are located in more distal region of the ventral horn and those innervating the _______________ have their cell bodies in the more ventral part of the ventral horn
cerebellum
*4.5* Cerebellar ataxia affects the ________________ -impact on gait, balance, and movement control
somite
*4.5* Each spinal nerve supplies an embryologically defined ________ or body segment: dermatome (skin), a myotome (muscle), or a scleratome (spinal cord)
substantia nigra
*4.5* Parkinson's disease typically affects ___________________ -impact on gait, balance, and movement control
the number of motor units, and therefore muscle fibers, that are active
*4.5* Population coding for muscle force refers to
hair cells in the horizontal canal
*4.5* Rotation of the head in the horizontal plane excites ...
e. all answers are true
*4.5* The substantia nigra a. activates the direct pathway to promote movement b. inhibits the indirect pathway that inhibits movement c. uses dopamine as a neurotransmitter d. is dysfunctional in Parkinson's disease e. all answers are true
larger response, larger potentail
*4.5* Type I hair cells have (smaller/larger) response, (smaller/larger) potential
e. superior colliculus
*4.5* Which of the following is not part of the basal ganglia? a. caudate nucleus b. substantia nigra c. external globus pallidus d. putamen e. superior colliculus
basal ganglia
*4.5* a set of subcortical structures that directs intentional movements -enables automatic performance of practiced motor acts and skills
Type I hair cells
*4.5* cells that respond to stereocilia deformation with large receptor potentials
motor neuron pool
*4.5* collection of alpha motor neurons that innervates a single muscle
Sense of balance
*4.5* controlled by hair cells in the vestibular apparatus
alpha motor neurons
*4.5* controls all muscle activity
synergistic muscles
*4.5* fire together to produce a desired result
endolymph
*4.5* fluid within the labyrinth of the inner ear -high in K+
Type II hair cells
*4.5* have smaller response and rectification: the response is greater to deformation towards the kinocilium than to deformation away from it.
Cerebellum
*4.5* maintains movement accuracy
myotomes
*4.5* muscle or groups of muscles innervated by a specific motor nerve
population coding
*4.5* muscles are graded in their response and recruit different numbers of neurons
Antagonistic muscles
*4.5* muscles that act against the desired movement
locomotor pattern generators
*4.5* neural circuits that produce or control a particular set of muscles in a defined sequence -muscles activated by the pattern generator
frequency coding
*4.5* repetitive stimulation by the alpha motor neurons in muscles results in larger force produced over a longer time
Sacuule and utricle
*4.5* sensory information about static gravity derives from hair cells in the ...
size principle
*4.5* smaller muscle units are activated first, progressively larger muscle units are activated until all motor units of a muscle group are activated.
ventral root
*4.5* the basal branch of each spinal nerve; carries motor neurons
Thalamus
*4.5* the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
dorsal root
*4.5* the sensory branch of each spinal nerve
Utricle (horizontal) and Saccule (vertical)
*4.5* two chambers within each vestibular apparatus that have hair cells for information about head location relative to gravity
primary olfactory cortex
*4.6* -located within temporal lobe -provides conscious awareness of smells -mitral cells and tufted cells send processes to this
orbitofrontal cortex
*4.6* -receives olfactory output through the thalamus -may be more important for odor-related memories and emotional response -adjacent to primary taste cortex --> overlapping inputs affect flavor
gaseous form, water soluble
*4.6* An odorant must be in a __________________, and _______________
no, but they release neurotransmitters
*4.6* Are taste receptor cells (TRCs) neurons?
narrow molecular receptive field
*4.6* Each olfactory epithelium cell expresses one of the odorant binding proteins, and has a ...
The ion channel in humans on the apical membrane lets either Na+ or K+ into the cell
*4.6* Humans do not discriminate well between the taste of NaCl and KCl because
calcium influx and chlorine efflux
*4.6* In olfactory transduction, what is the movement of calcium and chlorine
limbic system
*4.6* Instead of traveling through the thalamus before connecting in the cortex, small feeds into the _________ which sets mood and emotional behavior
d. hyperpolarizes the cell
*4.6* Odorant binding to receptors on the olfactory sensory neurons does all of the following except a. activates adenylyl cyclase b. activates a G-protein c. opens a Cl- channel d. hyperpolarizes the cell e. increases Ca2+ entry
Periglomerular cells and granule cells
*4.6* Shut off adjacent cells in the olfactory lateral inhibition
trigeminal nerve
*4.6* Some cells/odorants can trigger this nerve, not the olfactory nerve for body protection -ammonia, chlorine, peppermint, and menthol
g-protein coupled receptors
*4.6* The mechanism of olfactory transduction is based off of ...
roof of the nasal cavity
*4.6* The olfactory epithelium is located in the ...
their sensory afferents are carried in the trigeminal nerve
*4.6* The smells of peppermint, menthol, chlorine, and ammonia are unusual in that ...
intracellular pH
*4.6* What do taste receptor cells for sour taste respond to?
to trap molecules
*4.6* What is mucus used for?
10^-12 M
*4.6* What is the lowest level of chemicals humans can smell
1. epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) - ONLY lets in Na+ 2. multi-modal salt responder channel - lets in Na+, K+, NH4+
*4.6* What is the mechanism of salty taste?
GPCR --> Na enters cell --> voltage gated Ca2+ channel opens --> transmitter release
*4.6* What is the mechanism of sweet, umami, and bitter taste?
lateral medulla --> ventral posterior medial nucleus of the thalamus --> primary gustatory cortex
*4.6* What is the pathway in the brain of the sensory fibers for gustation?
assist cells to amplify signal
*4.6* What is the purpose of mitral cells and tufted cell?
2000-current
*4.6* When was most gustation research discovered?
All over tongue, no taste buds
*4.6* Where are filiform taste buds located? How many taste buds do they have?
salt, sour
*4.6* Which taste modalities are not mediated by a G-protein coupled receptor?
Capsaicin
*4.6* chemical that stimulates receptors that respond to painful heat
facial nerve VII
*4.6* innervates anterior 2/3 of tongue
glossopharyngeal nerve (IX)
*4.6* innervates posterior 1/3 of tongue
circumvallate papillae
*4.6* large papillae with taste buds
Taste bud
*4.6* sense receptor in the tongue that responds to sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami, and perhaps fat
Vagus nerve (X)
*4.6* supplies scattered taste receptors in the throat
Olfactory Bulb
*4.6* the first brain structure to pick up smell information from the nose
odorotopic mapping
*4.6* the phenomenon where particular odorant molecules maps to particular places within the cortex
sweet, salty, bitter, umami sour
*4.6* these are the five chemical tastes that our taste buds pick up
outer
*4.7* (inner/outer) hair cells change their axial dimensions in response to electrical simulation?
Inner, outer
*4.7* (inner/outer) hair cells send info to the brain whereas (inner/outer) hair cells act as mechanical dampening
tympanic membrane
*4.7* A flexible, oval membrane at the end of the external auditory meatus that vibrates
tectorial membrane
*4.7* A membrane located above the basilar membrane; serves as a shelf against which the cilia of the auditory hair cells move
Eustachian tube
*4.7* A narrow tube between the middle ear and the throat that serves to equalize pressure on both sides of the eardrum
Basilar membrane
*4.7* A structure that runs the length of the cochlea in the inner ear and holds the auditory receptors, called hair cells.
Reissner's membrane
*4.7* A thin sheath of tissue separating the vestibular and middle canals in the cochlea.
movement of the tympanic membrane with unequal pressure between the middle ear and outer ear.
*4.7* Ascent to altitude or descent from altitude is often accompanied by periods of reducing hearing sensitive. This is due to: a. bulging of the round window with reduced external pressure b. swelling of the cochlear fluid with reduced external pressure c. different states of contractions of the stapeius muscle and tensor tympani d. movement of the oval window as the cochlea unwinds e. movement of the tympanic membrane with unequal pressure between the middle ear and outer ear
Broca'a area
*4.7* Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.
1. Vibrations causes tectorial membrane to move 2. Tectorial membrane pushes on hair cells 3. Stereocilia deflect 4. deflection of stereocilia opens up K+ channels 5. massive influx of K+ into cell 6. Converted into signal --> calcium influx --> neurotransmitter release downstream
*4.7* Explain the mechanism of an auditory signal?
lengthens cells, shortens cells
*4.7* How does hyperpolarization affect outer hair cells? depolarization?
e. have many more afferent fibers and fewer efferent fibers than outer hair cells
*4.7* Inner hair cells a. form a triple spiral line from the base of the cochlea to the helicotrema b. have tip links connected to Na+ channels c. Have stereocilia immersed in perilymph d. are further from the modiolus than the outer hair cells e. have many more afferent fibers and fewer efferent fibers than outer hair cells
electrical, auditory nerve
*4.7* The nerve endings in the cochlea transform the vibrations into _________________ that then travel along the ___________________ to the brain
perilymph, endolymph
*4.7* The outer compartment of the cochlea contains __________________ while the inner compartment contains _________________
focus sound into the middle ear
*4.7* The primary function of the outer ear in humans is to ...
excess fluid buildup in the middle ear
*4.7* What are tubes used to treat?
cochlear amplifier
*4.7* What do outer hair cells act as?
500 - 5000 Hz
*4.7* What frequencies are the human ear most sensitive to
80 mv, 0 mV
*4.7* What is the potential in the endolymph and inside the hair cells?
collects sound waves and channels them into the ear canal (external auditory meatus) where the sound is amplified
*4.7* What is the purpose of the auricle or pinna?
biological amplifier
*4.7* What is the purpose of the middle ear?
50 - 5,000 Hz
*4.7* What is the range of frequencies humans can traditionally hear?
loudness and frequency
*4.7* What is the tuning curve for an afferent in the auditory nerve dependent on?
high K+, low Na+
*4.7* What makes endolymph different from other fluids in the body?
the cochlea and vestibular system are attached; intense sound waves can vibrate vestibular system
*4.7* Why can intense sound waves sometimes disorient a person?
-multiple pressure waves enter ear --> overlapping frequencies -pick up on individual speaker by focusing on a specific wave
*4.7* Why is it difficult to follow a single reader/sound?
increase in pressure in the middle ear cavity --> tympanic membrane can't vibrate --> can't hear
*4.7* Why is it difficult to hear at high altitudes/pressures?
also processing all speaking information
*4.7* Why is it difficult to maintain consistent pacing & volume
shear
*4.7* ______________ between the hair cells and tectorial membrane produces deformation to activate afferent neurons
cochlea
*4.7* a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses
tuning curve
*4.7* a graph of the responses of a single auditory nerve fiber or neuron to sounds that vary in frequency and intensity
electromotility
*4.7* a physical change in morphology in response to electrical potential; depends on the membrane potential and occurs rapidly
modiolus
*4.7* bony core of cochlea
Wernicke's area
*4.7* controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe
front, high frequency waves dissipate quickly
*4.7* high frequency sound waves are near the (back/front) of the cochlea? why?
pitch
*4.7* highness or lowness of frequency
level of tone; how high or low the tone
*4.7* how is pitch perceived?
intensity
*4.7* loudness or softness of a sound
oval window
*4.7* membrane at the enterance to the cochlea through which the ossicles transmit vibrations
octaves
*4.7* mixtures of tones in particular ratios
inner hair cells
*4.7* neurons in the organ of Corti; responsible for auditory transduction
outer hair cells
*4.7* neurons in the organ of Corti; serve to amplify and sharpen the responses of inner hair cells
tones
*4.7* soundwaves of a single frequency
Organ of Corti
*4.7* specialized region of inner and outer hair cells that sense vibrations of the basilar membrane and transduce vibrations into electrical signals
intensity of sound
*4.7* the amount of energy transmitted per second through a unit of area perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the sound (W/cm^2)
higher
*4.7* the greater the frequency of the sound wave, the (lower/higher) the perceived pitch
ossicles; Malleus, incus, stapes
*4.7* three tiny bones in the middle ear
scala vestibuli and scala tympani
*4.7* two outer compartments of the cochlea that contain perilymph
optic disk
*4.8* A hole in the retina where the optic nerve fibers exit the eye.
Inner plexiform layer
*4.8* A layer of the retina of the eye, located between the ganglion cell layer and the inner nuclear layer; contains the neurites and synapses between bipolar cells, amacrine cells, and ganglion cells.
rods only
*4.8* As you get further away from the fovea, what type of cells are viewed in the eye (rods/cones)?
a. releases tension on the suspensory ligaments that causes the lens to become rounder
*4.8* Contraction of the ciliary body a. releases tension on the suspensory ligaments that causes the lens to become rounder b. limits input into the eyes c. releases tension on the suspensory ligaments that cause the lens to become thinner d. pulls on the suspensory ligaments to thin the lens e. pulls on the suspensory ligaments that then causes the lens to become rounder
both
*4.8* Do biopolar cells respond to activation or inhibition in response to the photoreceptors being hyperpolarized?
Zonules of Zinn
*4.8* Fibers that connect the lens to the surrounding cilliary muscles. Tensing the cilliary muscles releases tension on the fibers and allow the lens to get fatter; relaxing the cilliary muscles has the opposite effect.
alter membrane potential of other cells through glutamate
*4.8* How do rods/cones activate an action potential
depolarized, glutamate
*4.8* In the dark, rods are ________________ and _______________ is released.
mechanical to biochemical
*4.8* In the retina, how does the signal change as far as processes?
perimeter is dark, but center is lit
*4.8* On-center ganglion cells are most active when the receptive field ...
thicker/wider, thinner, more oval shaped
*4.8* Relaxation of the ciliary muscles causes the lens to become ... contraction of the muscle causes the lens to become ...
ganglion cells
*4.8* Retinal cells that produce an action potential include ...
high, low lower, high low, high
*4.8* Rods have (low/high) sensitivity while cones have (low/high) sensitive Rods have (lower/higher) temporal resolution whereas cones have (lower/higher) temporal resolution Rods have (low/high) spatial acuity whereas cones have (low/high) spatial acuity
optic disk where there are no photoreceptors
*4.8* The "blind spot" in the visual field is due to light falling on the ..
cornea
*4.8* The clear tissue that covers the front of the eye
lens
*4.8* The eye uses a ____________ to focus incoming light onto the retina
1. mechanical - focuses light on retina 2. biochemical - transduce light into a nervous system signal 3. process signals into perceptions of objects, color, motion, and meaning
*4.8* What are the 3 processes of vision?
medication to reduce pressure, surgical interventions (stent)
*4.8* What are the treatment options for Glaucoma
Na+ influx is inhibited --> hyperpolarize photoreceptor cells --> stops glutamate release
*4.8* What happens when light is shown on rods?
remove lens, fixed focus polymer replacement
*4.8* What is treatment for cataracts?
inverted
*4.8* What type of retina do humans have?
ganglion cell layer
*4.8* Where are action potentials produced in the eye?
b. they give rise to high visual acuit
*4.8* Which of the following does not describe retinal rod cells a. they lack color vision pigments b. they give rise to high visual acuit c. they are used for dim light d. they saturate in bright light e. they have a higher sensitivity than cones
On-center bipolar cell
*4.8* a retinal bipolar cell that is excited (decreased glutamate release from photoreceptors) by light in the center of its receptive field
Off-center bipolar cell
*4.8* a retinal bipolar cell that is inhibited (decreased glutamate) by light in the center of its receptive field
Iris
*4.8* a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening
Cataracts
*4.8* cloudy areas in the lens caused by clumping protein fibers. Causes the light to diffract
Cones
*4.8* color sensitive, vary in spectral range of red, green, and blue light
Snell's Law of Refraction
*4.8* describes the angle of refraction when light passes from one medium into another
power of accommodation
*4.8* difference in the power of the relaxed eye and the maximally accommodated eye
Aqueous humor
*4.8* fluid in the eye, found between the cornea and the lens -provides nutrients to the cornea -does not have its own blood supply
presbyopia
*4.8* impaired vision as a result of aging
Glaucoma
*4.8* increased intraocular pressure due to restriction of aqueous humor flow results in damage to the retina and optic nerve with loss of vision
choroid
*4.8* middle, vascular layer of the eye, between the retina and the sclera
radial muscle
*4.8* muscle that contracts to cause dilate pupil -controlled by sympathetic nervous system
Sphincter muscle
*4.8* muscle that contracts to decrease pupil size -controlled by parasympathetic nervous system
retinal pigmented epithelium
*4.8* next to the choroid; contains melanin (a dark protein); absorbs light to prevent it from reflecting back across the retina -removes cells and removes waste
Ciliary body
*4.8* ring of tissue behind the peripheral iris that is composed of ciliary muscle and ciliary processes -controls the shape of the elsn
thin lens formula
*4.8* states that the sum of the inverse of the object and image distances equals the inverse of the focal length of the lens
scotopic vision
*4.8* the ability to perceive visual stimuli in near darkness due to the activity of rods
photopic vision
*4.8* the ability to perceive visual stimuli under bright light conditions due to the activity of cones
Accommodation of the eye
*4.8* the eye's ability to focus and maintain an image on the retina
Far-sightedness (hypermetropia)
*4.8* the image is formed behind the retina because the eyeball is too short.
Near-sightedness (myopia)
*4.8* the image is formed in front of the retina typically from an abnormally elongated eyeball
retina
*4.8* the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information
optic nerve
*4.8* the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
outer plexiform layer
*4.8* the retinal layer containing axons and dendrites forming connections between bipolar cells, horizontal cells, and the photoreceptors
lens
*4.8* the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina
Fovea centralis
*4.8* tiny pit or depression in the retina that is the region of clearest vision -have the highest concentration of photoreceptor cells
dipoters
*4.8* used to measure the magnification of your lens
sclera
*4.8* white of the eye
1. H+ enters cell --> raises pH 2. cytosolic [Ca2+] increases 3. rate of H+ exchange out of cell increaes --> decrease in pH
What is the mechanism of sour taste?
First pain
initial sharp sensations at the moment of a painful stimulus -Alphadelta fibers
