Quiz 4 chapter 12
fitt's and posner three-stage mode: Here the skill has become almost automatic, or habitual.
autonomous stage
re-read bernstiens description of the learning process p. 278
1. first decision is to determine which level in the motor control system will take the leading role in the performance. 2. The second phase involves developing a plan or strategy to approach the problem (specifying how the skill will look from the outside) and recruiting and assigning roles to the lower levels of the motor control system. 3. The third phase involves identifying the most appropriate sensory corrections (specifying how the skill should feel from the inside). 4. In the fourth phase, the corrections are handed over to the background levels and so are typically engaged without conscious awareness. 5. The next phase is gradual and involves achieving a harmony among the background corrections. 6 & 7. The final two phases involve standardization and stabilization.
Give an example of stroke patients increasing practice and finding functional synergy
As the patients progressed, the coordination between the hip and the knee joints showed marked improvement changes which demonstrated the development of the functional synergy required for these joints to allow unaided standing. could now stand up and sit down multiple times
True or false: Brain areas active during the early stage of learning are always the same areas active during later stages of learning
FALSE brain areas active during the early stage of learning are NOT always the same areas active during later stages of learning
Is Expert Performance Automated?
FALSE --not truly automated
what is one benefit of more experienced athletes "unfreezing" the "frozen" degrees of freedom?
Functional synergy --> increased velocity benefit of the development of the functional synergy of the arm segments was an increase in racquet velocity at ball impact.
What are the two stages in gentiles two-stage model?
Initial stage of learning later stages of learning
Energy sources of performing skills scientists determine this by dividing the work rate by the metabolic rate of the individual.
Mechanical energy
Learning is specific to the sources of sensory information available during practice
Practice specificity hypothesis
In addition to demonstrating a reduction in energy cost, learners also experience a decrease in their ______________ of ________ _________. (_______)
RPE (rate of perceived exertion)
refers to the amount of effort (i.e., exertion, or energy) a person feels that he or she is expending while performing a skill.
RPE (rate of perceived exertion)
Study on aiming and 2,000 trials vs 200 trials using visual feedback then taking it away
Rather than decreasing their dependency on visual feedback, the participants increased dependency.
bernstiens description of the learning process _____________ of a movement or action are necessary to solve the motor problem many times and to find the best way of solving it.
Repetitions
A characteristic of expertise that emerges from the length and intensity of practice required to achieve expertise in a field is this: expertise is domain __________.
Specific
Give a real life freezing the degrees of freedom situation
Suppose a beginner must perform a skill such as a racquetball or squash forehand shot, which, at the joint level, involves the coordination of three degrees of freedom for the arm used to hit the ball: the wrist, elbow, and shoulder joints. A common strategy the beginner uses to control these joints so that he or she can hit the ball is to keep the wrist and elbow joints "locked" (i.e., "frozen"). This strategy makes the arm and hand move as if they were a stick, with the arm and hand segments acting as one segment
proposed that learning a motor skill involves three stages cognitive stage associative stage autonomous stage
THE FITTS AND POSNER THREE-STAGE MODEL
True or false When a person is learning a new skill that requires altering an established coordination pattern, an interesting transition from old to new pattern occurs.
True
True or false: There is little transfer of the capabilities in the field of expertise to another field in which the person has no experience.
True
true or false: the autonomous stage in fitt's and posners three-stage model can take years.
True
True or false: We typically begin practicing the new skill using movement characteristics similar to those of the skill we already know. give an example
True For example, it is common for an experienced baseball player to use a swing resembling baseball batting when he or she first practices hitting a golf ball.
gentiles two stage model In what Gentile labeled the initial stage, the beginner has two important goals to achieve. what are they?
acquire a movement pattern discriminate between regulatory and nonregulatory conditions
gentiles two stage model: later stage An important characteristic of open skills, which differ from closed skills in this way, is the requirement for the performer to quickly ____________ to the continuously changing spatial and temporal regulatory conditions of the skill.
adapt
In the second stage, called the later stages by Gentile, the learner needs to acquire three general characteristics First, the person must develop the capability to _______________ the movement pattern to the specific demands of any performance situation requiring that skill. Second, the person must increase his or her _______________ in achieving the goal of the skill. Third, the person must learn to perform the skill with an ____________ of __________.
adapt; consistency; economy of effort
When experts perform an activity, they use vision in more ____________ ways than nonexperts do.
advantageous
Experts in all skill performance areas have in common some distinct characteristics (three things) 1. _______ and _________ of practice that resulted in expertise 2. ___________ structure 3. use of ________
amount and type knowledge structure use of vision
fitt's and posner three-stage mode: associative stage The cognitive activity that characterized the cognitive stage changes at this stage, because the person now attempts to ________ specific environmental cues with the movements required to achieve the goal of the skill.
associate
fitt's and posner three-stage mode The transition into this stage occurs after an unspecified amount of practice and performance improvement.
associative stage
fitt's and posner three-stage mode an intermediate stage on the learning stages continuum
associative stage
fitt's and posner three-stage mode: Because improvements continue, Fitts and Posner referred to this stage as a refining stage, in which the person focuses on performing the skill successfully and being more consistent from one attempt to the next.
associative stage
as the movements of a motor skill become more "_____________," which would occur when a person is in the Fitts and Posner autonomous stage of learning, "a distributed neural system composed of the striatum and related motor cortical regions, but not the cerebellum, may be sufficient to express and retain the learned behavior"
automatic
According to the Fitts and Posner learning stages model, early in practice the learner consciously thinks about almost every part of performing the skill. But as the person practices the skill and becomes more proficient, the amount of conscious attention he or she directs to performing the skill itself diminishes to the point at which he or she performs it almost ________________.
automatically
fitt's and posner three-stage mode: After much practice and experience, which can take many years, some people move into the final ______________ stage of learning.
autonomous
fitt's and posner three-stage mode: People in this stage do not consciously think about their movements while performing the skill, because they can perform it without conscious thought.
autonomous stage
fitt's and posner three-stage mode: Performance variability during this stage is very small: skilled people perform the skill consistently well from one attempt to the next.
autonomous stage
fitt's and posner three-stage mode: skilled performers can detect many of their own errors and make the proper adjustments to correct them, although he or she will be unaware of many movement details because these details are now controlled automatically
autonomous stage
fitt's and posner three-stage mode: the final stage of the learning stage continuum; also known as the automatic stage
autonomous stage
Described appropriate practice as a form of repetition without repetition
bernstiens description
Likened skill acquisition to staging a play, with many phases
bernstiens description
Thought that learning a skill was similar to solving a problem
bernstiens description
Lee and colleagues: bimanual drawing circles experiment First, it shows that people approach skill learning situations with distinct movement pattern ________________ that they may need to overcome to achieve the goal of the skill to be learned. Second, it is possible for people to overcome these biases, but often this takes considerable ___________ (the actual amount varies among people). Last, an observable pattern of _______-_______-_____characterizes the transition between production of the preferred movement pattern and production of the goal pattern. The initially preferred and the newly acquired goal movement patterns are distinguished by unique but ____________ kinematic characteristics over repeated performances. However, during the transition period between these stable patterns, the limb kinematics are very irregular or _____________.
biases practice stability-instability-stability stable unstable
The behavior that occurs when we perform a motor skill has an underlying neural structure. This structure, which typically comprises several brain areas that are active at the same time, ___________ as beginners become more skilled at performing a skill. this activity change exemplifies what?
changes; plasticity
_____________ skills allow the learner to plan and prepare either without any or with a minimum of time constraints. However, time constraints severely limit the amount of time the performer has to plan and prepare the performance of an ___________ skill.
closed; open
the first stage of learning in fitt's and posner three-stage model; the beginning or initial stage on the learning stages continuum
cognitive stage
what are the stages in fitt's and posters three stage model
cognitive stage associative stage autonomous stage
fitt's and posner three-stage model the beginner focuses on _____________ oriented problems related to what to do and how to do it.
cognitively; cognitive stage
There is often no obvious relation between the number of degrees of freedom that are regulated and the ___________ of the control mechanism.
complexity
gentiles two stage model: initial stage: initial stage "Although the learner now has a general concept of an effective approach, he or she is not skilled. The action-goal is not achieved _________________ and the movement lacks _____________"
consistency; efficiency
gentiles two stage model: initial stage: initial stage When the learner reaches the end of this stage, he or she has developed a movement pattern that allows some action goal achievement, but this achievement is neither ____________ nor efficient.
consistent
it is important to realize that a key assumption in Bernstein's framework for the freezing the degrees of freedom is that the observable changes in coordination represent a reorganization in the way the movement is _____________.
controlled
our energy cost __________ as our movements become more economical.
decreases
the amount of conscious attention demanded by the movements of the skill itself ______________ as the learner progresses along the stages of a learning continuum and becomes more skillful.
decreases
fitt's and posner three-stage mode: associative stage During this refining process, performance variability ____________, and people acquire the capability to detect and identify some of their own performance _____________.
decreases; errors
As a person continues to practice, the number of muscles involved ____________ so that eventually a minimal number of muscles needed to produce the action are activated, and the _____________ of when the involved muscles are activated becomes appropriate.
decreases; timing
For the beginning learner, solving the ____________________________ problem is a critical part of the learning process
degrees of freedom
To become an expert: The specific type of intense practice a person needs to achieve expertise in any field is ___________ practice, which refers to "individualized training activities especially designed by a coach or teacher to improve specific aspects of an individual's performance through ___________ and successive refinement"
deliberate; repetition
Why does dependency increase for sensory feedback sources available during practice as a person advances through the stages of learning?
dependency develops because the sensory feedback becomes part of an integrated sensory component of the memory representation of the skill.
Stages-of-learning models indicate that in each learning stage, both the person and the skill performance show __________ characteristics
distinct
gentiles two stage model: later stage open skills require __________________ of the basic movement pattern acquired during the first stage of learning.
diversification
the learners goal in the second stage of gentiles model for learning open skills in which learners acquire the capability to modify the movement pattern according to environmental context characteristics.
diversification
Changes in Rate of Improvement Since the negatively accelerated pattern is more typical of motor skill learning than the others. what does this mean about the rate of improvement?
early in practice, a learner usually experiences a large amount of improvement relatively quickly. But as practice continues, the amount of improvement decreases.
With continued practice, the learner ultimately develops a coordination pattern that is dynamically stable and more _______________. _______________ increases because the coordination pattern now exploits passive forces, like gravity, inertia, and reactive forces, to meet the task demands. Consequently, the contribution of active muscular forces is diminished.
economical; economy
_____________ of movement refers to minimizing the energy cost of performing a skill.
economy
The development of independent walking represents an excellent example of how the coordination pattern can exploit passive forces and minimize __________ costs. p. 282 for examples (early walking; re-learn with prothesis)
energy
performers can use _____________ they detect during their performance to guide future attempts.
errors
Experts achieve superior vision characteristics after many years of experience performing a skill; studies have shown the characteristics to be a function more of ___________ than of better visual acuity or eyesight.
experience
A person who is located at the extreme right end of the learning stages continuum
expert
If a person practices a skill long enough and has the right kind of instruction, he or she eventually may become skilled enough to be an ________.
expert
This person is in an elite group of people who are exceptional and outstanding performers.
expert
the common belief that expert performance is fully automated is completely (true or false).
false
The benefit of these knowledge structure characteristics is that they enable the expert to solve problems and make decisions __________ and more accurately than a nonexpert can and to adapt to novel environments more easily.
faster
Experts search their environment __________, give more attention to this search, and select more ___________ information in less time. Also, experts (do or do not) need as much environmental information for decision making, primarily because they "see" more when they look somewhere.
faster; meaningful; do not
gentiles two stage model: later stage Thus, practice of a closed skill during this stage must give the learner the opportunity to "___________" the required movement coordination pattern in such a way that he or she is capable of performing it consistently.
fixate
gentiles two stage model: later stage Closed skills require _____________ of the basic movement coordination pattern acquired during the first stage of learning. This means that the learner must refine this pattern so that he or she can consistently achieve the action goal.
fixation
the learners goal in the second stage of gentiles model for learning closed skills in which learners refine movement patterns so that they can produce them correctly, consistently and efficiently from trial to trial.
fixation
Freezing the degrees of freedom As the person practices the skill, a ______________ of the degrees of freedom emerges as the "frozen" joints begin to become "unfrozen" and operate in a way that allows the arm and hand segments to function as a ______________ unit. This new unit eventually demonstrates characteristics of a _____________ synergy, which means that the individual arm and hand segments work together in a cooperative way to enable optimal performance of the skill
freeing; multijoint functional
common initial strategy of beginning learners to control the degrees of freedom associated with the coordination demands of a motor skill; the person holds some points rigid and/or couples joint motions together in tight synchrony while performing the skill.
freezing the degrees of freedom
what are the three stages of the freezing the degrees of freedom?
frozen unfrozen-- "freeing" functional synergy (Coordinative structure exploits passive forces)
Viewed motor skill learning as progressing through at least two stages and presented these stages from the perspective of the goal of the learner in each stage.
gentiles two stage model
fitt's and posner three-stage mode: There is typically a (quick or gradual) transition or change of the learner's characteristics from stage to stage.
gradual
Another performance characteristic that improves during practice is the capability to __________ and ____________ one's own movement errors.
identify and correct
Beginners typically look at too many things, which often leads them to direct their visual attention to _______________ environmental cues. As a person practices a skill, he or she directs visual attention toward sources of information that are more ______________ for guiding his or her performance.
inappropriate; appropriate
EMG patterns produced while people practiced skills have shown that early in practice a person uses his or her muscles _______________.
inappropriately
Automaticity baseball study The results showed that the extraneous secondary task led to an ____________ in swing errors for novice players but not for skilled players. But, when asked about the movement of the bat, just the opposite occurred as swing errors__________ for skilled but not for novice players. Thus skilled players had reduced the conscious attention demanded by swinging the bat and could respond to the tone without disrupting their swing. In contrast, their swing was disrupted when they had to attend to how their bat was moving, something they did not normally do. On the other hand, the novice players were not disrupted when asked about the movement of their bat because the secondary task required them to respond to something they typically gave attention to when swinging at a pitch.
increase increased
A skilled person gains an ________________ capability to direct his or her vision to the regulatory features in the environment that will provide the most useful information for performing the skill.
increased
Increases in amount of practice with visual feedback __________ dependency on its availability
increases
The better timing aspect of directing visual attention is important because it _____________ the time available in which the person can select and produce an action required by the situation.
increases
The nature of the learner's initial coordination tendencies, ____________ _______________, will determine which patterns become more stable or less stable when new patterns of coordination are acquired.
intrinsic dynamics
fitt's and posner three-stage model: cognitive stage Performance during this first stage is marked by numerous errors, and the errors tend to be ____________ ones.
large
The difference in rate of improvement between early and later practice is due partly to the amount of improvement possible at a given time. Initially, there is room for a _________ amount of improvement. The errors people make during early practice trials are large and lead to many unsuccessful attempts at performing the skill. Because many of these errors are easy to correct, the learner can experience a large amount of improvement _________. However, as practice continues, the amount of improvement possible _______________. The errors people make later in practice are much ________________. As a result, their correction of these errors yields a smaller amount of improvement than they experienced earlier in practice. And certainly from the learner's perspective, attaining notable improvement seems to take __________ than it did before
large quickly decreases smaller longer
Beginners expend a ____________ amount of energy (i.e., have a high energy cost), whereas skilled performers perform more efficiently, with ______________ expenditure of energy
large; minimum
It is important to note that the types of movement changes required by closed and open skills involve different action _________ and _____________ demands for the performer.
planning and preparation
Beginners inappropriately use their muscles in two ways: _______ muscles than are needed commonly are involved. __________ of the activation of the involved muscle groups is incorrect.
more timing
A notable characteristic common to expert skill performers is that they know _________ about an activity than nonexperts do. This expert knowledge is ________ quite differently as well.
more; structured
Solving the degrees of freedom problem underlies the achievement of an important goal for the learner in Gentile's initial stage of learning, which is to acquire a ____________ coordination ____________ that typically results from attaining some success at achieving the action goal.
movement pattern
If practicing a skill results in coordination changes, we should expect a related change in the ____________ a person uses while performing the skill.
muscles
the power law of practice is consistent with which performance curve?
negative acceleration curve
characteristics of the performance environment that have no influence or only an indirect influence on the movement characteristics required to achieve an action goal.
non-regulatory conditions
gentiles two stage model: later stage A unique feature of the second stage in Gentile's model is that the learner's movement goals depend on the type of skill. More specifically, the _________ skill and ________ skill classifications specify these goals.
open; closed
Experts' Knowledge Structure The expert has developed his or her knowledge about the activity into more _________ concepts and is better able to interrelate the concepts. The expert's knowledge structure also is characterized by _________ decision rules, which he or she uses in deciding how to perform in specific situations. Additionally, because of the way the knowledge is structured, the expert can ___________ more information from one observation or presentation.
organized; more; remember
Energy sources of performing skills researchers identify this by measuring the amount of oxygen a person uses while performing a skill. Or by testing caloric expenditure.
physiological energy (metabolic energy)
what are the two energy sources associated with performing skills?
physiological energy (metabolic energy) mechanical energy
changes in neural activity in the brain that are associated with shifts in brain region activation; these changes are commonly associated with behavioral changes or modification
plasticity
most important characteristic of the brain
plasticity
gentiles two stage model: initial stage: initial stage To achieve these two important goals (movement pattern and discriminating between conditions), the beginner explores a variety of movement ________________.
possibilities
Mathematical law describing the negatively accelerating change in rate of performance improvement during skill learning
power law of practice
law that says early practice is characterized by large amounts of improvement. However, after this seemingly rapid improvement, further practice yields improvement rates that are much smaller.
power law of practice
fitt's and posner three-stage mode: It is important to think of the three stages of the Fitts and Posner model as parts of a continuum of ___________ time
practice
When visual feedback used during practice in the first stage of learning, it continues to be needed throughout the later stages of learning ... what hypothesis is this apart of?
practice specificity hypothesis
part of becoming skilled involves developing the ability to ________ and _____________ correct movement errors.
rapidly and efficiently
As a person progresses along the skill learning continuum from the beginner stage to the highly skilled stage, the _________ at which the performance improves changes.
rate
Freezing degrees of freedom simplifies the movement control problem presumably because it _____________ the number of components that need to be controlled. As degrees of freedom are released, the underlying control mechanism should become more ____________ because more degrees of freedom now need to be regulated.
reduces; complex
Changes in Brain Activity: Plasticity First, the automatization of motor skills is associated with an overall _____________ in cortical activity, suggesting improvements in processing efficiency that are consistent with efficiency gains in other systems during motor skill learning
reduction
fitt's and posner three-stage mode: associative stage is also known as the _____________ stage
refining
gentiles two stage model: initial stage in the acquire a movement goal This means that the beginner must develop movement characteristics that match the ___________ conditions of the environmental context in which the skill is performed
regulatory
gentiles two stage model: initial stage The second goal of the beginner is to learn to discriminate between ____________ and _______________ conditions in the environmental context in which he or she performs the skill.
regulatory and non-regulatory
characteristics of the environmental context to which movement characteristics must conform if the action goal is to be accomplished.
regulatory conditions
gentiles two stage model: later stage open skill requirement: diversification This means that the learner must become attuned to the _____________ conditions and acquire the capability to modify movements to meet their constantly changing demands on the performer. As a result, the learner must acquire the capability to ________________ monitor the environmental context and modify the movements accordingly. Thus, practice of an open skill during this stage must provide the learner with experiences that will require these types of movement _______________.
regulatory conditions automatically modifications
The change in muscle use that occurs while a person learns a skill reflects the _________________ of the motor control system. this _____________ results from the need for the motor control system to solve the degrees of freedom problem it confronts when the person first attempts the skill
reorganization
bernstiens description of the learning process Described appropriate practice as a form of "____________ without _____________."
repetition; repetition
Researchers who have investigated the use of sensory feedback across the stages of learning have consistently shown that learning is specific to the sources of __________ feedback available during practice.
sensory
WHAT IS A PERFORMER CHARACTERISTIC THAT DOES NOT CHANGE ACROSS THE STAGES OF LEARNING
sensory feedback
bernstiens description of the learning process "The point is that during a correctly organized exercise, a student is repeating many times, not the means for solving a given motor problem, but the process of its __________, the changing and improving of the means"
solution
Ericsson argues that it is not fully automated Experts attempt to avoid the __________ that comes with complete automaticity They need some control to make improvements and _________ to new situation They engage in conscious ______________ processing They recycle through the stages of learning though in a more _______________ way than novices
stagnation adapt controlled sophisticated
bernstiens description of the learning process __________________ involves the reaction forces among the joints often taking the place of sensory corrections in counteracting external forces that would otherwise interfere with the movement. In many skills, this change leads to a form of dynamic stability that is accompanied by an enormous reduction in effort.
standardization
Changes in Brain Activity: Plasticity Second, the brain undergoes ___________ changes in addition to functional changes when new skills are learned.
structural
Expertise in all fields is the result of intense practice for a minimum of _____ years.
ten
True or false The difference in rate of improvement between early and later practice is due partly to the amount of improvement possible at a given time.
true
True or false: In the power law of practice, exactly how long the change in rates takes to occur depends on the skill.
true
True or false: if we use visual feedback during practice in the first stage of learning, we continue to need to use it in the same way as we become more skillful in later stages.
true
True or false: not every person learning a skill will reach this autonomous stage.
true
Changes in movement coordination based on Gentiles two stage theory During the initial stage of learning movement coordination changes establish an "in-the-ballpark" but ____________ and inefficient movement pattern. It is during the later stages of learning that the movement pattern _______________ process occurs to allow _____________ and efficient performance of the skill.
unstable; stabilization; consistent
fitt's and posner three-stage model: cognitive stage Performance during this stage also is highly ____________, showing a lack of consistency from one attempt to the next
variable
