Quiz 3

El Gran Circulo de Obreros de México

1879, Carmen Huerta, a Mexicana, was elected president of the anarchist El Gran Círculo de Obreros de México (The Great Center of the Workers of Mexico). 10 "These organizations espoused mutual aid, workers' defense, and a wide range of radical and conservative ideologies." Acuna, Rodolfo F.. Occupied America (Page 162). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

Regeneración

Born in Oaxaca in 1873, Ricardo Flores Magón and his colleagues (known as magonistas) crossed the border in 1904 and started a newspaper, Regeneración, to educate Mexicans and Euro-Americans about conditions in Mexico and the United States. While here, they planned and carried out invasions of Mexican territory. 16 Along with Librado Rivera and Antonio I. Villarreal, Ricardo was arrested in August 1907 and held in the Los Angeles County Jail for several months. They were then transferred to Tombstone, Arizona, where they were found guilty of conspiracy to violate the neutrality laws and sentenced to 18 months in the territorial prison. In March 1918, the PLM issued a manifesto calling for a world anarchist revolution. The courts sentenced Flores Magón to 20 years in prison, and his comrade Librado Rivera to 15 years, for violation of U.S. neutrality acts. In November 1922, before his release, Flores Magón mysteriously died in his cell—he was murdered. 17 (Acuna Page 163)

Nativism

By the 1920s, Mexicans accounted for more than 10 percent of all immigrants in the United States; however, a majority of Mexicans in the United States were born there. Visibility triggered a virulent strain of racist nativism, a mixture of racism and xenophobia, toward Mexicans. 8 Differences also arose among the immigrants according to where they settled and what work they did. The wave in which they arrived spelled further differences. For example, middle-class Mexicans arriving before the Mexican Revolution were more apt to be liberal and differed from the post-1910-era exiles, who were often conservative politically. There were also variations within generations. For example, many rural migrants continued to use Spanish as their primary language whereas Mexicans in urban areas tended to adopt English more quickly, especially the second generation. Acuna, Rodolfo F.. Occupied America (Page 162). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

Walls and Mirrors

David G. Gutiérrez, in Walls and Mirrors, argues that the massive migration of Mexicans in the 1920s resulted in increased tensions between Mexican Americans and the new arrivals. This follows a pattern similar to the tensions between northern and southern Italians, between German Jews and Slavic Jews, and between the long-time settlers and the recent arrivals from Europe. Acuna, Rodolfo F.. (Page 188).

La Mujer Mexicana

In 1904, Dolores Correa de Zapata, a schoolteacher; Laura Méndez de Cuenca; and Murgía Manteana brought out the feminist magazine La Mujer Mexicana, Acuna, Rodolfo F.. (Page 164).

La Orden de Hijos de América

In 1921, Professor Sáenz, along with Santiago Tafolla (a lawyer) and other Mexican American World War I veterans and professionals, formed La Orden de Hijos de América (the Order of the Sons of America). This was a transitional organization that did not insist on U.S. citizenship as a membership requirement; it did, however, emphasize the betterment of the Mexican American in the United States. Within two years, Los Hijos de América had 250 members and three branches in south Texas. Acuna, Rodolfo F.. Occupied America: A History of Chicanos (Page 190).

The League of United Latin American Citizens

In 1927 Alonso Perales called together leaders of various organizations from south Texas to explore the possibility of merging into a single organization. Two years later, on February 17, 1929, in Corpus Christi, Los Caballeros de América of San Antonio, Los Hijos de América of Corpus Christi, and the League of Latin American Citizens of South Texas merged to form LULAC. 23 The Acuna, Rodolfo F.. (Page 190).

Los México-Americanos en la Gran Guerra (Mexican American in the Great War)

Mexican casualties were high. Unacknowledged acts of bravery burned in the memories of many veterans such as J. Luz Sáenz, who recorded his recollections in his book Los méxico-americanos en la gran guerra y su contingente en pró de la democracia, la humanidad y justicia. 75 Acuna, Rodolfo F.. Occupied America: A History of Chicanos (Page 175).

Recent scholarship on zoot suiters

Recent scholarship on zoot suiters is an important area of study where wartime Mexican American women have received in-depth analysis. Escobedo, Elizabeth R.. From Coveralls to Zoot Suits (p. 3). The University of North Carolina Press. Kindle Edition.

Magonistas

Ricardo Flores Magón and his colleagues Acuna, Rodolfo F.. Occupied America (Page 163). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

Americanization

The Catholic Church often interpreted Americanization as being synonymous with Protestantism and resisted the Americanization programs because Church leaders saw Mexicans as exclusively Catholic— though, generally, as unequal members. Acuna, Rodolfo F..(Page 187).

Hijos De Mexico

The intergroup differences between Mexicans and Mexican Americans became noticeable during these years. For example, the Hijos de México (Sons of Mexico), organized in San Antonio in 1897, admitted only Mexican citizens and promoted Mexican culture. The association disbanded in 1914, but reorganized nine years later. Acuna, Rodolfo F.. Occupied America: A History of Chicanos (Page 190).

Mutualistas (mutual aid societies)

Urbanization led to the formation of mutualistas (mutual-aid societies) that were used to organize workers for self-help and even strikes. (see page 164) Acuna, Rodolfo F. (Page 162).

El Primer Congreso Mexicanista (The First Mexican Congress)

themselves. Nicasio Idar, publisher of the Texasbased La Crónica newspaper, condemned the Cárdenas murder. 53 Idar and others convened El Primer Congreso Mexicanista (the First Mexican Congress) on September 11, 1911, to discuss deteriorating TexasMexican economic conditions; the loss of Mexican culture and Spanish language; widespread social discrimination; educational discrimination; and lynching. Acuna, Rodolfo F.. (Page 170).