Reading & Literacy Final

Fluency instruction

begins when students can read connected text with 90% or better accuracy, usually by mid-year of first grade. Before beginning fluency instruction, struggling readers may need additional phonics and word-study instruction

The construction-integration model of reading and schema theory

both emphasize the importance of prior knowledge

Grouping students for instruction is useful for all the following reasons except

it allows the teacher to step away from teaching and for students to teach each other

Student's schema about the sun can help her learn about other stars because she

makes inferences about other stars based on what she already knows about the sun, predicts what might be in a passage about stars based on what she already knows about the sun, uses her previous knowledge to make sense of the new information

Comprehending informational text (factual)

may be organized by means of text headings and subheadings, and may contain extensive graphics, such as tables, charts, diagrams, and illustrations. chunk information in a text by grouping related ideas and concepts; summarize important information in a text by grouping related ideas and concepts; integrate information in a text with existing knowledge; apply information in a text to real-world situations; interpret and construct graphics such as charts, tables, and figures; synthesize information from different texts; and develop presentations about the text

Sources of information used by beginning readers

meaning, structure, and visual information—simultaneously to confirm or revise their predictions

norm-referenced

measure individual student's standing relative to others— "grading on the curve"

Schema

is concerned with knowledge, particularly with the way knowledge is represented in our minds, how we use that knowledge, and how it expands, knowledge is packed into organized structures (p. 14 in the book)

Vocabulary instruction

Word Connection (Students need to be able to connect the words they are trying to acquire with words and concepts with which they are already familiar); Significance; Context Clues; Word-Rich Environment

Summative assessment

assess the outcomes of instruction (standardized tests)

Readability formulas

assess vocabulary difficulty and syntactic complexity in one fashion or another. How these are measured differs for each formula.

Syllables

basic phonological unit of speech. At a minimum, it contains a vowel. Most basic contain an onset and a rime

Whole-group instruction

allows for teachers to model and expand on strategies

Zone of proximal development

Children have a circumscribed zone of development, a range within which they can learn. (p. 47)

Visual Information (V)

Information that is accessed through visual means such as the size and shape of a word, format, pictures, diagrams, etc.

Qualitative factors affecting text complexity

1. Goals of Instruction: teachers should select text by first considering their instructional goals. Remember, reading is not a subject matter it is a tool; 2. Prior Knowledge: every reader brings to a text a body of knowledge with which he makes sense of that text; 3. Vocabulary; 4. Figurative Language: Similes, metaphors, and idioms add interest and delight, causing the reader to savor the language in the text as well as the ideas. These writerly techniques, along with dialogue, dialects, and colloquial expressions also make a text more difficult to read.

Why is it vital for a teacher of reading to have a comfortable understanding of the reading​ process?

All the specifics of teaching reading stem from an understanding of how children read and learn to read. Practice must be anchored in theory. Without the support of a​ research-based theory, teachers are likely to be seduced by the whims of the Internet and the marketplace.

Gradual release of responsibility

Consists of direct explanation, cognitive modeling, scaffolding, contextualized review and practice

Direct explanation

Defines the strategy and explains​ how, when, and why to use it. It is important to begin a sequence of reading lessons by explaining what students will be​ learning, why it is​ important, and how and when to perform the task. This begins the gradual release of responsibility cycle.

Explain the gradual release of responsibility model.

Gradual release of responsibility model consists of the teacher giving the student direct explanation, cognitive modeling through focus lesson, then the teacher scaffolds the students learning with guided instruction, contextualized review, practice and collaboration. Finally, the student can do it individually and successfully.

Motivation for reading

In order for substantive learning to occur, students must have positive attitudes about themselves as learners, about their ability to succeed in school, and about the instructional goals they, their teachers, and their schools set (p. 58).

Intrinsic Motivation

Inside themselves, their own pride, enjoyment

Scaffolding

It's "a process that enables a child or novice to solve a problem, carry out a task, or achieve a goal which would be beyond his unassisted efforts" (p. 49); an aspect of gradual release of responsibility that correlates to the zone of proximal development

Analyzing for MSV

Meaning (M): Does it make sense? Language Structure and Grammar (S): Does it sound right Visual Knowledge (V): Does it look right?

It could be argued that the gradual release of responsibility model and teaching for transfer represent the same goal. What is this common​ goal?

Skillful independent reading. The gradual release of responsibility model ends with independent practice. When a task​ transfers, the students can perform it skillfully and independently.

meaning (M)

Part of semantic cueing system in which child takes her cue to make sense of text by thinking about the story background, info from pics, or meaning of sentence. These cues assist in the reading.

Structure of words

Phonemes; Syllables, Onsets and Rimes; Word Families/ Phonograms; Morphemes; Affixes (Prefixes/Suffixes)

Modeling

Probably the most important component of a literate environment is the modeling done by people children respect and love. In the best possible literate environment, children's teachers, principals, parents, brothers and sisters, and friends read a lot and openly display the pleasure reading gives them.

Which of the following activities would NOT be an example of the cognitive view of​ reading? -Making predictions about what might come next and verifying the prediction -Learning to use context clues to infer the meaning of new words -Asking students to chart the changes in a fictional characters' motivation -Using flashcards to drill and memorize the meaning of words

Using flashcards to drill and memorize the meaning of words

Phonological awareness

allows one to attend to, discriminate, remember, and manipulate sounds at the sentence, word, syllable, and phoneme (sound) level. is a meta-cognitive skill (i.e., an awareness/ability to think about one's own thinking) for the sound structures of language.

Children are more motivated to read when they

are allowed to choose what they read as often as possible

Formative assessment

guide instruction (running records)

Reading intervention for English learners should

have a strong emphasis on vocabulary

Running records

help a teacher note the decoding skills of students and estimate their reading level.

In the primary grades the text used to develop reading comprehension should be

high quality children's literature

criterion referenced

include basal tests, progress monitoring tests, and high-stakes tests. The principle guiding these tests is that the student must meet a preset performance level

Extrinsic Motivation

outside themselves, given from others, points, rewards, grades

Which of the following is not part of the constructivist/social-constructivist perspective on learning?

parsing

The cognitive-constructivist view of reading supports that

reading is an active process

Morphemes

represent the meaning level of speech. Morphemes are the smallest meaning units into which a word can be divided. Both words and parts of words can be morphemes

Readability formulas measure

sentence complexity and vocabulary level

Fluency

the ability to read a text accurately and quickly

onset

the initial consonant (s) of a syllable

The "Matthew effect" in reading is illustrated by which of the following statements?

the more you know, the easier it is for you to learn more.

Rime

the vowel and any consonants that follow of a syllable

All readability formulas assess

vocabulary difficulty and syntactic complexity in one fashion or another. How these are measured differs for each formula.

Metacognition

Active awareness of one's comprehension while reading and the ability to repair misunderstandings when comprehension breaks down. These readers have the ability to mentally step outside of themselves and view their own reading. By stepping outside of themselves, they can become self-regulated learners—learners who generate thoughts, feelings, strategies, and behaviors that help them attain their learning goals

Comprehension is a process of constructing meaning. Why is prior knowledge essential to the act of​ construction?

All written text has holes and it is the​ reader's task to fill in these holes with knowledge. Reading can be viewed as a process of making a connection between ideas in the text and between the text and prior​ knowledge, or making inferences. Inferences complete what the author implied. Prior knowledge is essential for both.

Comprehending narrative text (stories)

Helping students learn to identify recurring story grammar elements provides them with a story schema. When they encounter a new narrative text, students can then call on this story schema to make predictions about what might happen in the story, to visualize settings or characters, or summarize plot events. focusing discussions on story elements and encouraging students to relate story events and characters to their own experiences; encouraging students to compare the structure of one story to that of other stories they have read; and preparing visual guides, such as story maps of the structure of a story, to help them recall specific story elements.

High stakes testing at the state level has changed classroom instruction in all of the following ways​ except: -Narrowing the curriculum. -Reducing instructional time. -Pushing teachers to teach the test. -Promoting more authentic reading.

Promoting more authentic reading. The evidence suggests​ that, because of high stakes​ testing, students are reading more short passages like those found in a test and fewer longer pieces of literature.

What is the reader-driven process?

Readers from different cultures and societies relate to the text in different ways and approach meanings on the basis of their cultural and social background (part of schema theory)

What is the first factor to consider when selecting the text?

The goal of the instructional unit or the lesson. What are the students going to learn is the vital question. From that flow decisions about texts.

Social-constructivist view of teaching and learning

Social constructivism teaches that all knowledge develops as a result of social interaction and language use, and is therefore a shared, rather than an individual, experience. Knowledge is additionally not a result of observing the world, it results from many social processes and interactions.

Structure (S)

Structure of language or syntax (syntactic cueing system). Knowing structure helps reader know what is read sounds correct.

Comprehension instruction

Students who struggle to understand what they read need more support and guidance from the teacher than students who find the task relatively easy. There is little reason to teach comprehension strategies to students who comprehend well. All students need to employ the same comprehension strategies, but the teacher may vary how they are introduced, demonstrated, and practiced, as well as the amount of support provided

Describe the two main phases of the construction-integration process and why each are essential to meaning construction.

The two main phases of the construction-integration process are the construction phase and the integration phase. They are essential to meaning construction because the readers comprehension relies on the meaning from the text, not the readers outside knowledge (schema) that they bring to the text. The reader must 'construct' meaning solely from context and then 'integrate' that meaning for comprehension.

True or False: Students need a wide range of texts because they have varying needs. .

True. To build fluency they need relatively easy texts. To build comprehension texts must present some challenge. Each student needs a different level of challenge

What has the strongest impact on reading comprehension?

Vocabulary. Too many new and difficult words and the​ students' comprehension is impaired.

Matthew effect

When children fail at early reading and writing, they begin to dislike reading. They read less than their classmates who are stronger readers. As a consequence, they do not gain vocabulary, background knowledge, and information about how reading material is structured. In short, the word-rich get richer, while the word-poor get poorer.

Reader response theory suggests that

different readers will have somewhat different interpretations of what they read

Cognitive-constructivist view of reading

emphasizes that reading is a process in which the reader actively searches for meaning in what he reads (p. 9 in the book)

To keep students motivated to read, a teacher must

ensure that students are successful

Standardized tests

fall into two broad categories, criterion-referenced and norm-referenced

A teacher can promote academic motivation by creating activities that

focus on appropriate challenge and building student's efficacy

promoting phonological awareness

is a vital set of skills that allows us to learn how to read. Thses skills provide children with a means to access the written form; phonics. Five Levels: rhyming, alliteration, sentence segmenting, syllable blending, and segmenting.

accuracy rate

is expressed as a percentage. You can calculate the accuracy rate using the following formula: (Total words read - Total errors) / Total words read x 100. You can use accuracy rate to determine whether the text read is easy enough for independent reading, appropriate to use without frustration during reading instruction, or too difficult for the reader.

Error ratio

is expressed as a ratio and is calculated by dividing the total number of words read by the total number of errors made. The ratio is expressed as 1:20. This means that for each error made, the child read 20 words correctly.

self-correction ratio

is expressed as a ratio and is calculated by using the following formula: (Number of errors + Number of self-corrections) / Number of self-corrections = Self-correction rate. If a student is self-correcting at a rate of 1:4 or less, this indicates that he or she is self-monitoring his or her reading.

Reader response theory

puts greater emphasis on the reader; the meaning one gains from text is the result of a transaction between the reader and the text. It applies primarily to literary texts and certain purposes for reading (p. 18 in book)

Teaching for transfer

requires thoughtful and well-planned instruction. The teacher must create learning tasks that facilitate transfer and remind students to use their new skills. Transfer can be achieved by following the gradual release of responsibility model.

Reading on the internet

requires two distinct types of prior knowledge. All readers still benefit by having specific knowledge of the topic they are reading, they also need to understand how the Internet works

Phonogram

rimes that share the same spellings. Words that share phonograms are called a word family.

Over the past four decades the reading ability of American students has

stayed about the same but there is room for concern

The advantages of decodable text include

students being offered an immediate rationale for phonics instruction

Construction-integration process

the process begins with construction, in which the reader comprehends sentences and then links ideas from one sentence to another. Integration is the process of using prior knowledge to expand and interpret the meaning the author has put on the pages (p. 13 in the book)

Qualitative measure of text complexity should consider the text activity relationship because

the text should fit the purpose of the activity

To be working in their zone of proximal development during guided reading, children should typically read books at

their instructional reading level

Students who enter school with larger vocabularies are at an advantage because

vocabulary is the basis of comprehension; a large store of words facilitates phonemic awareness; it is easier to decode words that are in one's oral vocabulary

Phonemes

vowels/consonants

Text coherence is most important when the reader's prior knowledge of the topic is

weak compared to the demands of the text

Reading instruction for English learners

will benefit from more traditional instructional practices as well as practices motivated by constructivist and sociocultural theories; begin literacy learning as early as possible in order to become effective readers and writers. Start with Vocabulary Instruction; building Background Knowledge; Reading Fiction; Reading Informational Text.