Reddit MCAT P/S Terms
dependent personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by a need to be taken care of by others and an unrealistic fear of being unable to take care of himself or herself
mood disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by a persistent pattern of abnormal mood serious enough to cause significant personal distress and/or significant impairment to social, occupational, or personal functioning
depersonalization disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by a recurring or persistent feeling of being cut off or detached from one's body or mental processes, as if observing one's self from the outside
histrionic personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by a strong desire to be the center of attention and seeking to attract attention through personal appearance and seductive behavior
bipolar disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by cyclic mood episodes at both extremes of "poles," depression and mania. In bipolar I disorder, a person has experiences at least one manic or mixed episode. In bipolar II disorder, the manic phases are less extreme
dissociative fugue
a psychological disorder where someone suddenly goes on a journey, during which he or she cannot recall personal history prior to the journey
Baddley's model, the four components of working memory
Central executive, episodic buffer, phonological loop, visuospatial sketch pad.
habituation
a decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations
rational-legal authority
a form of leadership that is organized around rational-legal rules
charismatic authority
a form of leadership where devotion is reliant upon an individual with exceptional charisma (persuasiveness, charm, and ability to connect with people)
polyandry
a form of marriage in which a woman is married to more than one man
polygamy
a form of marriage in which an individual may have multiple wives or husbands simultaneously
personality trait
a generally stable predisposition towards a certain behavior
exocrine gland
a gland that secretes its product into a duct, which ultimately carries the product to the surface of the body or into a body cavity. Example: sweat glands
society
a group of people who share a culture and live /interact with each other within a definable area
mood
a person's sustained internal emotion that colors his/her view of life
iris
a pigmented membrane found just in front of the lens of the eye, in the center of it is the pupil: a hole though which light enters the eyeball; it regulated the diameter of the pupil in response to the brightness of the light
conditioned response
a previously unconditioned response to an unconditioned stimulus that becomes a learned response to a conditioned stimulus
language
a symbolic system that is codified for communication
distraction
a technique in which researchers attempt to redirect the brain while conducting an experiment, usually in order to allow a previously acquired memory to be encoded
Drive Reduction Theory
a theory about the impact of motivation on human behavior that suggests that a physiological need (a drive) creates an aroused state that motivates the organism to reduce that need by engaging in some behavior
attribution theory
a theory that attempts to explain how individuals view behavior - both our own behavior and the behavior of others - by attributing behavior to either internal or external causes; it is the idea that individuals make inferences in order to understand the causes of various behaviors or actions
behaviorism
according to this perspective, personality is a result of learned behavior patterns based on a person's environment. Behaviorism is deterministic, proposing that people being as blank slates, and that environmental reinforcement and punishment completely determine an individual's subsequent behavior and personalities
social cognitive perspective
according to this perspective, personality is formed by a reciprocal interaction among behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors
habit
action that is performed repeatedly until it becomes automatic
positive punishment
adding something (aversive stimulus) to decrease tendency
positive reinforcement
adding something (pleasurable/rewarding) to increase behavior
Life course theory
age is a social, psychological, and biological process that begins from the time you are born until you die
comparison study
aims to make comparisons across different countries or cultures
Accommodation
altering one's existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new information or new experiences
socialism
an economic system where resources and production are collectively owned; it includes a system of production and distribution designed to satisfy human needs (goods/services are produced for direct use instead of for profit)
hippocampus
brain structure located in the medial temporal lobe of the brain and plays a key role in forming memories; damage to this part of the brain can lead to the inability to form new memories or anterograde amnesia
dyssomnias
broad category of disorders involving abnormalities in the amount, quality, or timing of sleep. Includes insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea
sleep spindle
bursts of waves present in stage 2 sleep
korkasoff's syndrome
caused by a lack of vitamin b1 or thiamine. Poor balance, mild confusion and memory loss
sensory adaption
change over time of a receptor to a constant stimulus
confounding variables
changes in dependent variable may be due to existence of or variations in a third variable
Stage one sleep
dominated by theta waves, hypnic jerks, hypnagogic hallucinations
organic solidarity
each person has a different experience through division of labor. Forced mutual independence. Common in modern/industrial societies
cannon-bard theory
emotion -> physiological response
socialism
everything is shared equally. Focuses on human needs and economic demands
glutamate
excitatory, responsible for consciousness
social roles
expectations for people of a given social status
generalization
in classical conditioning, the process by which stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus also become conditioned stimuli that elicit the conditioned response
acquisition
in classical conditioning, the process of learning the association between a conditioned stimulus and response
extinction
in classical conditioning, the unpairing of the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli, accomplished by introducing the conditioned stimulus repeatedly in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus
rooting reflex
in response to touching or stroking on of a baby's cheek, the baby will turn its head in the direction of the stroke and open its mouth to "root" for a nipple
dynamic equilibrium
in sociology, a dynamic equilibrium occurs when complex societies contain many different but interdependent parts working together to maintain stability
back stage
in the dramaturgical perspective, this is where we can "let down our guard" and be ourselves, as opposed to the "front stage," where we are playing a role for others
false memory
inaccurate memory created by the power of imagination of suggestion
infantile amnesia
lack of explicit memory for events that occurred before the age of roughly 3.5 years, while people are unable to recall memories from this part of their life, learning and memory do still occur, the reason for infantile amnesia is unknown
repression
lack of recall of an emotionally painful memory
linguistic determinism
language influences thought
mortality
measure of deaths within a population or geographic area.
attenuation model of selective attention
model of selective attention in which the mind has an attenuator, like a volume knob, that can tune up inputs to be attended and tune down unattended inputs, rather than totally eliminating them. Accounts for the cocktail party effect
information processing models
models for cognition that assume that information form the environment is processed by our computer-like minds through a series of steps including, attention, perception, and storage into memory
super ego
moral conscience
insomnia
most common sleep disorder characterized by difficult falling or staying asleep
drive reduction theory
need is the deprivation that will energize the drive, the drive is an aroused state. Individual is motivated to reduce this state
social exclusion
negative impact of poverty in which low SES individuals are excluded from mainstream society & social benefits. They may also resort to crimes/rebel to meet their basic needs.
mirror neurons
neurons that fire when a particular behavior or emotion is observed in another; may be responsible for vicarious emotions and a foundation for empathy
amalgamation
occurs when majority and minority groups combine to form a new group
overgeneralization
occurs when the individual comes to a conclusion based on one episode or bit of evidence; e.g. the subject has recently experienced a single episode of insomnia and consequently believes he or she is prone to suffering from it in the future
false consensus
occurs when we assume that everyone else agrees with what we do (even though they may not)
5 factor model of personality traits
openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, neuroticism
nociceptors
pain receptors found everywhere in the body except the brain
central executive
part of Alan Baddeley's model of working memory that oversees the visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop, and episodic buffer. Responsible for shifting and dividing attention
James Lange theory of emotion
physiological response -> emotion
autonomic nervous system (ANS)
the division of the peripheral nervous system that innervates and controls the visceral organs (everything but the skeletal muscles). It is also known as the involuntary nervous system and can be subdivided into sympathetic and parasympathetic branches
social facts
the elements that serve some function in society such as laws, morals, values, religions, customs, rituals, and roles that make up a society
incongruity
the emotional result when the real self falls short of ideal self
acetylcholinesterase
the enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft
religiosity
the extent that religion influences a person's life
group polarization
the phenomenon where groups tend to intensify the pre-existing views of their members until the average view is more extreme than it initially was
cultural relativism
the practice of assessing a culture by its own standards rather than viewing it through the lens of one's own culture
endogamy
the practice of marrying within a particular group
mindguarding
the pressure to conform within a group causes individuals to censor their own opinions in favor of consensus which creates an illusion of unanimity. You guard what you say if you think the group will not agre
estrogen
the primary female sex hormone. It stimulates the development of the female secondary sex characteristics during puberty, maintains those characteristics during adulthood, stimulates the development of new uterine lining after menstruation, and stimulates mammary gland development during pregnancy
norms
the visible and invisible rules of social conduct within a society; they help define what type of behaviors are acceptable and in accordance with a society's values and benefits; formal _____ are generally written down; laws are examples of formal _____. Informal _____ are generally understood, but are less precise and often carry no specific punishments
Electra complex
this complex occurs during the phallic stage (the third of Freud's five psychosexual stages) when a female child is sexually attracted to her father and hostile toward her mother, who is seen as a rival
psychoanalytic therapy
this therapy approach uses various methods to help a patient become aware of his or her unconscious motives and to gain insight into the emotional issues and conflicts that are causing difficulties
difference threshold (aka the just noticeable difference or JND)
this threshold is the minimum noticeable difference between any two sensory stimuli 50% of the time
ascribed status
those statuses that are assigned to a person by society regardless of the person's own efforts
escape learning
through operant conditioning, this is the process of learning to engage in a particular behavior in order to get away from a negative or aversive stimulus
temporal confounds
time related confounding variables
normative social influence
when the motivation for compliance is a desire for the approval of others and to avoid rejection
Anal stage ages
1 to 3
parietal lobe
somatosensory cortex. Spatial manipulation.
parvocellular pathway
spatial resolution, boundaries and shape
Implicit memory is ________ with age
stable, retrieval of general information does not change with age
self-serving bias
the tendency to attribute our success to ourself and our failures to others and the external environment
out group
"them" the group we are not associated with
person-situation controversy
(also known as trait-vs-state controversy) this controversy stems from a disagreement about the degree to which a person's reaction in a given situation is due to their personality (trait) or is due to a situation itself (state)
Oral stage ages. Successful resolution leads to weaning, unsuccessful leads to...
0-1. Oral aggression
latency stage ages
6 to 12
conflict theory
A Macro theory that views society as being in competition for limited resources. According to conflict theory, society is a place where there will be inequality in resources, therefore individuals will compete for social, political, and material resources like money, land, power, and leisure
counterbalancing
A method of controlling for the order of effects in an experiment by having groups receive treatments in different order
five-factor model
A model developed to explain personality using five overarching personality traits which include extroversion, neuroticism, openness to experience, agreableness, and concentiousness, this was developed by Costa and McCrae
episodic buffer
A part of Baddeley's model of working memory, short term episodic memory
auditory tube
AKA the Eustachian tube, the auditory tube connects the middle ear cavity with the pharynx. It functions to equalize middle ear pressure with atmospheric pressure so that pressure on both sides of the tympanic membrane is equal
prejudice
ATTITUDES, usually negative and not based on facts
Conservative strategy (signal detection theory)
Always say no unless 100% sure signal is present. Can lead to some misses
Freud
Believed most personality developed by age 5.
Slow adapting
Neuron fires in the beginning of a stimulus but then calms down after a while. One example is pain
role conflict
Occurs when a person experiences strain between two different roles. E.g. "doctor" and "mom"
proximal stimulus
Physical stimulation that is available to be measured by sensory apparatus of the observer. For example, light waves or sound waves
formal operation stage
Piaget's 4th stage of his developmental theory, from age 12-adulthood. During this stage, people learn abstract and moral reasoning
preoperational stage
Piaget's second stage in his developmental theory from ages 2-7; during this stage, children learn pretend play and the idea that a symbol can represent something else, they remain egocentric in this stage. When assimilation happens.
concrete operational stage
Piaget's third stage of his developmental theory where children aged 7 to 11 learn to think logically and learn the principle of conservation as well as mathematical concepts
Piaget's stage at 2-7 years old
Preoperational stage
macula
Rich in cones, some rods
Broadbent's early selection theory
Sensory register-> selective filter -> perceptual process -> conscious
Determines the intensity of a stimulus
Speed of firing of neurons
adrenal medulla
The inner region of the adrenal gland, the adrenal medulla is part of the sympathetic nervous system and releases epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine into the bloodstream when stimulated. Epinephrine and norepinephrine prolong and enhance the effect of sympathetic stimulation on the body
belief perseverance
The maintance of a belief with the tendency to ignore or rationalize disconfirming facts
social facilitation effect
The phenomenon that describes how the presence of others improves our performance, tends to occur with simple tasks
fecundity
The potential reproductive capacity of a female in a population
class system
a social stratification where people are grouped together by similar wealth, income, education, and the like, but the classes are open, meaning that people can strive to reach a higher class (or fall to a lower one)
cerebral cortex
a thin (4 mm) layer of gray matter on the surface of the cerebral hemispheres. The cerebral cortex is the conscious mind, and is functionally divided into four lobes: the frontal lobes, parietal lobes, temporal lobes, and occipital lobes. (F-POT)
aqueous humor
a thin, watery fluid found in the anterior segment of the eye (between the lens and cornea). The aqueous humor is constantly produced and drained, and helps bring nutrients to the lens and cornea, as well as remove metabolic wastes
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
a tropic hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that targets the adrenal cortex, stimulating it to release cortisol and aldosterone
luteinizing hormone (LH)
a tropic hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that targets the gonads; in females, it triggers ovulation and the development of corpus luteum during the menstrual cycle; in males, it stimulated the production and release of testosterone
proactive interference
a type of memory interference that occurs when previously learned information interferes with the recall of information learned more recently
deviance
a violation of society's standards of conduct or expectations
social network
a web of social relationships including those in which a person is directly linked to others, as well as those in which people are directly connected through others
regression to the mean
phenomenon that if a variable is extreme on its first measurement, it will tend to be closer to the average on its second measurement—and if it is extreme on its second measurement, it will tend to have been closer to the average on its first.
choroid
pigmented black in humans, is a network of blood vessels that nourishes the retina
hypnotism
structured social interaction in which an individual is instructed to focus attention a particular way, relax, and let go, individuals that have gone through this may be more susceptible to accepting suggestions
self serving bias
tendency to perceive oneself in an overly favorable manner
ossicles
the 3 small bones found in the middle ear (malleus, incus, and stapes) that help to amplify the vibrations from the sound waves; the malleus is attached to the tympanic membrane and the stapes is attached to the oval window of the cochlea
reproducibility
the ability of an entire experiment or study to be duplicated, either by the same researcher or by someone else working independently
social cognition
the ability of the brain to store and process information regarding social perception
divided attention
the ability to focus on multiple tasks simultaneously
empathy
the ability to identify with others' emotions
social mobility
the ability to move up or down within the social stratification system
eidetic memory
the ability to perfectly recall images, sounds, or objects without the use of memory aids, such as mnemonics; also called photographic memory
social perception
the ability to understand others in our social world; the initial info. we process about other people in order to try and understand their mindsets and intentions
auditory cortex
the area of the temporal lobe responsible for processing sound information
neuron
the basic functional and structural unit of the nervous system; it is a highly specialized cell designed to transmit action potentials
self-efficacy
the belief in one's own competence and effectiveness
internal locus of control
the belief of an individual that she is able to influence outcomes through her own efforts and actions
optimism bias
the belief that bad things happen to other people but not to us
external locus of control
the belief that once does not have control over outcomes, but they are controlled by outside forces
reinforcement schedule
the frequency and regularity with which rewards are offered; they can be based on a number of target behaviors (ratio) or on a time interval (interval); types include: fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and variable-interval
looking-glass self
the idea that a person's sense of self develops from impersonal interactions with others in society and the perception of others; according to this idea, people shape their self-concepts based on their understanding of how others perceive them
avoidance learning
the process by which one learns to perform a behavior in order to ensure that a negative or aversive stimulus will not be present
language acquisition
the process by which the infants learn to understand and speak their native languagek
assimilation
the process in which an individual forsakes aspects of his or her own cultural tradition to adopt those of a different culture. Generally, this individual is a member of a minority group who is attempting to conform to the culture of the dominant group
informational social influence
the process of complying because we want to do the right thing and we feel like others know something I don't know
role exit
the process of disengaging from a role that has become closely tied to one's self-identity to take on a new role
relearning
the process of learning material that was originally learnt
encoding
the process of transferring sensory information into the memory system
socialization
the process through which people learn to be proficient members of a society; a lifelong process where people learn the attitudes, values, and beliefs that are reinforced by a particular culture
demography
the study of human population dynamics, including the size, structure, and distribution of a population, and changes in the population over time due to birth, death, and migration
central nervous system
the subdivision of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord
activation-synthesis theory
the theory that dreams are simply byproducts of brain activation during REM sleep. Suggests that the content of dreams is not purposeful or meaningful
authoritarian government
unelected leaders, totalitarian (public and private lives of citizens are regulated)
discrimination
unjust treatment of a group, based on group characteristics (such as age, sex, race, ethnicity, disability). ACTIONS are taken against minorities (goes beyond just an attitude)
grey matter
unmyelinated neuron cell bodies and short, unmyelinated axons
social cues
verbal/nonverbal hints guide social interactions
occipital lobe
vision
prefrontal cortex
anterior part of the frontal lobes of the brain involved in complex behaviors such as planning, sequencing, social responses, and decision-making; directs behavioral aspects of emotion, including approach and avoidance behaviors; damage to this are may lead to inappropriate social behavior, impulsivity, and trouble with initiation
gonadotropins
anterior pituitary tropic hormones, follicles stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) which stimulate the gonads (ovaries and testes) to produce gametes and to secrete sex steroids
mnemonic
any memory technique used to promote the retention and retrieval of information
inattentional blindness
aren't aware of things in our visual field when our attention is directed elsewhere
linguistic relativity hypothesis
asserts when the language one speaks determines their thoughts and perceptions of the world
projection
attributing one's own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to another
temporal lobe
auditory
peripheral route
cognitive route of persuasion that involves more superficial or secondary characteristics of an argument or an orator
B.F. Skinner
coined the term "operant conditioning"; he is famous for his box in which he used reinforcements to shape animal behavior
opponent process theory
color perception is controlled by activity of three opponent systems
Stanley Milgram
conducted research on obedience where he asked subjects to administer a shock to what they thought was another subject (but was just an actor) and he monitored the degree of subjects' compliances or obedience
ego
conscious and unconscious. Seeks long-term gratification
republican
consider countries to be public concerns
Emile Durkheim
considered the father of sociology and a major proponent of functionalism, Emile Durkheim was the pioneer of modern social research and established the field of sociology as separate and distinct from psychology and political philosophy
Carl Rogers
considered the founder of the humanistic psychology perspective, Carl Rogers pioneered the person-centered approach to therapy
parallel forms reliability
consistency between/among alternate versions of the same instrument; e.g. creating 2 parallel forms of a questionnaire (with difficult questions) and both tests show correlation
material culture
consists of physical objects that are particular to a culture which helps to explain the relationship between artifacts and social relations (e.g. saree in indian culture)
ideal self
constructed out of life experiences, societal expectations, and admirable traits, from role models, the ideal self is the person you ought to be while the real self is the person you actually are
autocratic government
controlled by a small group or single person
longitudinal study
data is gathered for the same subjects repeatedly over a period of time, which can take years or decades
demand characteristics
describes how participants change behavior to match expectations of experimenter
anomie
describes the alienation that individuals feel when social norms and social bonds are weak. Without attachment, people experience purposeless and aimlessness
intragenerational mobility
describes the differences in social classes between different members of the same generation
Mead
developed the idea of social behaviorism. The mind and the self emerge through the process of communicating with others (start of social interactionism)
cognitive dissonance
discomfort experienced when holding 2 or more conflicting beliefs
type II error
false negative
sect
formed by breaking away from larger religious institutions (ex Mormon/Amish)
general intelligence
foundational base of intelligence that supports more specialized abilities
frustration aggression hypothesis
frustration creates anger which can spark aggression
negative control
group with no response expected
Babinski reflex
in response to the sole of the foot being stroked, a baby's big toe moves upward or toward the top surface of the foot and the other toes fan out
postganglionic neuron
in the autonomic division of the PNS, a neuron that has its cell body located in an autonomic ganglion (where a pre-ganglionic neuron synapses with it) and whose axon synapses with the target organ
front stage
in the dramaturgical perspective, this is where we play a role and use impression management to craft the way we come across to other people
feature detectors
individual neurons which code for perceptually significant stimuli
long-term memory
information that is retained long-term, potentially indefinitely; it is believed to have an infinite capacity
monarchic
inherited leadership role
gaba
inhibitory
language acquisition device
innate feature unique to the human mind that allows people to gain mastery of language from limited exposure during sensitive developmental years in early childhood as hypothesized by Noam Chomsky
primary reinforcer
innately satisfying/desirable, may be biologically driven (hunger, thirst, etc).
nonassociative learning
learning that occurs in the absence of associating specific stimuli or events; happens with repeated exposure to something. Two types are habituation and sensitization
informative influence
look to the group for guidance when you don't know what to do. Assume the group is always correct
social exchange theory
looks at society as a series of interactions between individuals
alpha waves
low amplitude, high frequency brain waves present in a relaxed state. Alpha waves are the first indicator that a person is read to drift off into sleep
implicit memory
memories about things you can not articulate, such as performance of a task, procedural memories. Unconscious
explicit (or declarative) memory
memories that can be consciously recalled, such as factual knowledge
implicit (procedural) memory
memory that involves conditioned associations and knowledge of how to do things
short-term memory
memory that is limited in duration and in capacity
elaboration likelihood model
model that explains when people may be persuaded by just the content of an argument, and when they may be persuaded by more superficial characteristics such as the appearance of the person delivering the message or the length of the argument
basal ganglia
motor functions
self-reporting bias
occurs when subjects skew their responses often to impress/appease researchers
Disengagement theory
older adults socially separate
aggregate
people who exist in the same space but do not interact or share a common sense of identity
fundamentalists
people who observe strict adherence to religious beliefs
cocktail party effect
phenomenon of information of personal importance from previously unattended channels "catching" one's attention
interneuron
a neuron found completely within the central nervous system that typically connect sensory and motor neurons especially in the reflex arcs
efferent neurons
a neuron that carries information (action potentials) away from the central nervous system; a motor neuron
bipolar neuron
a neuron with a single axon and single dendrite, often projecting from opposite sides of the cell body. Bipolar neurons are typically associated with sensory organs
glucagon
a peptide hormone produced and secreted by the alpha cells of the pancreas, which primarily targets the liver stimulating the breakdown of glycogen, thus increasing blood glucose level
resource model of attention
states that attention is a limited resource if multiple tasks do not exceed this limit, they can be done simultaneously; if they do, then they interfere with each other and are difficult to do simultaneously
nucleus accumbens
structure located in the brainstem and part of the dopaminergic reward pathway; releases dopamine in response to many drugs contributing to addictive behavior
sleep apnea
sleep disorder in which the individual intermittently stops breathing during sleep and may wake up gasping for breath
oligarchic
small group of people with shared interests
Motion parallax
Things farther away move slower
variable ratio
Very rapidly and is very resistant to extinction
manifest content
according to Freud, the overt storylines of dreams
reporting bias
(epidemiology) selective revealing/suppression of info by subjects, e.g. about past medical history, smoking, sexual experiences
Thalamus
Sensory relay
labeling theory
a behavior is deviant if people have judged the behavior and labeled it as so
altruism
a behavior that helps ensure the success of survival of the rest of a social group, possibly at the expense of the success or survival of the indivudal
negative feedback
a biological process that works by maintaining stability or homeostasis; a system produces a result which feeds back to stop the system and maintain the result within tightly controlled bounds
inter-generational mobility
a change (increase or decrease) in social class between parents and children of a family (e.g. Trenton's grandparents were immigrants from a foreign country who spent most of their lifetimes working factory jobs so that Trenton's parents could go to school. As adults, Trenton's parents were able to get college degrees and both became teachers. Trenton's mother later retired to be a stay-at-home mom. Trenton was able to develop his skills as a guitar player and become an international star and multi-millionaire.)
neurotransmitter
a chemical released by the axon of a neuron in response to an action potential that binds to receptors on the post-synaptic cell and causes that cell to either depolarize slightly (EPSP) or hyperpolarize slightly (IPSP) e.g. acetylcholine, norepinephrine, GABA, dopamine, etc.
pheromone
a chemical signal that causes a social response in members of the same species
hallucinogens
a class of drugs, also known as psychedelics, that distort perceptions in the absence of any sensory input creating hallucinations or altered sensory perceptions (e.g. LSD, marijuana)
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
a clear fluid that circulates around and through the brain and spinal cord. it helps to physically support the brain and acts as a shock absorber. It also exchanges nutrients and wastes with the brain and spinal cord; HOWEVER, it is NOT concerned with delivering oxygen to the brain. This is the job of red blood cells; it also helps reduces brain ischemia by reducing its own volume to reduce pressure on the blood vessels
caste system
a closed social stratification where people can do nothing to change the category that they are born into
ganglion
a clump of grey matter (unmyelinated neuron cell bodies) found in the PNS
Assimilation (Piaget)
a cognitive process that manages how we take in new information and incorporate that new information into our existing knowledge/schemas
group
a collection of any number of people 'as few as two' who regularly interact and identify with each other sharing similar norms, values, and expectations
global stratification
a comparison of the wealth, economic stability, and power of various countries
social isolation
a complete/ near complete lack of contact with people and society for members of social spears; not the same thing as loneliness, which is temporary
social institutions
a complex of roles, norms, and values organized into a relatively stable form that contributes to social order by governing the behavior of people; they provide predictability and organization for individuals within a society and mediate social behavior between people
ennui
a mental state characterized by lethargy and apathy, often associated with depression; it is not a social effect
photoreceptor
a receptor that responds to light
decoy
a research technique often used as part of deception, generally to intentionally mislead or confuse participants
normative influence
do what group does to avoid social rejection, whether or not you think it is right
core nation
dominant capitalist countries that exploit peripheral countries for labor and raw materials. They are strong in military power and not dependent on any one state or country.
decreases with age
episodic memories decrease with age. And prospective memory (remembering to do things in the future)
parliamentary
executive and legislative branches are interconnected
Ludwig Gumplowicz
expanded upon Marx' ideas about conflict theory by proposing that society is shaped by war and conquest and that cultural and ethnic conflicts lead to certain groups becoming dominant over other groups
lazarus
experience of emotion depends on the label we assign to it
Shadowing task
experiment that studies selective attention
Robber's cave experiment
experiment which showed that even arbitrary group distinctions (camp teams) can cause a bitter rivalry and discrimination, thus demonstrating in-group/out-group biases
rationalization
explaining and intellectually justifying ones behavior r
internal validity
extend to which a causal conclusion based on a study is warranted
type I error
false positive
retrograde amnesia
inability to recall previously made memories
serial position effect
includes the primacy and recency effect; when information is presented serially in a list format, individuals are more likely to recall the first and the last items presented
nonverbal communication
involves all of the methods of communication that we use that do not include words
xenocentrism
judging another culture as superior to one's own culture
ethnocentrism
judging someone else's culture from the position of your culture, under the assumption that your culture is superior
K complex
large and slow wave with a duration of a half-second that occurs in stage 2 sleep
latent learning
learning this takes place in the absence of any observable behavior to show that it has occurred; this learning can later manifest and be demonstrated as observable behavior when it is required (learning about cancer when your close family member has been diagnosed with it, even though you don't have to study it for a school test)
Part of the brain responsible for language
left side. If you have a split brain, you can only verbally name objects that appear on the right side
projective identification
occurs in close relationships, where one person induces feelings/impulses which are viewed as unacceptable in the other person
role strain
occurs when a person experiences strain in a single role.
retrograde amnesia
occurs when one is unable to recall information that was previously encoded
category
people who share similar characteristics but are not otherwise tied together as a group
fixed-interval schedule
reinforcement schedule in which a reward is offered after a set period of time has passed
insecure attachment
style of relating to others that forms when an infant has caregivers who are inconsistently responsive or unresponsive to needs; in Einsworth's experiments, these infants were found to be less likely to explore their surroundings in the presence of their mother; they may be extremely upset or demonstrate indifference when the mother returned to the room
Miss
subject did not respond when a signal was present
insight learning
sudden flash of inspiration that provides a solution to a problem; the aha moment where previously learned ideas or behaviors are suddenly combined in unique ways
cochlea
the curled structure in the inner ear that contains the membranes and hair cells used to transduce sound waves into action potentials
mortality
the death rate in a population
face validity
the degree to which a procedure, especially a psychological test or assessment, appears effective in terms of its stated aims to a casual observer, the transparency or relevance of a test as it appears to the test participants
construct validity
the degree to which a test actually measures what it claims, or purports, to be measuring, the appropriateness of inferences made on the basis of observations or measurements (often test scores), specifically whether a test measures the intended variable
reliability
the degree to which an assessment tool produces stable and consistent results in the study
generalizability
the degree to which the results of a study based on a sample can be said to represent the results that would be obtained from the entire population
identity formation (individuation)
the development of a distinct individual personality
parasympathetic nervous sytem
the division of the autonomic nervous system known as the "resting and digesting" system. it causes a general decrease in body activities such as heart rate, and blood pressure and an increase in blood flow to the GI tract and an increase in digestive function; because the paraganglionic neurons all originate from either the brain or the sacram, it is also known as the craniosacral system
global inequality
the extent to which income and wealth is distributed in an uneven manner among the world's population
ego depletion
the idea that self-control is a limited resource
source amnesia
the inability to remember where, when, or how previously learned information has been acquired
sensory memory
the initial recording of sensory information in the memory system; it is a very brief snapshot that quickly decays
retina
the innermost layer of the eyeball; it is made up of photoreceptors, bipolar cells, and a layer of ganglion cells
manifest function
the intended or obvious consequences of a social structure
corpus callosum
the largest bundle of white matter (axons) connecting the two cerebral hemispheres
organic amnesia
the loss of memory due to biological factors such as brain disorders, tumors, strokes, degenerative diseases, or any other of a multitude of other disruptions of neurological function
oval window
the membrane that separates the middle ear from the inner ear
depolarization
the movement of the membrane potential of a cell away from the resting potential to a more positive membrane potential
relative refractory period
the period of time following an action potential, when it is possible, but difficult, for the neuron to fire a second action potential, due to the fact that the membrane is further from threshold potential (hyperpolarized)
conformity
the phenomenon of adjusting behavior or thinking based on the behavior or thinking of others
mere-exposure effect
the phenomenon where people develop a preference for things because they have been exposed to them sometimes repeatedly; e.g. listening to a song sounds better the second time; also called familiarity principle
social loafing
the phenomenon where people tend to exert less effort if they are being evaluated as a group than if they are individually accountable
hypophysis
the pituitary gland
healthcare disparities
the population-specific differences in the presence of disease, health outcomes, and qualities of healthcare in different social groups
midbrain
the portion of the brain responsible for visual and auditory startle reflexes
outer ear
the portion of the ear consisting of the pinna and the external auditory canal; it is separated from the middle ear by the tympanic membrane (eardrum)
diencephalon
the portion of the forebrain that includes the thalamus and hypothalamus
medulla oblongata
the portion of the hindbrain that controls respiratory rate and blood pressure and specialized digestive and respiratory functions such as vomiting, sneezing, and coughing
social capital
the potential for social networks to allow for upward social mobility
medicalization
the process by which a condition comes to be reconceptualized into a disease
integrative reminiscence
the process by which older people may take stock of their lives and come to terms with previously unresolved conflicts
meninges
the protective connective tissue wrappings of the CNS (dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater)
cerebellum
the region of the brain that coordinates and smooths skeletal muscle activity, responsible for balance
negative reinforcement
the removal of a negative or aversive stimulus following a behavior; tends to increase the frequency of that behavior
negative punishment
the removal of a positive or rewarding stimulus following a behavior; tends to decrease the likelihood of that behavior
deception
the research equivalent of lying to participants, frequently used to mislead participants so that they do not learn what the actual purpose of the research may be
experimental study
the researcher manipulates one variable and controls/randomizes the rest of variables
dishabituation
the restoration to full strength of a response to a stimulus that had previously become weakened through habituation
anal stage
the second of Freud's five psychosexual stages, in this stage the child seeks sensual pleasure through control of elimination
existential self
the sense of being distinct and separate from others
social identity
the social definition of self including race, religion, gender, occupation, and the like
just world phenomenon
the tendency to believe that the world is fair and people get what they deserve; when bad things happen to others, it is the result of their actions or their failure to act, and when good things happen to us, it is because we deserve it
self-reference effect
the tendency to better remember information relevant to ourself, a prediction comes true because the individual accepts something as the truth and receives the feedback about his belief from at least one other person
negativity bias
the tendency to focus or remember the negative aspects of experiences
ethnocentrism
the tendency to judge people from another culture by the standards of one's own culture
functional fixedness
the tendency to perceive the functions of objects as fixed and unchanging
cultural lag
the time it takes to adapt and accept new technological advances
cortisol
this steroid hormone is released during chronic stress; it shifts the body's use of fuel from glucose toward fats and proteins, thus "sparing" glucose for the brain's use. Prolonged release of cortisol is associated with suppressed immunity and increased susceptibility to illness
behavioral therapy
this type of therapy uses conditioning to shape a client's behaviors in the desired direction
achieved status
those statuses that are considered to be due largely to an individual's efforts
ego defense mechanisms
to cope with this anxiety and protect the ego, all people develop defense ego mechanisms that unconsciously deny or distort reality. Ego defense mechanisms are therefore normal, and become unhealthy only when taken to extremes; developed by Sigmund Freud
cognitive psychology
tradition of psychology that focuses on the brain, cognitions, and thoughts as mediating learning and stimulus-response behaviors
positive control
treatment with known response
Weber's law
two stimuli must differ by a constant proportion to be detected
night terrors
usually occurs during stage 3 sleep, unlike nightmares; the individual may sit up or walk around, babble, and appear terrified although none of it is remembered the next morning
observational learning
(or vicarious, social learning) a type of learning that occurs when a person watches another person's behavior and its consequences, thereby learning rules, strategies, and expected outcomes in different situations
general adaption syndrome
1) alarm phase, 2) resistance (fleeing or adaption), 3) exhaustion
genital stage ages
12+
phallic stage ages
3 to 6
Kohlberg's stages of moral development
6 identifiable developmental stages of moral reasoning which form the basis of ethical behavior, the pre-conventional (level 1) contains the first stage (obedience and punishment orientation and second stage (self-interest orientation)), the conventional (level 2) contains the third stage (interpersonal accord and conformity) and fourth stage (authority and social-order maintaining orientation) the post-convential (level 3) contains the 5th stage (social contract orientation) and 6th stage (universal ethical principles)
priming
A phenomenon in which previous experiences influence current interpretation of an event or response to a stimulus
GAD (Generalized Anxiety Disorder)
A psychological disorder characterized by tension or anxiety much of the time about many issues, but without the presence of panic attacks.
feature detection theory
A theory of visual perception that proposes that certain neurons fire for individual and specific features of a visual stimulus such as shape, color, line, movements, etc.
Gestalt psychology
A theory that the brain processes information in a holistic manner, especially for visual information, the brain tends to make assumptions in order to detect the whole, instead of serially processing all of the individual parts.
retroactive interference
A type of memory interference that occurs when newly learned information interferes with the recall of information learned previously. New learning impairs old information, e.g. writing new address makes it difficult to remember your old address
anterior pituitary gland
AKA the adenohypophysis, the anterior pituitary is made of glandular tissue. It makes and secretes six different hormones: FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, prolactin, and growth hormone. The anterior pituitary is controlled by releasing and inhibiting factors from the hypothalamus
Sigmund Freud
An Australian neurologist who is considered the founding father of psychoanalytic theory
anxiety disorder
Anxiety is an emotional state of unpleasant physical and mental arousal; a preparation to fight or flee. In a person with an anxiety disorder, the anxiety is intense, frequent, irrational (out of proportion), and uncontrollable; it causes significant distress or impairment of normal functioning
treisman's attenuation theory
Attenuator can weaken incoming signals. Sensory register->attenuator-> perceptual process -> conscious
bottom-up processing
Begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the complex integration of information occurring in the brain; note that the brain in fact uses a combination of bottom-up processing and top-down processing
counter conditioning
Common treatment for fears and phobias.
fovea
Completely covered in cones, no rod. Image is very sharp because there are no axons in the way
Stage two sleep
Deeper stage of sleep, more theta waves, as well as sleep spindles and K-complexes
Mary Ainsworth
Famous for her "strange situation experiments" where mothers would leave their infants in an unfamiliar environment to see how they would react. Studies suggested a distinction between securely attached infants and insecurely attached infants
Piaget's stage at 12+ years old
Formal operational stage
Maslow's hierarchy of needs (5)
From bottom: physiological, safety, love/belongingness, esteem, self-actualization
Structures of the limbic system
HAT Hippo. Hypothalamus, amygdala, thalamus, and hippocampus
Semicircular canals
Head rotation
Attribution theory: covariation model
How we explain the behaviors of others. 3 cues are consistency, distinctiveness (of the situation) and consensus (of the behavior of others in the group)
Charles Cooley
Looking glass self: that a person's sense of self develops through interactions with others
cross-sectional study
Looks at a group of different people at one moment in time
availability heuristic
Mental shortcut that makes judgements using examples that come to mind
Absolute threshold for sensation
Minimum stim intensity to detect stimulus 50% of the time
filter model
Model of selective attention that suggests that information from a sensory buffer is put through a filter that allows only selected inputs through (Broadbent)
Kohlberg's theory
Moral reasoning, the difference between right and wrong. 3 stages with 2 levels each.
Fast adapting
Neuron fires as soon as the stimulus starts, then stops firing. Then starts again when the stimulus stops
Sensory motor stage (Piaget)
Object permanence develops
Actor-observer bias
Observer will have tendency to blame their behavior on external/situational factors and tends to blame the actor's behavior on internal stable traits
low levels of dopamine
Parkinson's
Top down processing
Perception is influenced by our expectation, theory driven.
affirmative action
Policies that take factors like race or sex into consideration to benefit underrepresented groups in admissions or job hiring decisions; these policies have been used to benefit those believed to be current or past victims of discrimination
Harlow, Harry, and Margaret
Researchers known for their controversial experiments with monkeys in which they showed that baby monkeys are drawn to mothers that provide comfort rather than simply food, also showed that monkeys raised in isolation developed severe mental and social defecits
deutch and deutch's late selection theory
Sensory register->perceptual process->selective filter-> conscious
Gestalt principles of grouping
Similarity, praganz, proximity, continuity, closure, symmetry, law of common fate, law of past experiences
Stage three sleep
Slow wave sleep, characterized by delta waves. This is when walking/talking in sleep happens
Race
Socially defined, based on physical differences between groups of people. U.S> census categories: white, black or African American, American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian, and Native Hawaiian, or other Pacific Islander
Ethnicity
Socially defined, defined by shared religion, language, history, etc.
Vygotsky's theory
Sociocultural cognitive development theory. Believed children learned actively though hands-on process.
subliminal stimuli
Stimuli below absolute threshold of sensation
Distal stimulus
Stimulus in the outside world. For example, a shoe or telephone ringing
genital stage
The fifth of Freud's 5 psychosexual stages, this stage begins in adolescence when sexual themes resurface and a person's life/sexual energy fuels activities such as friendships, art, sports, and careers
genotype
The genetic makeup of an organism
periphery nation
These countries lack a strong central government and may be controlled by other states. These countries export raw materials to the core countries, and they are dependent on core countries for capital and have underdeveloped industry
exogenous cues
Things in our environment that we don't have to tell ourselves to try to find, things like bright colors, loud noises
Otolithic organs
Utricle and saccule. Detect linear acceleration and head positioning
door-in-the-face technique
a compliance method commonly studied in social psychology. The persuader attempts to convince the respondent to comply by first making a large request that the respondent will most likely turn down, much like a metaphorical slamming of a door in the persuader's face. This is followed by a smaller request which the respondent will now more easily agree to.
addiction
a compulsion to do an act repeatedly; can consist of a psychological dependence and/or a physical dependence as evidenced by drug addiction withdrawal
pluralism
a condition or system in which two or more states, groups, principles, sources of authority, etc., coexist
learned helplessness
a condition where on has learned to behave helplessly, failing to respond even though there are opportunities to avoid unpleasant circumstances or gain positive rewards
reinforcement
a consequence that increases the likelihood that the preceding behavior will be repeated: two types are there: positive and negative
interdependence
a culture in which members contribute to each other and view the collective good as the primary goal. This is closely related to the goals of a transformational leader who seeks to inspire deep loyalty and shared vision across the organization
downward mobility
a decrease in social class
case study
a descriptive analysis of an individual, group, or an event, which does not involve various experimental groups
personal identity
a distinct sense of self including personally defined attributes
ecclesia
a dominant religious organization that includes most members of society, is recognized as the national or official religion, and tolerates no other religions
endocrine gland
a ductless gland hat secretes hormones into the blood
delusion
a false belief that is not due to culture, and is not relinquished despite evidence that it is false
hallucination
a false sensory perception that occurs while a person is conscious (not during sleep or delirium)
egalitarian family
a family system where spouses are treated as equals and may be involved in more negotiation when making decisions
polygyny
a form of marriage in which a man is married to more than one woman
monogamy
a form of marriage in which two individuals are married only to each other
in-group
a group that an individual belongs to and believes to be an integral part of who they are
out-group
a group that an individual does not belong to
reference group
a group that serves as a standard measure that people compare themselves to, such as a peer group
cultural assimilation (diffusion)
a group's culture starts to resemble another
pupil
a hole in the center of the iris of the eye that allows light to enter the eyeball; its diameter is controlled by the iris in response to the brightness of light
peptide hormone
a hormone made of amino acids, in some cases, just a single modifies amino acid; they are generally hydrophilic and can't cross the plasma membrane of cells; thus receptors for them must be found on the cell surface; and exception is THYROXINE which is hydrophobic enough to enter the cells easily; binding of these hormones do its receptor usually triggers a second-messenger system within the cell
epinephrine
a hormone produced and secreted by the adrenal medulla that prolongs and increases the effects of the sympathetic nervous system
parathyroid hormone
a hormone produced and secreted by the parathyroid glands that increase serum calcium levels; it targets the bones (stimulates osteoclasts), the kidneys (increases calcium reabsorption), and the small intestine (increases calcium absorption)
growth hormone
a hormone released by the anterior pituitary that targets all cells in the body and stimulates whole body growth in children and adolescents and increased cell turnover rate in adults
prolactin
a hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary that targets the mammary glands stimulating them to produce milk
dual coding hypothesis
a hypothesis that it is easier to remember words with associated images than either words or images alone
organization
a large group, more impersonal than a network that comes together to pursue particular activities and meet goals efficiently
action potential
a localized change in a neuron's membrane potential that propagates away from its point of origin. Action potentials are all-or-none processes mediated by the opening of voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels when the membrane is brought to threshold potential; opening Na+ channels causes characteristic depolarization, while opening K+ channels repolarizes the membrane
axon
a long projection off the cell body of a neuron down which an action potential can be propagated
method of loci
a memory device that involves imagining moving through a familiar place such as your home and in each place leaving a visual representation of a topic to be rememebered
functional amnesia
a memory disorder characterized by sudden retrograde autobiographical memory loss, said to occur for a period of time ranging from hours to years, also called psychogenic and dissociative amnesia. These gaps involve an inability to recall personal information, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature consciously, but subconscious recall (sweating and increased HR) is common
spreading activation
a method for searching associative networks, neural networks, or semantic networks.
parkinson's didsease
a movement disorder caused by the death of cells that generate dopamine in the basal ganglia and substantia nigr, 2 subcortical structures in the brain; among the symptoms are a resting terror (shaking, slowed movemement, rigidity of movements and the face, and a shuffling gait)
multipolar neuron
a neuron with a single axon and multiple dendrites; the most common type of neuron in the nervous system
illusory correlation
a perceived relationship between two things (people, events, or behaviors) even when none exists (e.g. A man holds the belief that people in urban environments tend to be rude. Therefore, when he meets someone who is rude he assumes that the person lives in a city, rather than a rural area. )
long-term potentiation
a persistent increase in synaptic strength between two neurons that occurs following brief periods of their stimulation leads to increased sensitivity of neurons recently stimulated; believed to play a role in learning and the consolidation of memory from short-term memory to long-term memory
attitude
a person's feelings and beliefs about other people or events around him, and his behavioral reactions based on those underlying evaluations
affect
a person's visible emotion in the moment
multiculturalism
a perspective that endorses equal standing for all cultural traditions; it promotes the idea of cultures coming together in a true melting pot, rather that in a hierarchy; also called pluralism
groupthink
a phenomenon where within a group, the desire for harmony or conformity results in an easy consensus even if the final decision is not the best one
social dysfunction
a process that has undesirable consequences, and may actually reduce the stability of society
acculturation
a process that occurs when one group adopts the behavior and cultural patterns of another after the two have made contact
neural plasticity
a process that refers to the malleability of the brain's pathways and synapses based on behavior, environment, and neural processes
dendrite
a projection off the cell body of a neuron that receives nerve impulses from a different neuron and sends the impulse to the cell body. Neurons can have one or several dendrites
dysthymic disorder
a psychological disorder characterized as a less intense, chronic form of depression. A person with dysthymic disorder has felt milder symptoms of depression most days for at least two years, with symptoms never absent for more than two months, and without experiencing a major depressive episode
conversion disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by a change in sensory or motor function that has no discernible physical or physiological cause, and which seems to be significantly affected by psychological factors. The symptoms of conversion disorder begin or worsen after an emotional conflict of other stressor
antisocial personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by a history of serious behavior problems beginning in adolescence, including significant aggression against people or animals, deliberate property destruction, lying or theft, and serious rule violation
dissociative disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by a person's thoughts, feelings, perceptions, memories, or behaviors being separated from conscious awareness and control, in a way that is not explainable as mere forgetfulness
hypochondriasis
a psychological disorder characterized by a pre-occupation with a fear of having a serious illness
body dysmorphic diorder
a psychological disorder characterized by a preoccupation with a slight physical anomaly or imagined defect in appearance, often involving the face, hair, breasts, or genitalia
somatization disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by a variety of symptoms over an extended time period, including pain, gastrointestinal symptoms, sexual symptoms, and pseudoneurological symptoms
dissociative identity disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by alternating between two or more distinct personality states (or identities), only one of which interacts with other people at any one time
personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by an enduring rigid set of personality traits that deviates from cultural norms, impairs functioning, and causes distress either to the person with the disorder, or to those in his or her life
dissociative amnesia
a psychological disorder characterized by at least one episode of suddenly forgetting some important personal information, usually related to severe stress or traums
pain disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by clinically important pain whose onset or severity seems significantly affected by psychological factors
borderline personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by enduring or recurrent instability in impulse control, mood, and image of self and others. Impulsive and reckless behavior, together with extreme mood swings, reactivity, and anger, can lead to unstable relationships and to damage both of the person with the disorder and of others in his or her life
narcissistic personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by feelings of grandiosity with fantasies of beauty, brilliance, and power
avoidant personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by feelings of inadequacy, inferiority, and undesirability, and a preoccupation with fears of criticism and rejection; resulting in the person becoming socially withdrawn
schizoid personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by little interest or involvement in close relationships, even those with family members
paranoid personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by mistrust and misinterpretation of others motives and actions and suspicion of harm/betrayal
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
a psychological disorder characterized by obsessions (repeated intrusive, uncontrollable thoughts or impulses that cause distress or anxiety); compulsions (repeated physical or mental behaviors that are done in response to an obsession or in accordance with a set of strict rules in order to reduce distress or prevent something dreaded from occurring or both
major depressive disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by one or more major depressive episodes where a person has felt worse than usual for most of the day, nearly every day for at least two weeks
catatonic-type schizophrenia
a psychological disorder characterized by psychosis in the form of catatonic behavior (including extremely retarded or excited motor activity)
paranoid-type schizophrenia
a psychological disorder characterized by psychosis in the form of hallucinations and/or delusions usually relating to a certain theme
schizotypal personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by several traits that cause problems interpersonally, including constricted or inappropriate affect; magical or paranoid thinking; and odd beliefs, speech, behavior, appearance, and perceptions
schizophreniform disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by symptoms of schizophrenia present for a period of 1-6 months during which the symptoms may or may not have interfered with functioning
Schizoaffective disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by the combination of mood and psychotic symptoms; in this disorder, both the symptoms of schizophrenia and a major depressive, manic, or mixed episode are experienced for at least one month
panic disorder
a psychological disorder that is characterized by panic attacks which can be cued by certain situations but are more often uncued or spontaneous, "occuring frequently" and unexpectedly
disorganized-type schizophrenia
a psychological disorder that is characterized by psychosis in the form of flat or inappropriate affect, disorganized speech, and disorganized behavior
schizophrenia
a psychological disorder that is chronic and incapacitating and is characterized by psychosis and material impairment in social, occupational, and personal function
cyclothymic disorder
a psychological disorder that is similar to bipolar disorder but the moods are less extreme. A person with cyclothymic disorder has experienced cyclic moods, including many hypomanic episodes, as well as many episodes of depressed mood that are milder than a major depressive episode for at least two years
residual-type schizophrenia
a psychological disorder where the acute phase of schizophrenia has resolved and the criteria for schizophrenia are no longer met, but some symptoms are still present in milder forms
prison study (Stanford Prison Study)
a psychological experiment conducted by Philip Zimbardo designed to elucidate the extreme effects of roll-playing on human behavior. 24 male students were isolated and asked to play the role of prisoners and guards. The participants adapted to their roles well beyond Zimbardo's expectations. The guards enforced extreme measure including psychological torture and many of the prisoners passively accepted psychological abuse and readily harassed other prisoners who attempted to prevent it.
attachment theory
a psychological model that attempts to describe the dynamics of long-term and short-term interpersonal relationships between humans which depends on the person's ability to develop basic trust in their caregivers and self. (joint work of Mary Ainsworth and John Bowlby)
humanistic psychology
a psychological perspective developed partially in response to Freud's psychoanalytic theory, which emphasizes an individual's inherent drive towards self-actualization. Carl Rogers is most associated with this kind of psychology
Raymond Cattell
a psychologist interest in personality, who used factor analysis with hundreds of surface traits to identify which traits were related to each other. By this process, he identified sixteen source traits, and by factor analysis reduced fifteen of these into five global factors: extroversion, anxiety, receptivity, accommodation, and self-control
saltatory conduction
a rapid form of action potential conduction along the axon of a neuron in which the action potential appears to jump from node of Ranvier to node of Ranvier
proprioceptor
a receptor that responds to changes in the body position such as stretch on a tendon, or contraction of a muscle; the receptors allow us to be consciously aware of the position of our body parts
reciprocal determinism
a reciprocal interaction between a person's behaviors (conscious actions), personal factors (cognitions, motivations, personality), and environmental factors
reflex arc
a relatively direct connection between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron that allows an extremely rapid response to a stimulus, often without conscious brain involvement
cult (aka a new religious movement)
a religious organization that is far outside society's norms and often involves a very different lifestyle. Rejects the values of society
exogamy
a requirement to marry outside a particular group, with it being the norm in almost all cultures to prohibit sexual relationships between certain relatives
neobehaviorism
a school of psychology based on the general principles of behaviorism but broader and more flexible in concept. It stresses experimental research and laboratory analyses in the study of overt behavior and in various subjective phenomena that cannot be directly observed and measured, such as fantasies, love, stress, empathy, trust, and personality; psychologists belonging to this school believe that behavior can be modified by rewards or punishments
critical theory
a school of thought that stresses the reflective assessments and critique of society and culture by applying knowledge from the social sciences and the humanities; it focuses on changing, rather than understanding, society
baroreceptor
a sensory receptor that responds to changes in pressure; for example, there are baroreceptors in the carotid arteries and the aortic arch that monitor blood pressure
mechanoreceptor
a sensory receptor that responds to mechanical disturbances such as shape changes, being squashed, bent, pulled; they include touch receptors in the skin, hair cells in the ear, muscle spindles, and others
chemoreceptor
a sensory receptor that responds to specific chemicals. Some examples are gustatory (taste) receptors, olfactory (smell) receptors, and central chemoreceptors (which respond to changes in CSF pH)
psychological disorder/illness or mental illness
a set of behavioral and/or psychological symptoms that are not keeping with cultural norms and that are severe enough to cause significant personal distress and/or sufficient impairment to social, occupational, or personal functioning
culture
a shared way of life, including the beliefs and practices that a social group shares
excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
a slight depolarization of a postsynaptic cell, bringing the membrane potential of that cell closer to the threshold for an action potential
IPSP
a slight hyperpolarization of a postsynaptic cell moving the membrane potential of that cell further from the threshold
gatekeeping
a small number of people control what is in the media
social construct
a social mechanism or practice that is constructed by society; essentially everybody in society agrees to treat a certain aspect a certain way regardless of its inherent value, e.g. the idea of gender, social class
meritocracy
a social stratification where people's social standing's are judged based on merit (or personal effort) alone; this is an idealized system - no society solely stratifies based on effort
matriarchy
a social system where females, esp. mothers within families are the primary authority figures
patriarchy
a social system where males are primary authority figures, and where fathers hold authority over women and children in a family
social constructionism
a sociological theory that argues that people actively shape their reality through social interaction; it is therefore something that is constructed, not inherent; it looks to uncover the ways in which individuals and groups participate in the construction of their perceived social reality
physical attractiveness stereotype
a specific type of halo effect bias; people tend to rate attractively individuals more favorable for personality traits and characteristics than they do those who are less attractive
algorithm
a step-by-step detailing of steps that aids with problem solving
progesterone
a steroid hormone produced by the corpus luteum in the ovary during the menstrual cycle. Progesterone maintains and enhances the uterine lining for the possible implantation of the fertilized ovum. It is the primary hormone secreted during pregnancy
neutral stimulus
a stimulus that does not elicit any intrinsic response in the absence of outside interference (conditioning)
self-handicapping
a strategy in which people create obstacles and excuses to avoid self-blame when they do poorly
foot-in-the-door phenomenon
a strategy that involves enticing people to take small actions, and then gradually asking for larger and larger commitment
phobia
a strong unreasonable fear that almost always causes general anxiety of a full panic attack
meta-analytic study
a study that involves contrasting and combining results from different studies, with the aim of finding patterns among the results that might bring about new information
secure attachment
a style of relating to to others that forms whe an infant has caregivers who are sensitive and responsive to needs, in Ainsworth's experiments, securely attached infants were found to be willing to explore surroundings in the presence of the mother; they were upset, but consolable when the mother left and then returned to the room
endocrine system
a system of ductless glands that secrete chemical messengers (hormones) into the blood
patrilineal descent
a system of lineage in which relatives on the father's side are considered most important; an individual belongs to their father's lineage
bilateral descent
a system of lineage in which the relatives on the mother's side and father's side are considered equally important
matrilineal descent
a system of lineage in which the relatives on the mother's side are considered most important; an individual belongs to their mother's lineage
parallel processing
a system whereby many aspects of a stimulus are processes simultaneously instead of in a step-by-step or serial fashion. e.g. visual processing in the brain
rehearsal
a technique of repeating verbal information in one's phonological loop to promote the encoding of sensory information into memory
halo effect
a tendency to believe that people have inherently good or bad natures rather than looking at individual characteristics
primacy effect
a tendency to better recall the first items on a list
belief bias
a tendency to draw conclusions based on what one already believes rather than sound logic
misinformation effect
a tendency to misremember an event, particularly when misleading information is presented between the event and the mental encoding of the. (e.g. if an interrogator questions an individual about an event using leading questions, the person's perception of the event will change to fit the question)
recency effect
a tendency to recall the last item presented in a list
signal detection theory
a theory that attempts to predict how and when someone will detect the presence of a given sensory stimulus (the signal), amidst all of the other sensory stimuli in the background (noise), there are 4 possible outcome: a hit (signal present and detected), a miss (signal present but not detected), a false alarm (signal not present but person thought it was), and a correct rejection (signal not present and the person did not think it was)
cognitive dissonance theory
a theory that explains that we feel tension ("dissonance") whenever we hold two thoughts or beliefs ("cognitions") that are incompatible, or when attitudes and behaviors don't match. When this occurs, we try to reduce this unpleasant feeling of tension by making our views of the world match how we feel or what we've done.
inclusive fitness
a theory that suggests that cooperation among organisms (including altruistic behaviors) promotes genetic success, meaning that even if not all of the organisms survive to reproduce, some of their genes will still be passed to the next generation (e.g. a lapwing will fake injury to distract a hawk from its young, thereby acting altruistically toward its offspring)
incentive theory
a theory that suggests that incentives (objects or events in the environment that either help induce or discourage certain behaviors) motivate human behavior
game theory
a theory used to try and predict large complex systems such as the overall behavior of a population
exposure therapy
a type of cognitive-behavioral therapy whereby the individual is introduced to the specific anxiety-inducing situation gradually and in a controlled environment until his or her anxiety level decreases through adaptation; it has been found to be the most effective form of treatment for agoraphobia
chemical synapse
a type of synapse at which a chemical (a neurotransmitter) is released from the axon of a neuron into the synaptic cleft, where it binds to receptors on the next structure (either another neuron or an organ)
electrical synapse
a type of synapse in which the cells are connected by gap junctions, allowing ions (and therefore the action potential) to spread easily from cell to cell
cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)
a type of therapy that addresses thoughts and behaviors that are maladaptive by using goal-oriented and systematic techniques
humanistic psychotherapy
a type of therapy that focuses upon the more positive aspects of human beings in general and rejects the medical model, the psychoanalytic emphasis upon maladaptive personality traits, and the labeling of individuals as pathological. Accordingly, it places considerably less emphasis upon dispositional factors than does psychoanalysis
intelligence
ability to learn from experience, problem solve, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
parasomnia
abnormal behaviors during sleep including somnambulism and night terrors; usually occur during stage 3 or slow wave sleep
psychosexual stages
acc. to Freud's psychoanalytical theory, individuals progress through 5 psychosexual stages, one corresponding to the part of the body that is the focus of sensual pleasure; the 5 stages are: the oral stage, the anal stage, the phallic stages, the latent stage, and the genital stage
psychological fixation
acc. to Freud, adult personality is largely determined during the first 3 psychosexual stages; if parents either frustrate or overindulge the child's expression of sensual pleasure at a certain stage so that the child does not resolve that stage's developmental conflicts, the child becomes fixated at that stage and will, as an adult, continue to seek sensual pleasure through behaviors related to that stage
psychoanalytic theory
acc. to this theory, personality is shaped by a person's unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories. the classical version of this theory was developed by Sigmund Freud
ego
according to Freud's psychoanalytic theory, the ego is ruled by the reality principle, and uses logical thinking and planning to control consciousness and the id (the unconscious driving force ruled by the pleasure principle)
id
according to Freud's psychoanalytic theory, the largely unconscious id is the source of energy and instincts ruled by the pleasure principle, the id seeks to reduce tension, avoid pain, and gain pleasure; it does not use logical or moral reasoning and it does not distinguish mental images from external objects; according to Freud, young children function almost entirely from the id. Immediate gratification
latent content
according to Freud, the unconscious drives and wishes that are difficult to express and underly dreams (e.g. falling in a dream might have to do with feeling out of control in your life or failing at something. It might even represent giving in to sexual temptation)
self-actualization (actualizing tendency)
according to humanistic psychology, individuals have an innate drive to maintain and enhance themselves or realize their human potential as long as no obstacle intervenes
libido
according to psychoanalytic theory, it is the life instinct which drives behaviors focused on survival, growth, creativity, pain, avoidance, and seeking pleasure
death instinct
according to psychoanalytic theory, the death instinct drives aggressive behaviors fueled by an unconscious wish to die or to hurt oneself or others
Iron rule of oligarchy
all forms of organization, regardless of how democratic they may be at the start, will eventually and inevitably develop oligarchic tendencies, thus making true democracy practically and theoretically impossible, especially in large groups and complex organizations
peripheral nervous sytem
all the parts of the NS except for the brain and the spinal cord
amygdala
almond-shaped structure deep within the brain that orchestrates emotional experiences. Fear response and aggression center
operant conditioning
also known as 'instrumental conditioning'; a form of associate learning based on consequences, in which rewards increase the frequency of behaviors associated with them and punishments decrease their frequency
basal nuceli
also known as basal ganglia, these structures in the brain help to smooth coordinated movement by inhibiting excess movement
posterior pituitary gland
also known as the neurohypophysis; it is made up of nervous tissue/neurons and stores and secretes 2 hormones made by the hypothalamus (oxytocin and ADH); it is controlled by action potentials from the hypothalamus
food desert
an area typically in a highly populated, lower income urban environment, where healthy, fresh food is difficult to find
capitalism
an economic system in which resources and production are mainly privately owned and goods/services are produced for a profit
manic episode
an experience of an abnormal euphoric, unrestrained, or irritable mood with at least three of the following symptoms: grandiose, exaggerated, or delusional self-esteem, high energy with little need for sleep, increased talkativeness and pressured speech, poor judgement, increase psychomotor and goal-directed activity, and distractibility with flight of ideas or racing thoughts
deindividuation
an explanation of people's startling and often uncharacteristic behavior when situations provide a high degree of arousal and a very low sense of responsibility
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
relative poverty
an inability to meet the average standard of living within a society
sensitization
an increase in the strength of a response with repeated presentation of a stimulus
ostrich effect
an individual avoiding an apparently risky financial situation by pretending it does not exist; not a social effect
Huntington's Disease
an inherited (autosomal dominant) disease that causes the progressive breakdown (degeneration) of nerve cells in the brain; it has a broad impact on a person's functional abilities and usually results in movement, thinking (cognitive) and psychiatric disorders
myelin
an insulating layer of membranes wrapped around the axons of almost all neurons in the body; it is essentially the plasma membranes of specialized cells: in the PNS they are Schwann cells and in the CNS they are Oligodendrocytes
normative organization
an organization where membership is based on morally relevant goals
conditioned stimulus
an originally neutral stimulus that is paired with an unconditioned stimulus until it can produce the conditioned response without the unconditioned stimulus being present
overconfidence
an overestimation of the accuracy of one's knowledge and judgments
social phobia
an unreasonable paralyzing fear of feeling embarrassed or humiliated while one is watched by others even while performing routine activities such as eating in public or using a public restroom
drive
an urge originating from a physiological discomfort such as hunger, thirst, or sleepiness. Drives can be useful for alerting an organism that it is no longer in a state of homeostasis, an internal state of equilibrium
unsuccessful resolution of anal stage leads to
anal retention/overly neat
instrumental conditioning
another term for operant conditioning
mental retardation
another way of saying intellectual disability
dramaturgical approach
assumes that people are theatrical performers and that everyday life is a stage; just as actors project a certain on-screen image, people in society choose what kind of image they want to communicate verbally and nonverbally to others. Also called the dramaturgical perspective
diathesis-stress model
attempts to explain behavior as a predisposition vulnerability together with stress from life experience (genetics environment)
reflex
automatic behaviors that occur without thinking
self-consciousness
awareness of oneself
consciousness
awareness of self, internal states, and the environment
Beck's cognitive theory of depression
beck asserts there are three main dysfunctional beliefs that dominate depressed people's thinking. 1) I am defective/inadequate. 2) all of my experiences result in failure. 3) the future is hopeless
aggression
behavior that is forceful, hostile, or attacking. In sociology, aggression is considered something that is intended to cause harm or promote social dominance within a group
self-enhancement
behaviors that an individual engages to elicit a more favorable response from others
instinct
behaviors that are unlearned and present in fixed patterns throughout a species
selective priming
being predisposed to observe something because it has previously been encountered frequently or is expected
fundamental attribution error
believe that others behave a certain way based on inherent personality flaws
procedural bias
bias related to how information is obtained and may occur when researchers put some sort of pressure on subjects to provide responses. By offering monetary compensation of any amount to subjects, researchers used incentive to obtain results, leading to this phenomenon
selection bias
bias that arises when the sample is not representative of the population, such as not being randomly chosen
dispositional attribution
blame behavior on internal causes (e.g. that driver is a bad person)
hypothalamus
brain structure located above the brainstem that is involved in many autonomic processes including body temperature, hunger, thirst, fatigue, and sleep; it is also involved in the physiological aspects of emotion including sweating and increased HR
self-concept (self-identity)
broadly defined as the sum of an individual's knowledge and understanding of his/herself including physical, psychological, and social attributes, which can be influence by the individual's attitudes, habits, beliefs, and ideas
rapid eye movement (REM)
bursts of quick eye movements present in the last stage of sleep
reinforcement modeling
can lead to aggression through positive reinforcement. Parents who give into demands of temper tantrum leads to more tantrums
sublimation
channeling aggressive or sexual energy into positive, constructive activities
olfactory receptors
chemoreceptors in the upper nasal cavity that respons to odor chemicals
gustatory receptors
chemoreceptors on the tongue that respond to chemicals in food
Concrete operational
children learn the idea of conservation and reasoning skills. Accommodation happens at this step.
educational stratification
children's achievements mirror their parents
depressant
class of drugs that depress or slow down neural activity, includes alcohol, barbiturates (tranquilizers), and opiates
intellectual disability
classification for individuals who have an IQ below 70 and functional impairment in their everyday lives; previously called mental retardation
episodic memory
clear memories of unique and often highly emotional events, such as where you were and what you were doing during the 9/11 terrorist attacks, also called flashbulb memories
Karl Marx
closely identifies with conflict theory, he argued that societies progress through class struggle between those who own and control production and those who labor and provide the manpower for production; he believed that capitalism produced internal tensions which would ultimately lead to self-destruction of capitalist societies to be replaced by socialism; he along with Emile Durkheim and Max Weber are considered the founding fathers of sociology
Pygmalion effect
closely related to the self-fulfilling prophecy; the two terms are even considered synonymous in some circles; it is a type of self-fulfilling prophecy where if you think something will happen, you may unconsciously make it happen through your actions or inaction. It occurs in the workplace when a manager raises his or her expectations for the performance of workers, and this actually results in an increase in worker performance.
conjunction fallacy
co-occurrence of two instances is more likely than a single one
central route
cognitive route of persuasion based on the content and deeper aspects of an argument
prevalence
commonness
Piaget's stage at 7-11 years old
concrete operational
secondary reinforcers
conditioned reinforcers that are learned through their direct/indirect relationship with primary reinforcers; e.g. money: it is not innately rewarding, but we have learned that it can provide access to primary reinforcers
Solomon Asch
conducted research on conformity and group pressure by placing subjects in a room with several confederates (the subjects believes the confederates to be fellow study subjects) and observing the behavior of the subject when the confederates provided clearly wrong answers to questions
Jean Piaget
developmental psychologist who formulated a 4 stage theory of development for children
differential association
deviance is a learned behavior that results from continuous exposure to others who violate norms and laws (growing up in the ghetto)
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
disorder characterized by 3 clusters of symptoms:
cultural shock
disorientation when you move to a new culture
reaction formation
expressing the opposite of what one actually feels when it feels dangerous to express true emotion. e.g. first grader being mean to a girl that he is secretly in love with
Erik Erikson
extended Freud's theory of developmental stages in two ways. He added social and interpersonal factors, to supplement Freud's focus or unconscious conflicts within a person. And he delineated additional developmental stages and conflicts in adolescence and adulthood, to supplement Freud's focus on early childhood. His stages include: trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, and integrity vs. despair
social stigma
extreme disapproval of person or group, may arise from deviant behavior
explicit memories
facts you can clearly describe. Two types: semantic and episodic
Collective behavior
fads, mass hysteria, and riots. Not the same as group behavior because social interactions are short
change blindness
fail to notice changes from a previous state to a current state in environment
kinship
familial relationship including blood-ties, family-ties, and common ancestry
Phineas Gage
famous case of a man who suffered damage to his prefrontal cortex after a railroad tie blasted through his head. His symptoms due to damage to this area included: impulsivity, an inability to stick to plans, an inability to demonstrate empathy
Albert Bandura
famous for his Bobo doll studies that demonstrated observational learning; also pioneered the idea of the importance of self-efficacy in promoting learning
Ivan Pavlov
famous for naming and describing the process of classical conditioning by training dogs to salivate to the sound of a ringing bell
positive symptoms
feelings or behaviors that are usually not present
sympathetic nervous system
fight or flight. Pupils dilate, increase hr, increase glucose release, decrease in digestion
REM stage
final stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, and beta waves which are seen in individuals when they are awake; despite these wave patterns, however, the sleeper is paralyzed aside from small twitches leading to the description of the stage as 'paradoxical sleep', this is generally when dreams occur
sensorimotor stage
first stage of Piaget's developmental theory from birth to age 2 where babies learn object permanence and demonstrate stranger anxiety
rational choice/exchange theory
focuses on what provides the greatest reward for the lowest cost
cohort study
following the subset of a population over a lifetime. A cohort is a group of people who share a common characteristic in a period of time.
denial
forceful refusal to acknowledge an emotionally painful memory
secondary groups
formal, impersonal, temporary, business-like relationships
nodes of ranvier
gaps in the myelin sheath of the axons of the peripheral neurons; action potentials can jump from node to node; thus increasing the speed of conduction (saltatory conduction)
semantic memory
general knowledge, facts. A type of explicit memory
fixation (problem solving)
getting stuck on the wrong approach to a problem
fundamentalism
go back to strict religious beliefs/ creates social problems when people take it to the extreme
federalist
government head that shares power w/ constituent groups
primary groups
groups that play a more important role in an individual's life (often meeting emotional needs); these groups are usually smaller and include those with whom the individual engages within person, in long-term, emotional ways. Close and intimate.
6 universal emotions
happiness, sadness, fear, disgust, anger, surprise
medulla
heart and lungs
executive functions
higher order thinking processes that include planning, organizing, inhibition, and decision-making
melatonin
hormone produced by the pineal gland that affects sleep/wake cycles, and seasonal functions
structural strain theory
if a person is blocked from attaining a culturally accepted goal, they may turn to deviance
self serving bias
if we succeed it is because of our internal qualities, but if we fail it is because of something outside of our control
REM sleep
important for memory consolidation, formation of episodic memories.
punishment
in operant conditioning, a consequence that decreases the likelihood that a preceding behavior will be repeated; types includes positive and negative punishment
confederates
in psychological and social research, a confederate is a person who is working with the experimenter and posing as a part of the experiment, but the subjects are not aware of this affiliation
palmar grasp reflex
in response to stroking a baby's palm, the baby's hand will grasp. This reflex lasts a few months
church
in sociology, a type of religious organization that is well-integrated into the political and economic structures of society, and attempts to provide an all-encompassing worldview for followers
preganglionic neuron
in the autonomic nervous system of the PNS, a neuron that has its cell body located in the CNS and whose axon extends into the PNS to synapse with a second neuron at an autonomic ganglion (the second neuron's axon synapses with the target organ)
biofeedback
means of recording and feeding back information about subtle autonomic responses to an individual in an attempt to train the individual to control previously involuntary responses (for example, muscle tension, heart rate, respiratory rate)
morbidity
measure of sickness or disease within a geographic area while
modeling
mechanism behind observational learning in which an observer sees a behavior being performed by another person; this model is utilized to allow the observer to later imitate the observer
semantic memory
memory for factual information
echoic memory
memory for sound, which lasts for about 3-4 seconds
chunking
memory technique in which information to be remembered is organized into discrete groups of data. This clustering allows more information to be remembered overall
schema
mental blueprint containing common aspects of the world
schemas
mental frameworks/blueprints that shape and are shaped by experience
heuristics
mental shortcuts used for problem solving, using these sometimes sacrifices accuracy for speed
symbolic interactionism
micro. Sees individuals as active in shaping her society instead of merely being acted upon
meditation
mindfulness technique for training attention in a particular way; may involve intense focus on one object of attention or broad attention to a field of awareness
fundamental movement skills
movement patterns that involve different body parts. They are the foundation movements or precursor patterns to the more specialized, complex skills used in play, games, sports, dance, gymnastics, outdoor education and physical recreation. (Autistic children have the ability to master these)
polysomnography (PSG)
multimodal technique for measuring physiological processes during sleep, including EEG, EMG and EOG
acetylcholine
muscle contraction
ciliary muscle
muscle that helps focus light on the retina by controlling the curvature of the lens of the eye
feral children
neglected/abandoned children who grow up without without human contact/care. Much of our knowledge about socialization comes from these individuals who were not socialized
mores
norms that are highly important for the benefit of of society and so are often strictly enforced, mores are general (but not always) formal norms
folkways
norms that are more informal, yet shape everyday behavior (style of dress, ways of greeting, etc.)
ethnographic
observing social interactions in real social settings
penis-envy
occurs during phallic stage (the third of Freud's 5 psychosexual stages) when a female realizes she does not have a penis
gender bias in medicine
occurs when women and men receive different treatment for the same disease or illness
double-blind study
of or relating to an experiment or clinical trial in which neither the subjects nor the researchers know which subjects are receiving the active medication, treatment, etc., and which are not: a technique for eliminating subjective bias from the test results.
SES (socioeconomic status)
often defined in terms of power; the ability to get other people to do something, property (sum of possessions and income), and prestige (reputation in society), because these three concepts tend to (but not always) be related in the US society
positive transfer
old information facilitates the learning of new information (athletes learn new sports easily)
Schwann cells
one of the 2 peripheral nervous system supporting (glial) cells; they form the myelin sheathe on the axons of peripheral neuron
sleep cycle
one of these consists of the progression through sleep stages 1-4 in sequence followed by an ascension from 4 back to 1 and then a transition into REM sleep; typically takes about 90 min
self-esteem
one's overall self-evaluation of one's self-worth
coercive organizations
organization in which members do not have a choice in joining
acting out
overt expression of unconscious emotions and impulses without insightful understanding of one's behaviore
permissive parenting
parenting style that creates few rules and demands and little discipline; parents are warm and loving to their children, but very lenient and allow their children
authoritative parenting
parenting style that places limits on behavior and consistently follows through on consequences, but also expresses warmth and nurturing and allows for two-way communication between parents and children
phonological loop
part of Alan Baddely's model of working memory that allows for the repetition of verbal information to aid with encoding it into memory
reticular formation
part of the brain that is responsible for motivation and alertness
magnocellular pathway
pathway responsible for detecting motion
cultural universals
patterns or traits that are common to all people; cultural universals tend to pertain to basic human survival and needs, such as securing good and shelter, and also pertain to events that every human experiences, including birth, death, and illness
Yerkes-dodson law
peak performance happens at moderate arousal
justification of effort
people do something they don't want to to justify the effort they put into it
Continuity theory
people try to maintain some basic structure throughout their lives over time. As they age, they make decisions that preserve that structure
Freud's psychoanalytic theory
personality is shaped by childhood experiences and unconscious thoughts/desires
cones
photoreceptors in the retina of the eye that respond to bright light and provide color vision
rods
photoreceptors in the retina of the eye that respond to dim light and provide us with black and white vision
brainstem
pons, reticular formation, medulla
racism
prejudices and discriminatory actions that are based on race (or ethnicity), or hold that one race/ethnicity is inferior to another
group pressure (peer pressure)
pressure exerted by a group that causes one to change behaviors, values, attitudes, or beliefs
meaningful encoding principle
principle that states that experts use prior knowledge in the encoding of new domain-specific information
bureaucratization
process by which organizations become increasingly governed bylaws and policies
classical conditioning
process in which two stimuli are paired in a way that changes a response to one of them
cultural acculturation
process of change that happens when 2 cultures meet
associative learning
process of learning in which one event, object, or action is directly connected with another. Two general categories include classical and operant conditioning
encoding specificity principle
proposed by researchers Thomson and Tulving, states that memory is most effective when information available at encoding is also present at retrieval; explains why a subject is able to recall a target word as part of an unrelated word pair at retrieval with much more accuracy when prompted with the unrelated word than if presented with a semantically related word that was not available during encoding
mindfulness-based stress reduction
protocol involving mindfulness meditation, shown to be effective for helping individuals with pain, stress and anxiety
Erikson's theory
psychosocial development theory. Proposed that personality and identify occurs throughout ones life. Each stage depends on over coming conflict. 8 stages.
pragnanz
reality is reduced to the simplest form possible (eg Olympic rings)
electroencephalogram (EEG)
recording of electrical impulses in the brain
electrooculogram (EOG)
recording of eye movements
electromyogram (EMG)
recording of skeletal muscle movements
displacement
redirecting aggressive or sexually impulsive behaviors onto a less forbidden object
institutional discrimination
refers to unjust and discriminatory practices employed by large organizations that have been codified into operating procedures, processes, or institutional objectives (e.g. laws and decisions that reflect racism, such as the Plessy vs. Ferguson U.S. Supreme Court case. The verdict of this case ruled in favor of separate but equal public facilities between African Americans and non-African Americans.)
Broca's area
region of the brain located in the left hemisphere of the frontal lobe. Involved with speech production. Damage to this part of the brain results in Broca's aphasia, where individuals know what they want to say but are unable to express it verbally
pineal gland
region of the brain responsible for the production of melatonin: a hormone that influences slepp/wake cycles and seasonal functions
hypothalamus
regulates autonomic nervous system, controls endocrine system, responsible for hunger and thirst. Controls the pituitary gland, the master gland that controls all other glans in the body
fixed-ratio schedule
reinforcement schedule in which reward is offered after a set number of instances of a behavior
shaping
reinforcing behavior that approximate the target behavior
dopaminergic neurons
release dopamine
prospective memory
remembering to do something in the future
mere exposure
repeated exposure to novel people or objects increases our liking for them
endogenous cues
require internal knowledge to understand the cue and the intention to follow it. E.g. a mouse arrow
social recipricity
responding to a kind or generous action with another kind or generous action
Wernicke's area
responsible for the comprehension of speech.
recognition
retrieving information from memory with the use of cues such as a multiple choice format
recall
retrieving information from memory; free _____ involves retrieval without any cues, whereas cued _____ prompts retrieval with a cue
regression
reverting to an earlier, less sophisticated behavior.
sanctions
rewards and punishments for behaviors that are in accord with or against norms
Roger's humanistic theory
says people are inherently good and we are self-motivated to improve so we can reach self-actualization
high levels of dopamine
schizophrenia
Pineal gland
secretes melatonin
stereotype threat
self-fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype (e.g. girls and math)
Piaget's stage at 0-2 years old
sensorimotor
hair cells
sensory receptors found in the inner ear, cochlear hair cells respond to vibrations in the cochlea caused by sound waves, and vestibular hair cells respond to changes in position and acceleration used for balance
cribriform plate
separates brain from olfactory epithelium
communism
shared ownership but absence of currency, classes, etc./
schachter- singer
simultaneous emotion + physiological response
narcolepsy
sleep disorder in which the individual experiences periodic overwhelming sleepiness during waking periods that usually last less than 5 min
mechanical solidarity
society shares common beliefs, individuals share a collective conscience
behavioral genetics
study the role of inheritance in interacting with experience to determine an individual's personality and behaviors
Age stratification theory
suggests that age is a way of regulating the behavior of a generation
empathy-altruism hypothesis
suggests that people are altruistic due to empathy
negative reinforcement
taking something away (unpleasant) to increase behavior
negative punishment
taking something away to decrease behavior
mental set
tendency to fixate on solutions that worked in the past though they may not apply to the current situation
negative symptoms
the absence of appropriate behaviors
retention interval
the amount of time elapsed since information was learned and when it must be recalled
crude death rate
the annual number of deaths per thousand people in a population
crude birth rate
the annual number of live births per thousand people in a population
general fertility rate
the annual number of live births per thousand women of child-bearing age within the population
self-schemas
the beliefs and ideas people have about themselves
optic disc
the blind spot of the eye; this is where the axons of ganglion cells exit the retina to form the optic nerve; there are no photoreceptors here
iconic memory
the brief photographic memory for visual information which decays in a few tenths of a second
fluid intelligence
the capacity to think logically and solve problems in novel situations, independent of acquired knowledge; it involves the ability to identify patterns and relationships that underpin novel problems and to extrapolate these findings using logic.
soma
the cell body of a neuron
cornea
the clear portion of the tough outer layer of the eyeball, found over the iris and the pupil
impression management or self-presention
the conscious or unconscious process whereby people attempt to manage their own images by influencing the perceptions of others; this is achieved by controlling the amount of type of information or the social interaction
beliefs
the convictions or principles that people within a culture hold
bystander effect
the fact that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other people around
oral stage
the first Freud's 5 psychosexual stages; in this stage, the child seeks sensual pleasure through oral activities such as sucking and chewing
basilar membrane
the flexible membrane in the cochlea that supports the organ of Corti (the structure that contains the hearing receptors). The fibers of the basilar membrane are short and stiff near the oval window and long and flexible near the apex of the cochlea. This difference in structure helps the basilar membrane to transduce pitch
latency stage
the fourth of Freud's five psychosexual stages; in this stage, sexual interest subsides and is replaced by interests in other areas such as school, friends, and sports
principle of aggregation
the idea that an attitude affects a person's aggregate or average behavior, but cannot necessarily predict each isolated act
depth of processing
the idea that information that is thought about at a deeper level is better remembered
social behaviorism
the idea that the mind and the self emerge through the process of communicating with others
absolute poverty
the inability to meet a bare minimum of basic necessities, including clean drinking water, food, safe housing, and reliable access to healthcare
representativeness heuristic
the mental shortcut where one judges the likelihood of things based on typical mental representations or examples of those things. Assessing similarity of objects and organizing them based around the category prototype
mere presence
the most basic level of interaction between individuals; when people are simply in each other's presence either completing similar activities or just minding their own business
Alzheimer's Disease
the most prevalent form of dementia, this disease is characterized behaviorally by an inability to form new memories, known as anterograde amnesia
optic nerve
the nerve extending from the back of the eyeball to the brain that carries visual information; it is made up of the axons of the ganglion cells of the retina
acetylcholine (ACh)
the neurotransmitter used at the neuromuscular junction, throughout the parasympathetic nervous system, and by the preganglionic neurons of the sympathetic nervous system
norepinephrine (NE)
the neurotransmitter used by the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system at the post-ganglionic organ-level (synapse)
cultural capital
the non-financial social assets that promote social mobility
personality
the nuanced and complex individual patterns of thinking, feeling, and behavior associated with each person
replacement level fertility
the number of children that a woman or couple must have in order to replace the number of people int he population who die
life expectancy
the number of years that an individual of a certain age can expect to life at present mortality rates
phenotype
the observable characteristics and traits of an organism
functionalism/ structural functionalism
the oldest of the main theories of sociology, which conceptualized society as a living organism with many different parts/organs, each of which has a distinct purpose (Prominent theorists include Herbert Spencer, Talcott Parsons, Auguste Comte, Davis and Moore, Robert Merton, almond and Powell)
master status
the one status that dominates the other statuses and determines that individual's general position in society (e.g. occupation, disability, role, etc)
in group
the one we are connected with
effector
the organ that carries out the command sent along a particular motor neuron
adrenal cortex
the outer region of the adrenal gland. The adrenal cortex produces cortisol in response to long-term (chronic) stress and aldosterone in response to low BP or low blood osmolarity
scapegoat
the people or group who are unfairly blamed for something, or at whom displaced aggression is directed
social support
the perception that one is cared for and part of a social network; supportive resources can be tangible or emotional
retrieval structure principle
the principle which states that experts develop memory mechanisms (called retrieval structure) to facilitate the retrieval of information stored int he long-term memory; these mechanisms operate in a fashion consistent with the meaningful encoding principle to provide cues that can be later regenerated to retrieve stored information effectively without a lengthy search
selective attention
the process by which one input is selected to focus on out of the field of possibilities in the environment
secularization
the process through which religion loses its significance
residential secgregation
the separation of groups into different neighborhoods, which most often occurs due to racial differences, ethnic differences, and/or socioeconomic differences; it is NOT based on laws, but rather enduring social patterns, which are attributed to suburbanization, discrimination, and personal preferences
organ of corti
the structure in the cochlea of the inner ear made up of the basilar membrane, the auditory hair cells, and the tectorial membrane; the Organ of Corti is the site where auditory sensation is detected and transduced to action potentials
social reproduction
the structures and activities in a place in a society that serve to transmit and reinforce social inequality from one generation to the next; cultural capital and social capital are two mechanisms by which social reproduction occurs
sociobiology
the study of how biology and evolution have effected human social behavior, primarily it applies Darwin's principle of natural selection to social behavior, suggesting there is a biological basis for many behaviors
sociology
the study of how individuals interact with, shape, and are subsequently shaped by the society in which they live
social epidemiology
the study of the distribution of health and disease across a population, with the focus on using social concepts to explain patterns of health and illness in a population
Correct rejection
the subject did not respond when no signal was present
False alarm
the subject perceived a signal when none was present
Hit
the subject responded affirmative when a signal was present
confirmation bias
the tendency to actively seek out only confirming facts
phallic stage
the third of Freud's psychosexual stages; in this stage, the child seeks sensual pleasure through the genitals
object permanence
the understanding that things continue to exist once they're out of sight
latent functions
the unintended or less recognizable consequences or a social structure, can be considered beneficial, neutral, or harmful (e.g. A newspaper acting as a fly swatter)
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
the universal authority on the classification and diagnosis of psychological disorders; the current latest edition is the fifth edition of the DSM (the DSM-5)
circadian rhythm
the waxing and waning of alertness throughout the 24-hour day
social stratification
the way that people are categorized in society; people can be categorized by race, education, wealth, and income, among other things
sclera
the whites of the eye, attachment point for muscles
educational segregation
the widening disparity between children from high income neighborhoods and low income neighborhoods due to taxes
James-Lange Theory
theory of emotion that claims that emotional experience is the result of physiological and behavioral responses (e.g. forcing a smile makes you feel slightly happy)
place theory
theory of sound that says our perception of sound depends on where each component frequency produces vibration along the basilar membrane
Oedipus complex
this complex occurs during the phallic stage (the third of Freud's 5 psychosexual stages) when a male child is sexually attracted to his mother and hostile towards his father who is seen as a rival.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
this guy sought to explain human behavior by creating a hierarchy of needs (demonstrated by a pyramid) at the base of this pyramid are physiological needs or the basic element necessary to sustain human life; in order, the rest of the needs include, safety, love and belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization; lower-level needs must be met before higher-level needs
Sapire-Whorf hypothesis
this hypothesis asserts that people understands their world through language and that language in turn shapes how people experience their world
frustration-aggression principle
this principle suggests that when someone is blocked from achieving a goal, this frustration can trigger anger, which can lead to aggressionk
pons
waking and relaxing
generalized other
when a person tries to imagine what is expected of them from society, they are taking on the perspective of the ____.
proactive interference
when information you previously learned interferes with the ability to recall information later (e.g. forgetting where you parked your car)
mood-dependent memory
when learning occurs during a particular emotional state, it is most easily recalled when one is again in that emotional state
environmental injustice
when people in poorer communities are more likely to be subjected to negative environmental impacts to their health and well-being
justification of effort
when people modify their attitudes to match their behaviors, specifically those involving effort
social persuasion
when someone says something positive to you, it helps you overcome self-doubt
self-fulfilling prophecy
when stereotypes lead a person to behave in such a way as to affirm the original stereotypes
projection bias
when we assume that others have the same feelings we do due to our tendency to look for similarities between ourself an others
state-dependent retrieval
when you are in a certain mood when you encode you can then remember it
construct validity
whether a tool is measuring what it is intending to measure
external validity
whether the results of the study can be generalized to other situations and other people
Wernicke's aphasia
words do not make any sense. Can't understand what others are saying
just world hypothesis
you get what's coming to you
public declaration
you're more likely to follow through if you've told everyone
