Quiz 1 - SXS 400

Pederasty

"Boy love"; is a (usually erotic) homosexual relationship between an adult male and a pubescent or adolescent male. practiced by Greek males as a part of the cultural education of young man.

Mary Wollstonecraft

"English writer and early feminist who denied male supremacy and advocated equal education for women" was an English writer, philosopher, and advocate of women's rights. During her brief career, she wrote novels, treatises, a travel narrative, a history of the French Revolution, a conduct book, and a children's book. _________ is best known for A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), in which she argues that women are not naturally inferior to men, but appear to be only because they lack education. She suggests that both men and women should be treated as rational beings and imagines a social order founded on reason.

Promiscuity (n)

"Lacking standards of selection; indiscriminate" is the practice of having casual sex frequently with different partners or being indiscriminate in the choice of sexual partners. The term can carry a moral judgment if the social ideal for sexual activity is monogamous relationships. A common example of behavior viewed as ___________ by many cultures is the one-night stand, and its frequency is used by researchers as a marker for ___________.

Coitus

"Sexual intercourse" The coming together of male and female sex organs, sometimes in the act of sexual procreation; the male's penis is inserted into the female's vagina, usually until orgasm and ejaculation of semen occur; copulation.

Lewis Henry Morgan

"Societies have progressed from a state of savagery to barbarism to civilization" (November 21, 1818 - December 17, 1881) was a pioneering American anthropologist and social theorist who worked as a railroad lawyer. He is best known for his work on kinship and social structure, his theories of social evolution, and his ethnography of the Iroquois. Interested in what holds societies together, he proposed the concept that the earliest human domestic institution was the matrilineal clan, not the patriarchal family. Also interested in what leads to social change, he was a contemporary of the European social theorists Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, who were influenced by reading his work on social structure and material culture, the influence of technology on progress. _________ is the only American social theorist to be cited by such diverse scholars as Marx, Charles Darwin, and Sigmund Freud. Elected as a member of the National Academy of Sciences, _________ served as president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1879. Combined with an exhaustive study of classic Greek and Roman sources, he crowned his work with his magnum opus Ancient Society (1877). _________ elaborated upon his theory of social evolution. He introduced a critical link between social progress and technological progress. He emphasized the centrality of family and property relations. He traced the interplay between the evolution of technology, of family relations, of property relations, of the larger social structures and systems of governance, and intellectual development. Looking across an expanded span of human existence, _________ presented three major stages: savagery, barbarism, and civilization. He divided and defined the stages by technological inventions, such as use of fire, bow, pottery in the savage era; domestication of animals, agriculture, and metalworking in the barbarian era; and development of the alphabet and writing in the civilization era. (In part, this was an effort to create a structure for North American history that was comparable to the three-age system of European pre-history, which had been developed as an evidence-based system by a Danish antiquarian. The concept of evidence-based chronological dating received wider notice in English-speaking nations.

Red Queen

"sexual selection allows hosts to evolve at a rate that counters the rapid evolution of parasites" is an evolutionary hypothesis which proposes that organisms must constantly adapt, evolve, and proliferate not merely to gain reproductive advantage, but also simply to survive while pitted against ever-evolving opposing organisms in an ever-changing environment. The hypothesis intends to explain two different phenomena: the constant extinction rates as observed in the paleontological record caused by co-evolution between competing species, and the advantage of sexual reproduction (as opposed to asexual reproduction) at the level of individuals.

abstinence (n)

"the act of refraining from pleasurable activity" is a self-enforced restraint from indulging in bodily activities that are widely experienced as giving pleasure. Most frequently, the term refers to sexual abstinence, or abstinence from alcohol or food. The practice can arise from religious prohibitions and practical considerations. Abstinence may also refer to drugs. For example, one can abstain from smoking. Abstinence has diverse forms. Commonly it refers to a temporary or partial abstinence from food, as in fasting. In the twelve-step program of Overeaters Anonymous abstinence is the term for refraining from compulsive eating, akin in meaning to sobriety for alcoholics. Because the regimen is intended to be a conscious act, freely chosen to enhance life, abstinence is sometimes distinguished from the psychological mechanism of repression. The latter is an unconscious state, having unhealthy consequences. Freud termed the channeling of sexual energies into other more culturally or socially acceptable activities, "sublimation".

plebeian

(adj.) common, vulgar; belonging to the lower class; (n.) a common person, member of the lower class

Asceticism

(n) severe self-discipline and avoidance of all forms of indulgence, typically for religious reasons. "acts of physical asceticism"

Thomas Malthus

1798 said human population can outgrow food supply; result will be war, famine, disease.

natural selection

A natural process resulting in the evolution of organisms best adapted to the environment.

Exhibitionism

Compulsive need to expose one's body, particularly the genitals, to an unsuspecting stranger.

Procreation

Conceiving and bearing children

Charles Darwin

English natural scientist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection (1809-1882)

Marvin Harris

Epistemological principles Cultural materialism is a scientific research strategy and as such utilizes the scientific method. Etic and behavioral Infrastructure, comprising a society's relations to the environment, which includes their ethics and behavioral modes of production and reproduction (material relations). Etic and behavioral Structure, the ethics and behavioral domestic and political economies of a society (social relations). Etic and behavioral Superstructure, the ethics and behavioral symbolic and ideational aspects of a society, e.g. the arts, rituals, sports and games, and science (symbolic and ideational relations). Emic and mental Superstructure, including "conscious and unconscious cognitive goals, categories, rules, plans, values, philosophies, and beliefs" (Harris 1979:54) (meaningful or ideological relations). Anthropologist that feels that the basis for culture stems from the societies infrastructure. 60% of people are comfortable with homosexuality was an American anthropologist. He was born in Brooklyn, New York City. A prolific writer, he was highly influential in the development of cultural materialism. In his work, he combined Karl Marx's emphasis on the forces of production with Thomas Malthus's insights on the impact of demographic factors on other parts of the sociocultural system. Labeling demographic and production factors as infrastructure, ________ posited these factors as key in determining a society's social structure and culture. After the publication of The Rise of Anthropological Theory in 1968, ________ helped focus the interest of anthropologists in cultural-ecological relationships for the rest of his career. Many of his publications gained wide circulation among lay readers. Over the course of his professional life, ________ drew both a loyal following and a considerable amount of criticism. He became a regular fixture at the annual meetings of the American Anthropological Association, where he would subject scholars to intense questioning from the floor, podium, or bar. He is considered a generalist, who had an interest in the global processes that account for human origins and the evolution of human cultures. _____________' earliest work began in the Boasian tradition of descriptive anthropological fieldwork, but his fieldwork experiences in Mozambique in the late 1950s caused him to shift his focus from ideological features of culture toward behavioral aspects. His 1969 history of anthropological thought, The Rise of Anthropological Theory critically examined hundreds of years of social thought with the intent of constructing a viable understanding of human culture that _____________ came to call Cultural Materialism.[1]The book, affectionately known as "The RAT" among graduate students, is a synthesis of classical and contemporary macrosocial theory. Cultural materialism incorporated and refined Marx's categories of superstructure and base. _____________ modified and amplified such core Marxist concepts as means of production and exploitation, but _____________ rejected two key aspects of Marxist thought: the dialectic, which _____________ attributed to an intellectual vogue of Marx's time; and unity of theory and practice, which _____________ regarded as an inappropriate and damaging stance for social scientists. _____________ also integrated Malthus' population theory into his research strategy as a major determinant factor in sociocultural evolution, which also contrasted with Marx's rejection of population as a causal element. According to _____________, the principal mechanisms by which a society exploits its environment are contained in a society's infrastructure—the mode of production (technology and work patterns) and population (such as population characteristics, fertility and mortality rates). Since such practices are essential for the continuation of life itself, widespread social structures and cultural values and beliefs must be consistent with these practices. Since the aim of science, _____________ writes: is the discovery of the maximum amount of order in its field of inquiry, priority for theory building logically settles upon those sectors under the greatest direct restraints from the givens of nature. To endow the mental superstructure [ideas and ideologies] with strategic priority, as the cultural idealists advocate, is a bad bet. Nature is indifferent to whether God is a loving father or a bloodthirsty cannibal. But nature is not indifferent to whether the fallow period in a swidden [slash and burn] field is one year or ten. We know that powerful restraints exist on the infrastructural level; hence it is a good bet that these restraints are passed on to the structural and superstructural components. (_____________ 1979, 57) _____________ made a critical distinction between emic and etic, which he refined considerably since its exposition in The Rise of Anthropological Theory. The terms "emic" and "etic" originated in the work of missionary-linguist Kenneth Pike,[2] despite the latter's conceptual differences with _____________' constructs. As used by _____________, emic meant those descriptions and explanations that are right and meaningful to an informant or subject, whereas etic descriptions and explanations are those used by the scientific community to germinate and force theories of sociocultural life. That is, emic is the participant's perspective, whereas etic is the observer's. _____________ had asserted that both are in fact necessary for an explanation of human thought and behavior.[2][3] _____________' early contributions to major theoretical issues include his revision of biological surplus theory in obesity formation. He also became well known for formulating a materialist explanation for the treatment of cattle in religion in Indian culture.[4] Along with Michael Harner, _____________ is one of the scholars most associated with the suggestion that Aztec cannibalism occurred, and was the result of protein deficiency in the Aztec diet.[5] An explanation appears in _____________' book Cannibals and Kings.[6]_____________ also invoked the human quest for animal protein to explain Yanomamo warfare, contradicting ethnographer Napoleon Chagnon's sociobiological explanation involving innate male human aggressiveness.[7] Several other publications by _____________ examine the cultural and material roots of dietary traditions in many cultures, including Cows, Pigs, Wars, and Witches: The Riddles of Culture (1975); Good to Eat: Riddles of Food and Culture (1998; originally titled The Sacred Crow and the Abominable Pigs) and his co-edited volume, Food and Evolution: Toward a Theory of Human Food Habits (1987). _____________' Why Nothing Works: The Anthropology of Daily Life (1981; originally titled America Now: the Anthropology of a Changing Culture) applies concepts from cultural materialism to the explanation of such social developments in late twentieth century United States as inflation, the entry of large numbers of women into the paid labor force, marital stability, and shoddy products. His Our Kind: Who We Are, Where We're From, Where We Are (1990) surveys the broad sweep of human physical and cultural evolution, offering provocative explanations of such subjects as human transsexualism and nontranssexualism and the origins of inequality. Finally, _____________' 1979 work, Cultural Materialism: The Struggle, updated and re-released in 2001, offers perhaps the most comprehensive statement of cultural materialism. A separate article lists the many and diverse publications of Marvin _____________. Criticisms and controversies_____________' earliest work began in the Boasian tradition of descriptive anthropological fieldwork, but his fieldwork experiences in Mozambique in the late 1950s caused him to shift his focus from ideological features of culture toward behavioral aspects. His 1969 history of anthropological thought, The Rise of Anthropological Theory critically examined hundreds of years of social thought with the intent of constructing a viable understanding of human culture that _____________ came to call Cultural Materialism.[1]The book, affectionately known as "The RAT" among graduate students, is a synthesis of classical and contemporary macrosocial theory. Cultural materialism incorporated and refined Marx's categories of superstructure and base. _____________ modified and amplified such core Marxist concepts as means of production and exploitation, but _____________ rejected two key aspects of Marxist thought: the dialectic, which _____________ attributed to an intellectual vogue of Marx's time; and unity of theory and practice, which _____________ regarded as an inappropriate and damaging stance for social scientists. _____________ also integrated Malthus' population theory into his research strategy as a major determinant factor in sociocultural evolution, which also contrasted with Marx's rejection of population as a causal element. According to _____________, the principal mechanisms by which a society exploits its environment are contained in a society's infrastructure—the mode of production (technology and work patterns) and population (such as population characteristics, fertility and mortality rates). Since such practices are essential for the continuation of life itself, widespread social structures and cultural values and beliefs must be consistent with these practices. Since the aim of science, _____________ writes: is the discovery of the maximum amount of order in its field of inquiry, priority for theory building logically settles upon those sectors under the greatest direct restraints from the givens of nature. To endow the mental superstructure [ideas and ideologies] with strategic priority, as the cultural idealists advocate, is a bad bet. Nature is indifferent to whether God is a loving father or a bloodthirsty cannibal. But nature is not indifferent to whether the fallow period in a swidden [slash and burn] field is one year or ten. We know that powerful restraints exist on the infrastructural level; hence it is a good bet that these restraints are passed on to the structural and superstructural components. (_____________ 1979, 57) _____________ made a critical distinction between emic and etic, which he refined considerably since its exposition in The Rise of Anthropological Theory. The terms "emic" and "etic" originated in the work of missionary-linguist Kenneth Pike,[2] despite the latter's conceptual differences with _____________' constructs. As used by _____________, emic meant those descriptions and explanations that are right and meaningful to an informant or subject, whereas etic descriptions and explanations are those used by the scientific community to germinate and force theories of sociocultural life. That is, emic is the participant's perspective, whereas etic is the observer's. _____________ had asserted that both are in fact necessary for an explanation of human thought and behavior.[2][3] _____________' early contributions to major theoretical issues include his revision of biological surplus theory in obesity formation. He also became well known for formulating a materialist explanation for the treatment of cattle in religion in Indian culture.[4] Along with Michael Harner, _____________ is one of the scholars most associated with the suggestion that Aztec cannibalism occurred, and was the result of protein deficiency in the Aztec diet.[5] An explanation appears in _____________' book Cannibals and Kings.[6]_____________ also invoked the human quest for animal protein to explain Yanomamo warfare, contradicting ethnographer Napoleon Chagnon's sociobiological explanation involving innate male human aggressiveness.[7] Several other publications by _____________ examine the cultural and material roots of dietary traditions in many cultures, including Cows, Pigs, Wars, and Witches: The Riddles of Culture (1975); Good to Eat: Riddles of Food and Culture (1998; originally titled The Sacred Crow and the Abominable Pigs) and his co-edited volume, Food and Evolution: Toward a Theory of Human Food Habits (1987). _____________' Why Nothing Works: The Anthropology of Daily Life (1981; originally titled America Now: the Anthropology of a Changing Culture) applies concepts from cultural materialism to the explanation of such social developments in late twentieth century United States as inflation, the entry of large numbers of women into the paid labor force, marital stability, and shoddy products. His Our Kind: Who We Are, Where We're From, Where We Are (1990) surveys the broad sweep of human physical and cultural evolution, offering provocative explanations of such subjects as human transsexualism and nontranssexualism and the origins of inequality. Finally, _____________' 1979 work, Cultural Materialism: The Struggle, updated and re-released in 2001, offers perhaps the most comprehensive statement of cultural materialism. A separate article lists the many and diverse publications of Marvin _____________. Criticisms and controversies[edit] While _____________' contributions to anthropology are wide,[8] it has been said that "Other anthropologists and observers had almost as many opinions about Dr. _____________ as he had about why people behave as they do." The Smithsonian magazine called him "one of the most controversial anthropologists alive." The Washington Post described him as "a storm center in his field", and the Los Angeles Times accused him of "overgeneralized assumptions".[9] _____________ could be an acerbic critic of other theories and frequently received return fire. In the last decade of his life, he engaged in a running battle with the postmodernists who he thought had inordinate influence in anthropology in the last part of the 20th century.[citation needed] While _____________' contributions to anthropology are wide, it has been said that "Other anthropologists and observers had almost as many opinions about Dr. _____________ as he had about why people behave as they do." The Smithsonian magazine called him "one of the most controversial anthropologists alive." The Washington Post described him as "a storm center in his field", and the Los Angeles Times accused him of "overgeneralized assumptions". _____________ could be an acerbic critic of other theories and frequently received return fire. In the last decade of his life, he engaged in a running battle with the postmodernists who he thought had inordinate influence in anthropology in the last part of the 20th century.

Kama Sutra

Hindu sex manual

Patricians

In ancient Rome, a member of the wealthy, privileged upper class. were originally a group of ruling class families in ancient Rome.

Bonobo

Man's closest ancestor from rainforest. Sexually receptive.

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

Political theorist advocating absolute monarchy based on his concept of an anarchic state of nature. obey the state an English philosopher who is considered one of the founders of modern political philosophy. ___________ is best known for his 1651 book Leviathan, which established the social contract theory that has served as the foundation for most later Western political philosophy. In addition to political philosophy, ___________ also contributed to a diverse array of other fields, including history, jurisprudence, geometry, the physics of gases, theology, ethics, and general philosophy. Though on rational grounds a champion of absolutism for the sovereign, ___________ also developed some of the fundamentals of European liberal thought: the right of the individual; the natural equality of all men; the artificial character of the political order (which led to the later distinction between civil society and the state); the view that all legitimate political power must be "representative" and based on the consent of the people; and a liberal interpretation of law that leaves people free to do whatever the law does not explicitly forbid.His understanding of humans as being matter and motion, obeying the same physical laws as other matter and motion, remains influential; and his account of human nature as self-interested cooperation, and of political communities as being based upon a "social contract" remains one of the major topics of political philosophy. calvin and....

Morbidity

Refers to ill health in an individual and the levels of ill health in a population or group.

Fornication

Sexual intercourse engaged in by an unmarried male and female synonyms:extramarital sex, extramarital relations, adultery, infidelity, unfaithfulness, cuckoldry

Alloparenting

Shared caring and provisioning of the young by other group members

Masturbation

The deliberate stimulation of the genital organs in order to derive sexual pleasure.

Sociobiology

The systematic study of how biology affects human social behavior

Chimpanzee

The taxonomical genus Pan (often referred to as ___________s or chimps) consists of two extant species: the common ___________ and the bonobo. Together with humans, gorillas, and orangutans they are part of the family Hominidae (the great apes). Native to sub-Saharan Africa, common ___________s and bonobos are currently both found in the Congo jungle, while only the common ___________ is also found further north in West Africa. The two species are on the IUCN "red list" of critically endangered species and in 2017 the Convention on Migratory Species, selected the common ___________ for special protection Altruism and emotivity ___________ mother and baby Studies have shown ___________s engage in apparently altruistic behaviour within groups.[58][59] Some researchers have suggested that ___________s are indifferent to the welfare of unrelated group members,[60] but a more recent study of wild ___________s found that both male and female adults would adopt orphaned young of their group. Also, different groups sometimes share food, form coalitions, and cooperate in hunting and border patrolling.[61] Sometimes, ___________s have adopted young that come from unrelated groups. And in some rare cases, even male chimps have been shown to take care of abandoned infant chimps of an unrelated group, though in most cases they would kill the infant.[citation needed] According to a literature summary by James W. Harrod, evidence for ___________ emotivity includes display of mourning; "incipient romantic love"; rain dances; appreciation of natural beauty (such as a sunset over a lake); curiosity and respect towards other wildlife (such as the python, which is neither a threat nor a food source to ___________s); altruism toward other species (such as feeding turtles); and animism, or "pretend play", when chimps cradle and groom rocks or sticks.[62] Communication between ___________s Chimps communicate in a manner that is similar to that of human nonverbal communication, using vocalizations, hand gestures, and facial expressions. There is even some evidence that they can recreate human speech.[63] Research into the ___________ brain has revealed that when ___________s communicate, an area in the brain is activated which is in the same position as the language center called Broca's area in human brains.[64] Aggression Adult common ___________s, particularly males, can be very aggressive. They are highly territorial and are known to kill other chimps.

Prehistory

Time before writing was invented

Social Inclusionary Trait

Works well in groups. Example Hyennas- females have external genitals that look like a males. any behavior that enables an individual organism to bond with the same-sex group and gain access to resources for survival and reproduction

Stigma

a mark of shame or discredit, social

Patrilocality

a residential pattern in which a married couple lives with or near the husband's family

Matrilocality

a residential pattern in which a married couple lives with or near the wife's family

concubine (n)

a secondary wife; a woman who co-habits with a man to whom she is not legally married.

matriachy

a society ruled or controlled by women

patriarchy (n)

a society, system or country that is ruled or controlled by men

Polyamory

a system of multiple-person partnership

Polyandry

a woman having more than one husband at a time.

Dual inheritance theory

also known as gene-culture coevolution or biocultural evolution,[1] was developed in the 1960s through early 1980s to explain how human behavior is a product of two different and interacting evolutionary processes: genetic evolution and cultural evolution. Genes and culture continually interact in a feedback loop,[2] changes in genes can lead to changes in culture which can then influence genetic selection, and vice versa. One of the theory's central claims is that culture evolves partly through a Darwinian selection process, which dual inheritance theorists often describe by analogy to genetic evolution.[3] 'Culture', in this context is defined as 'socially learned behavior', and 'social learning' is defined as copying behaviors observed in others or acquiring behaviors through being taught by others. Most of the modelling done in the field relies on the first dynamic (copying) though it can be extended to teaching. Social learning at its simplest involves blind copying of behaviors from a model (someone observed behaving), though it is also understood to have many potential biases, including success bias (copying from those who are perceived to be better off), status bias (copying from those with higher status), homophily (copying from those most like ourselves), conformist bias (disproportionately picking up behaviors that more people are performing), etc.. Understanding social learning is a system of pattern replication, and understanding that there are different rates of survival for different socially learned cultural variants, this sets up, by definition, an evolutionary structure: cultural evolution.[4] Because genetic evolution is relatively well understood, most of DIT examines cultural evolution and the interactions between cultural evolution and genetic evolution.

Copulation

animal sexual behavior in which a male introduces sperm into the female's body, especially directly into her reproductive tract. This is an aspect of mating. Many animals that live in water use external fertilization, whereas internal fertilization may have developed from a need to maintain gametes in a liquid medium in the Late Ordovician epoch. Internal fertilization with many vertebrates (such as reptiles, some fish, and most birds) occur via cloacal copulation (see also hemipenis), while mammals copulate vaginally, and many basal vertebrates reproduce sexually with external fertilization.

Patrilineal

based on or tracing descent through the male line

foraging

ecological behavior that involves finding and eating food

fecundity

fertility; fruitfulness; the ability to produce an abundance of offspring or new growth; fertility.

selfish gene theory

from the fittest individual to the fittest gene According to Dawkins' theory, the base unit of evolution is the individual gene. Since evolutionary fitness is measured in terms of passing on your genes to the next generation, Dawkins theorized that each gene acted in a way that would allow it the best opportunity to be replicated and passed on to the next generation. Those who disagree with the theory note that individual genes do not control an organism's behavior and that they therefore cannot act selfishly. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j9p2F2oa0_k

prurient (adj)

having lustful desires or interests; tending to arouse sexual desires

Polygny

husband has 2 or more wives (more common)

stoicism (n)

indifference to pleasure or pain; impassivity ____________ is a school of Hellenistic philosophy that flourished throughout the Roman and Greek world until the 3rd century AD. _______________ was founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early 3rd century BC, and was heavily influenced by certain teachings of Socrates, while stoic physics are largely drawn from the teachings of the philosopher Heraclitus. Stoicism is predominantly a philosophy of personal ethics which is informed by its system of logic and its views on the natural world. According to its teachings, as social beings, the path to happiness for humans is found in accepting this moment as it presents itself, by not allowing ourselves to be controlled by our desire for pleasure or our fear of pain, by using our minds to understand the world around us and to do our part in nature's plan, and by working together and treating others in a fair and just manner. The Stoics are especially known for teaching that "virtue is the only good" for human beings, and that external things—such as health, wealth, and pleasure—are not good or bad in themselves, but have value as "material for virtue to act upon." Alongside Aristotelian ethics, the Stoic tradition thus forms one of the major founding approaches to Western virtue ethics.[1] The Stoics also held that certain destructive emotions resulted from errors of judgment, and they believed that people should aim to maintain a will (called prohairesis) that is "in accord with nature" (a slogan they interpreted to mean several different things). They thought that the best indication of an individual's philosophy was not what a person said but how a person behaved.[2] To live a good life, one had to understand the rules of the natural order since they taught that everything was rooted in nature. Many Stoics—such as Seneca and Epictetus—emphasized that, because "virtue is sufficient for happiness", a sage would be emotionally resilient to misfortune. This belief is similar to the meaning of the phrase "stoic calm", though the phrase does not include the "radical ethical" Stoic views that only a sage can be considered truly free, and that all moral corruptions are equally vicious.[3] From its founding, Stoic doctrine was popular during the Roman Empire—and its adherents included the Emperor Marcus Aurelius. It later experienced a decline after Christianity became the state religion in the 4th century AD. Over the centuries, it has seen revivals, notably in the Renaissance (Neo__________) and in the modern era (modern ________.[4]

libertine

is one devoid of most moral or sexual restraints, which are seen as unnecessary or undesirable, especially one who ignores or even spurns accepted morals and forms of behaviour sanctified by the larger society. ___________ism is described as an extreme form of hedonism. ___________ put value on physical pleasures, meaning those experienced through the senses. As a philosophy, ___________ism gained new-found adherents in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, particularly in France and Great Britain. Notable among these were John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester, and the Marquis de Sade.

celibacy (n)

is the state of voluntarily being unmarried, sexually abstinent, or both, usually for religious reasons. It is often in association with the role of a religious official or devotee. In its narrow sense, the term celibacy is applied only to those for whom the unmarried state is the result of a sacred vow, act of renunciation, or religious conviction. In a wider sense, it is commonly understood to only mean abstinence from sexual activity.

lascivious

lustful or lewd. (of a person, manner, or gesture) feeling or revealing an overt and often offensive sexual desire.

polygamy (n.)

marriage to several people at the same time

monogamy

marriage with one mate at a time

Hypergamy

marrying "up" in the social class hierarchy

Sodomy

nonprocreative oral or anal sex. derived from the story of Sodom and Gomorrah in the Book of Genesis

Unilineal Evolution

one line or path through which cultures evolve: Savagery > Barbarism > Civilization

hunter gatherers

people who hunted animals and gathered wild plants for food

rhythm method of contraception

periodic absence of sex during fertile period of month

miscegenation (n)

reproduction by parents of different races (especially by white and non-white persons)

Bisexuality

romantic attraction, sexual attraction, or sexual behavior toward both males and females, or romantic or sexual attraction to people of any sex or gender identity; this latter aspect is sometimes alternatively termed pansexuality.

Multilineal Evolution

societies develop differently from each other. Disproves claim on a superior culture. is a 20th-century social theory about the evolution of societies and cultures. is a 20th-century social theory about the evolution of societies and cultures. It is composed of many competing theories by various sociologists and anthropologists. This theory has replaced the older 19th century set of theories of unilineal evolution. When critique of classical social evolutionism became widely accepted, modern anthropological and sociological approaches have changed to reflect their responses to the critique of their predecessor. Modern theories are careful to avoid unsourced, ethnocentric speculation, comparisons, or value judgements; more or less regarding individual societies as existing within their own historical contexts. These conditions provided the context for new theories such as cultural relativism and multilineal evolution. By the 1940s cultural anthropologists such as Leslie White and Julian Steward sought to revive an evolutionary model on a more scientific basis, and succeeded in establishing an approach known as the neoevolutionism. White rejected the opposition between "primitive" and "modern" societies but did argue that societies could be distinguished based on the amount of energy they harnessed, and that increased energy allowed for greater social differentiation. Steward on the other hand rejected the 19th century notion of progress, and instead called attention to the Darwinian notion of "adaptation", arguing that all societies had to adapt to their environment in some way. The anthropologists Marshall Sahlins and Elman Service wrote a book, Evolution and Culture, in which they attempted to synthesize White's and Steward's approaches. Other anthropologists, building on or responding to work by White and Steward, developed theories of cultural ecology and ecological anthropology. The most prominent examples are Peter Vayda and Roy Rappaport. By the late 1950s, students of Steward such as Eric Wolf and Sidney Mintz turned away from cultural ecology to Marxism, World Systems Theory, Dependency theory and Marvin Harris's cultural materialism. Today most anthropologists continue to reject 19th century notions of progress and the three original assumptions of unilineal evolution. Following Steward, they take seriously the relationship between a culture and its environment in attempts to explain different aspects of a culture. But most modern cultural anthropologists have adopted a general systems approach, examining cultures as emergent systems and argue that one must consider the whole social environment, which includes political and economic relations among cultures. There are still others who continue to reject the entirety of the evolutionary thinking and look instead at historical contingencies, contacts with other cultures, and the operation of cultural symbol systems. As a result, the simplistic notion of 'cultural evolution' has grown less useful and given way to an entire series of more nuanced approaches to the relationship of culture and environment. In the area of development studies, authors such as Amartya Sen have developed an understanding of 'development' and 'human flourishing' that also question more simplistic notions of progress, while retaining much of their original inspiration.

Matrilineal

term for a family organization in which kinship ties are traced through the mother

reciprocal altruism

the act of helping others in the hope that they will help us in the future Altruism is defined as an act that does not benefit the individual that performs it. There are several species that live in groups and behave in a manner that could be interpreted as altruistic. See also: The Good Samaritan Experiment The most extreme examples would be in eusocial animals where individuals give up their right to reproduce to raise the offspring of the queen. To explain this, the theory of kin selection was developed. At the time, the only known eusocial animals were haplodiploid hymenopterans (wasps and bees). In haplodiploid species, fertilized eggs develop into one sex and unfertilized eggs develop into the opposite sex. In the case of hyemnopterans, unfertilized eggs become males and fertilized eggs become females, creating a stronger relationship between females in a colony. The theory states that closely related individuals are more likely to have the same genes and thus assisting in the passing on of those same genes to future generations. Eusociality has since been discovered in several species, not all of which are haplodiploid. Although kin selection may still play a role in eusociality, it has been removed to a more supportive role rather than the main reason behind the evolution of eusociality. The reasons behind altruism and eusociality remain a topic of much debate in the biological world. For a trait to be carried forward to future generations it must have some type of fitness value. The question is, what value does altruism provide an organism? Scientists continue to work towards explanations using both digital and traditional frameworks. It is a debate that has also attracted much interest from fields such as sociobiology and psychology because one of the many species that displays eusociality and altruism is human beings.

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of cognition and behavior using principles of natural selection

evolutionary biology

the study of the origins and changes in the diversity of life over time

sexual selection

when individuals select mates based on heritable traits