Quiz Questions and in class questions: Research Methods I

observational measure (p.116)

(or behavioral measure) a variable measured by recording observable behaviors or physical traces of behaviors

Cronbach's alpha (p.125)

(or coefficient alpha) a correlation-based statistic that measures a scale's internal reliability.

discriminant validity (p.133)

(or divergent validity) an empirically supported type of measurement validity that represents the extent to which a measure does not associate strongly with measures of other, theoretically different constructs

negative association (p. 60)

(or negative correlation), type of association, in which high goes with low and low goes with high. - ex.: high rates of cell phone usage go with high sperm quality.

correlate (p. 59)

- (or covary), meaning that when one variable changes, the other variable tends to change, too.

statistical validity (p.67)

- (or statistical conclusion validity) the extent to which statistical conclusions derived from a study are accurate and reasonable.

Causal Claim (p. 63)

- a claim arguing that a specific change in one variable is responsible for influencing the level of another variable

external validity (p. 66)

- a measure how well the results of a study generalize to, or represent, individuals or contexts besides those in the study itself.

construct validity (p. 66)

- a measure of how well a variable was measured or manipulated in a study

experiment (p. 70)

- a study in which one variable is manipulated and the other is measured.

independent variable (p.70)

- a variable that is manipulated in an experiment. In a regression analysis, it is the variable used to explain variance in the criterion variable.

conceptual definitions (p. 55)

- abstract concepts such as "depression" or "debt stress"

pop-up principle (p.32)

- also known as availability heuristic - states that things that easily come to mind tend to guide our thinking - when events or memories are vivid, recent, or memorable, they seem more correct and therefore bias our thinking

confederate (p. 28)

- an actor playing a specific role for the experimenter

claim (p.57)

- an argument someone is trying to make

curvilinear association (p.61)

- an association in which, as one variable increases, the level of the other variable changes its pattern (such as increasing and then decreasing)

Association claim (p.59)

- argues that one level of a variable is likely to be associated with a particular level of another variable. -ex.: Belly Fat Linked to Dementia, Study Shows -ex.: Heavy Cell Phone Use Tied to Poor Sperm Quality -ex.: ADHD Drugs Not Linked to Future Drug Abuse

empirical journal articles (p.38)

- asking selected questions that will lead to a particular expected answer/outcome - this process is conducted in a way that is decidedly not scientific - they ask questions that would confirm that hypothesis and did not ask questions that might disconfirm that hypothesis

frequency claim (p.58)

- describe a particular rate or level of something. -ex.: More than 2 million US teens depressed -ex.: Half of Americans Struggle to Stay Happy -ex.: Williamsburg charter school outscores other schools on state tests.

comparison group (p.25)

- enables you to compare what would happen both with and without the thing you are interested in- both with with and without tanning beds, energy drinks, or punching bags.

A professor notices that 85% of students that come to office hours get As on exams. What other information is needed to know if there's a link between attending office hours and doing well on exams?

- how students that don't go to office hours do on the exams -Data is most helpful if we can compare what would happen both with and without the thing we are interested in

dependent variable (p.70)

- in an experiment, the variable that is measured, or the outcome variable. In a regression analysis, the single outcome, or criterion variable, that the researchers are most interested in understanding or predicting.

probabilistic (p.30)

- means that inferences are not expected to explain all cases all of the time

zero association (p.60)

- no association between the variables -ex.: "ADHD Drugs Not Linked to Future Drug Abuse"

value (p.54)

- one of the possible variations, or levels, of a variable

temporal precedence (p.69)

- one of the three rules for establishing causation, stating that the proposed causal variable comes first in time, before the proposed outcome variable

covariance (p.69)

- one of the three rules for establishing causation, stating that the proposed causal variable must vary systematically with changes in the proposed outcome variable.

scatterplot (p.59)

- one way to represent an association - one variable is plotted on the y-axis and the other variable is plotted on the x-axis; each dot represents one participant in the study, measured on two variables.

review journal articles (p. 39)

- provide summary of all the research that has been done in the research area

confounds (p.27)

- several possible explanations for any outcome. - these alternatives are called confounds - confound occurs when you think one thing caused an outcome but in fact other things changed, too, so it is not clear what the cause really was

constant (p. 54)

- something that could potentially vary but that has only one level in the study question

variable (p.54)

- something that varies, must have to levels (or values)

internal validity (p.70)

- the ability to rule out alternative explanations for a causal relationship between two variables.

generalizability (p.66)

- the extent to which the subjects in a study represent the populations they are intended to represent; how well the settings in a study represent other settings or contexts.

random assignment (p.71)

- the use of a random method (flipping a coin) to assign participants into different experimental groups

measured variables (p.54)

- when researchers measure a variable, they observe and record its levels (heights, blood pressure, IQ, etc.)

operational definitions (p.55)

-(or operationalizations), is the process of turning a concept of interest into a measured or manipulated variable.

positive association (p.59)

-(or positive correlation), kind of association which high goes with high and low goes with low. - that is, high scores on abdominal fat go with more symptoms of dementia, and low scores on abdominal fat go with fewer symptoms of dementia.

present-present bias (p.32)

-easier to notice what is present - in class example: when you are sick, it is easier to think of the other time you were sick tea made you feel so much better in comparison to times it did not

linear association (p. 61)

-relationship between age and frequency of health care visits

empirical journal aritcles

-reports the results of an empirical research study - contain details about the study's method, the statistical tests used, and the numerical results of the study

manipulated variables (p.54)

-when researchers manipulate a variable, they are controlling its levels by assigning participants to the different levels of that variable.

A common finding in the study of aggression is that exposure to violent television is associated with more aggressive behavior in children, You suspect this relationship may not be causal because you are not sure which occurred first- watching television or being aggressive. You are questioning which of the following criteria for a causal claim? A. Temporal precedence B. Covariance C. Frequency criterion D. Third-variable criterion

A. Temporal precedence

A researcher is curious show different types of candy impact a child's impulsivity. He divides children into groups: one group receives Snickers; the other receives hard candies. He then measures how quickly the children reach for the many. Which kind of variable is reaching time? A. measured B. manipulated

A. measured

A teacher thinks students who eat larger lunches are less likely to talk during class. She keeps track of what each child brings to school, and then compares how much students with large lunches talk in class with how much students with small lunches talk in class. What kind of variable is amount of talking? A. measured B. manipulated

A. measured

A teacher thinks students who eat larger lunches are less likely to talk during class. She keeps track of what each child brings to school, and then compares how much students with large lunches talk in class with how much students with small lunches talk in class. What kind of variable is size of such A. measured B. manipulated

A. measured

Dr. Hadden wants to conduct a study that will allow him to make claims that apply to all college students. Which of the following validities is he prioritizing? A. Construct B. External C. Internal D. Statistical

B. External

A researcher is curious show different types of candy impact a child's impulsivity. He divides children into groups: one group receives Snickers; the other receives hard candies. He then measures how quickly the children reach for the many. Which kind of variable is type of candy? A. measured B. manipulated

B. manipulated

strength (p.124)

a description of an association indicating how closely the data points in a scatterplot cluster along a line of best fit drawn through them

self-report measure (p.116)

a method of measuring a variable in which people answer questions about themselves in a questionnaire or interview

interval scale (p.118)

a quantitative measurement scale that has no "true zero" and in which the numerals represent equal intervals (distances) between levels (temperature in degrees)

ordinal sale (p.118)

a quantitative measurement scale whose levels represent a ranked order, in which it is unclear whether the distances between levels are equivalent

ratio scale (p. 119)

a quantitative scale of measurement in which the numerals have equal intervals and the value of zero truly means "nothing"

Correlation Coefficient r (p. 123)

a single number, ranging from -1.0 to 1.0, used to indicate the strength and direction of an association

physiological measure (p.117)

a variable measured by recording biological data

Categorical variable (p.118)

a variable whose levels are categories (male/female)

quantitative variable (p.118)

a variable whose values can be recorded as meaningful numbers

Which of the following is true of the relationship between hypotheses and theories? a. Hypotheses are steps taken to determine if the theory is accurate b. Theories are used to determine if hypotheses are accurate c. Multiple theories are needed to test if a hypothesis is accurate d. Hypotheses and theories are synonymous terms e. None of the above

a. Hypotheses are steps taken to determine if the theory is accurate

When examining the statistical validity of a frequency claim, one should look for the: a. Margin of error estimate b. Length of measurement c. Strength of association d. Statistical Significance

a. Margin of error estimate why not b? There's no link of association we are just looking at frequency found in sample and relating it to population margin of error: how close are you to that theoretical population

Dr. Ellison finds a relation between the amount of sleep and problem solving. Specifically, having a higher amount of sleep the night before an exam is associated with higher scores on two measures of problem solving. This is an example of which type of association? a. Positive association b. There is not enough information to answer this question c. Zero association d. Negative association

a. Positive association

Why is a bad theory more acceptable than bad data? a. Theories can be revised and reconsidered in light of new data. b. You need lots of theories to generate data c. Nobody pays attention to theories d. Psychological data are really hard to get.

a. Theories can be revised and reconsidered in light of new data.

RESEARCH STUDY 1.1 Deci and Ryan (1985, 2001) have proposed that there are three fundamental needs that are required for human growth and fulfillment: relatedness, autonomy, and competence. Susan predicts that students who have these needs met in their psychology class feel happier and more satisfied with the class. She collects data and finds that students who feel more related and competent do feel happier but that feeling more autonomous does not seem to matter. Susan thinks that maybe autonomy is only necessary when people are in situations in which they are not being evaluated. Refer to Research Study 1.1 to answer the following four questions. Deci and Ryan's general statement of how the three needs are related to growth and fulfillment is an example of which of the following? a. a theory b. research c. data d. a hypothesis

a. a theory

Prevalence of diagnosed sleep disorders has risen among US veterans What type of claim does this look like? a. frequency b. association c. causal

a. frequency

Convergent Validity (p. 133)

an empirically supported type of measurement validity that represents the extent to which a measure is associated with other measures of a theoretically similar construct

predictive validity (p.129)

an empirically supported type of measurement validity that represents the extent to which a measure is related to a concrete, future outcome that it should be related to

Concurrent Validity (p.129)

an empirically supported type of measurement validity that represents the extent to which a measure is related to a concrete, simultaneous outcome that is should be related to.

Students who are interested in being consumers of but not producers of research might choose all of the following professions except: a. A high-school teacher b. A political pollster c. An advertising executive d. A science writer

b. A political pollster

Which of the following allow us to make better predictions using association claims? a. Strong negative associations b. Both a and b c. Neither a nor b d. Strong positive associations

b. Both a and b

Dimitri is interested in understanding the effects of sleep deprivation on working memory. Which of the following is an empirical approach Dimitri could take to answer this question? a. Ask his psychology teacher for his opinion on the effects of sleep deprivation on short-term memory b. Design and execute a study which measures working memory function following different amounts of sleep c. Watch several (fictional) movies about sleep deprivation and use the characters' experiences to reason about the effects of sleep deprivation on working memory. d. Consider his own experiences with sleep and memory

b. Design and execute a study which measures working memory function following different amounts of sleep

Marvin reads a journalistic report of a research study about the effects of bullying on anxiety. However, he noted the researchers only included middle-school girls in their study and questions whether the results would generalize to boys. Which validity is Marvin asking about? a. Statistical b. External c. Construct d. Internal

b. External

Elliott is double majoring in English and psychology. He plans on being a high school English teacher and is only majoring in psychology because he finds the classes interesting. All of the following are important reasons for him to be a good consumer of research EXCEPT: a. He will likely encounter research studies described in popular magazines he reads b. He will likely need to be a producer of researcher as well c. He will likely need to read research related to enhancing his teaching d. He will likely be asked to read research studies in his future psychology classes

b. He will likely need to be a producer of researcher as well

Which of the following is true of the relationship between hypotheses and theories? a. A supported hypothesis proves a theory is true b. Hypotheses are predictions about what would be observed in the data if the theory is accurate c. Hypotheses lead to theories d. A theory is a statement of specific hypotheses about the data you've collected

b. Hypotheses are predictions about what would be observed in the data if the theory is accurate

Psychologists are empirical scientists; therefore, _______. a. They use logic to prove that their theories are correct b. they use data to test whether their theories make the correct predictions c. they use intuition to reason about how the mind works d. all of the above

b. They use data to test whether their theories make the correct predictions

USA studying potential environmental link to autism What type of claim does this look like? a. frequency b. association c. causal

b. association

A researcher is conducting a study on how the wording of questions affects people's responses. In her study, she only includes native speakers of English, and excludes people with hearing deficits and attention deficit disorder. These decisions about her sample improve the study's: a. external validity b. internal validity c. construct validity d. statistical validity

b. internal validity

A researcher wants to see whether people walk faster when it's cold outside. He rates temperatures as freezing, cold, warm and hot, and then measures people's walking speed in meters per second. a. nominal b. ordinal c. interval d. ratio

b. ordinal

Which of the following is not an example of being a producer of research? a. Administering a questionnaire of PTSD symptoms b. Conducting a study that involves observing the behavior of adolescents who have been bullied on social media c. Attending a psychological conference d. Measuring where the neurotransmitter dopamine is low in brains of patients with schizophrenia

c. Attending a psychological conference

A psychiatrist is testing a drug that treats depression. He has given the drug to all his patients and all of them have experienced a decrease in depressive symptoms. Although this is interesting, his experience is limited because he does not have a: a. Hypothesis b. Psychotherapy to supplement the drug c. Comparison group that did not receive the drug d. Reliable way to measure depressive symptoms

c. Comparison group that did not receive the drug

Asking questions to get the answers we want or expect is known as: a. Overconfidence b. Availability heuristic c. Confirmatory hypothesis testing d. Cherry-picking of evidence

c. Confirmatory hypothesis testing

The paper we read for Discussion section (Burrow & Rainone, 2017Preview the documentView in a new window), study 1 found that the number of likes individuals received on their Facebook profile pictures was positively related to self-esteem. What kind of variable is self-esteem in their first study (study 1)? a. A constant b. Manipulated Variable c. Measured quantitative variable d. Measured nominal variable

c. Measured quantitative variable

Hosea is studying the relationship between caffeine consumption and problem-solving ability. He decides to measure problem-solving as the number of problems completed within 10 minutes. What kind of variable is this? a. Interval b. Ordinal c. Ratio d. Categorical

c. Ratio

Hosea is studying the relationship between caffeine consumption and problem-solving ability. Which of the following is a quantitative way to operationalize problem-solving ability? a. Whether participants used insight or trial-and-error techniques to solve the problem b. The report of a teacher about whether a student is a good or bad problem solver c. The time spent solving a math problem d. The type of puzzle solved (Sudoku puzzle or a crossword puzzle)

c. The time spent solving a math problem

Research done specifically to add to our general understanding of psychology is known as __________, whereas research done with a practical problem in mind is known as _______________. a. theoretical research; empirical research b. applied research; basic research c. basic research; applied research d. translational research; applied research e. empirical research; theoretical research

c. basic research; applied research

Regular exercise improves brain health and stimulates creativity What type of claim does this look like? a. frequency b. association c. causal

c. causal

Which validity is appropriate to interrogate with rigor for every study? a. external validity b. internal validity c. construct validity d. only statistical validity

c. construct validity

The precision of a continuous variable... a. makes it technically a nominal variable b. makes it impossible to compute expected values c. reflects theories and measurement tools d. indicates whether an operational definition is valid

c. reflects theories and measurement tools

Which of the following is true of operational definitions? a. There are multiple operational definitions that are possible for any one conceptual definition b. Operational definitions form a bridge between theories about mental constructs and the data we collect c. Operational definitions are created after conceptual definitions are determined d. All of the above

d. All of the above

The two biases of intuition discussed in the text are: a. Being swayed by a good story and being persuaded by what comes easily to mind b. The present-present bias and the confederate bias c. Probabilistic thinking and nonintuitive thinking d. Overconfidence bias and oversimplification bias

d. Overconfidence bias and oversimplification bias

What happens to values of a variable as a measure becomes less precise? a. They get smaller b. They get larger c. They become closer to the expected value of the distribution d. They become further from their true continuous values

d. They become further from their true continuous values

RESEARCH STUDY 1.1 Deci and Ryan (1985, 2001) have proposed that there are three fundamental needs that are required for human growth and fulfillment: relatedness, autonomy, and competence. Susan predicts that students who have these needs met in their psychology class feel happier and more satisfied with the class. She collects data and finds that students who feel more related and competent do feel happier but that feeling more autonomous does not seem to matter. Susan thinks that maybe autonomy is only necessary when people are in situations in which they are not being evaluated. Refer to Research Study 1.1 to answer the following four questions. Susan's prediction that students who have all three needs met will experience greater satisfaction with their psychology class is an example of which of the following? a. a theory b. research c. data d. a hypothesis

d. a hypothesis

which is a likely "third variable" in the association between grip strength and memory? a. eye color b. books read per month c. creativity d. age

d. age

Vinai learns from published research articles that people with schizophrenia have a problem labeling their emotions. Using this information, he designs a research study to examine whether teaching patients with schizophrenia to label the emotions of people they see in movie clips helps them to better label their own emotions. Vinai hopes that the findings of this research could be used to create an intervention used in the treatment of schizophrenia. Vinai's approach is an example of: a. applied research b. consumer research c. basic research d. translational research

d. translational research

What is margin of error?

how close are you to that theoretical population

internal reliability (p. 120)

in a measuring instrument that contains several items, the consistency in a pattern of answers, no matter how a question is phrased

test-retest reliability (p.120)

the consistency in results every time a measure is used

reliability (p.119)

the consistency of a measure

interrater reliability (p.120)

the degree to which two or more coders or observers agree in their ratings of a set of targets

Content Validity (p. 129)

the extent to which a measure captures all parts of a defined construct

face validity (p.128)

the extent to which a measure is subjectively considered a plausible operationalization of the conceptual variable in a question

slope direction (p.123)

the upward, downward, or neutral slope of the cloud of points in a scatterplot