Reformation and Modern Church History

1881-1937. John Greshem Machen

Baltimore, MD - NT Prof. at Princeton - started an independent mission board - forced out of the seminary by liberals - him and friends started Westminster Theological Seminary "Christianity and Liberalism" - liberalism is a separate religion - takes away and adds - simply an ethical system (feeling, not doctrine) - an attempt to rescue Christianity by changing it and capitulating to the wishes of the day - liberalism says history not important

16th cent. Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) - after his death, his "On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres" was published - argued that the sun, not the earth, was the center of the universe (heliocentric, not geocentric) - Cardinal Bellarmine condemned the Copernican theory Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) - his mathematical computations affirmed Copernicus's heliocentric theory - argued that Scripture was written in "language of appearance" (like Augustine's "accommodation language) Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) - Used an improved telescope adding validity to the Copernican heliocentric theory - argued for BOTH the authority of Scripture and Copernicus' heliocentric theory - He was called to recant and was put under mild house arrest

1500's. Theological Issues of the Day

No Assurance of Salvation - Fear of Hell enormous - Luther felt enormous guilt, hated God's law, didn't know if he was saved - Penance was everything (contrition, confession, satisfaction) - Pilgrimages were demanded to remit sin - Purgatory intended for people to work off their sin - Indulgences were $ given to church leaders to pray for those in purgatory to transfer the merit of Christ and the merit of the saints to them to get out sooner - Treasury of merit of Christ and the saints

Anglicans in England

Official Church of England was Anglican. - Richard Baxter called for pastors to live godly lives, cetechize their families, to restore political peace, to teach obedience, and point people to the basics of Christianity. - Baxter unity in necessities and liberty in the non-necessities Book of Common Prayer mandated for ministers. Canons of the Constitutions of the Anglican Church (59th canon): - Church gatherings must include Scriptural instruction, articles of belief, Lord's Prayer, Catechisms from the Book of Common Prayer Anglican bishops preached against godlessness. 1. Anglicans weary of "enthusiasms" of personal spiritual experiences (like George Fox had). 2. Linking with Reformed people. Archbishop William Blake corresponded with Reformed Protestants and Gallican Catholics believing that they all shared more beliefs than they did not share. 3. Latitudinarians also believed that we needed to hold firmly to primary beliefs but hold loosely onto secondary beliefs. 4. Others went more of an Arianist route (Samuel Clarke)

1724-1804. Emmanuel Kant

German philosopher "What Is Enlightenment" - Enlightenment is breaking from of the "self-imposed nonage" which is being submitted to the guiding thoughts of others - Essentially, "free" thinking is the only "true" thinking - Thought-freedom is THE highest good of man - Anti-tyrannical views of government of course - In public you're bound by the sphere you're in (pastor is bound by theology, officer is bound by the state) but the "scholar" is the totally free one to say and write whatever they want

Philipp Jakob Spener (1635-1705)

"Father of German Pietism" Studied Theology at Strasbourg -Prof. Dannhauer's personal piety inspired him First Pastoral charge at Frankfort (1666) -convinced of moral and religious reformation in German Lutheranism -sermons emphasized lively faith/sanctification of daily life -established in 1670 the collegia pietatis (pious gathering or "conventiciles") which were small gatherings that discussed sermons, devotional reading and mutual edification Wrote "Pia Desideria" (Pious Wishes) 1) Word of God = King 2) Priesthood of all believers (laity) 3) Doctrine must cultivate a spiritual life 4) Disputes don't change people: repentance & faith does 5) Pastors should be Christians: pastoral piety & education 6) Preaching should edify

1768-1834. Friedrich Schleiermacher

"Father of modern theology" - born in Breslau, Silesia (mostly Poland in central Europe) - father was a Moravian pastor - Pietistic education - then attended Halle University (1787) - Pastored, studied, taught in Berlin. Influenced at Halle by: - Immanuel Kant (debated at Halle) - Christian Wolff (see "German Higher Criticism Begins" above) (at Halle) - Johann Salomo Semler (taught at Halle) - Plato - Spinoza - Johann Gottfried Herder - other "Neologian" biblical critics Two Influences: (A) Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803) - German Romantic - Taught that religion is primarily a feeling, not based on reason - Schleiermacher liked this (B) Immanuel Kant - taught that "pure" reason did not exist - we don't actually know things as they are (the "noumena" = 'things in themselves'); we only know the appearance of the true things ('phenomena') - Thus the mind likely looks around and thinks that it sees design in the world when in fact it does not - Schleiermacher liked this too Rejected Biblical Infallibility - argued that the "warrant" for religion flows from the self: from one's feelings and internal experiences - argued that really all there is is the "One" or "World All" out there - Jesus is our savior in the sense that he constantly maintained his "God-Consciousness" throughout his life - Sin is our problem in the sense that we forget our God-consciousness - Christianity should be practical and not heady

Religious Tolerance: John Locke

"Letter Concerning Toleration" - Always will be many religions - Human mind is fallible thus cannot settle all religious matters - Heresy might be sin but not a crime - State cannot impose religion - Why? 1. Jesus nor NT use force to impose religion 2. Force is hypocritical (kill for heresy but allow moral degradation) 3. Religion is about caring for souls (magistrates are not commissioned to do this) 4. Religion is an internal belief (that cannot be marshaled) 5. Magistrates hold different religious views so how can they decide what is right?

Luther's Writings

"On the Bondage of the Will" - Augustinian view of human freedom bound by sin until Christ liberates "40 Theses": Given at the "Heidelberg Disputation" (1518) after his "95 Theses" were posted. - 1. Law of God can't make us righteous - 2. The will can't help us (sin) - 3. Grace says, "Believe and everything is already done." - 4. The core gospel text is Luther's defense "On the Papacy of Rome" - True church listens to God's Word - "Donation of Constantine" (pope has power to elect rulers) a forgery "The Address to the German Nobility" - Church = corrupt - people = must step in - Churches should elect pastors (not state) - priests should marry - priests are not superior to pay people - all people can interpret Scripture (not just the pope) - pope cannot summon church councils - pomp and greed and prostitution must be done away with - universities ought to be reformed "On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church": the Church was abusing the sacraments and thus holding the Church captive in their hands. - Eucharist must not be withheld from the laity - Eucharist was not Christ's body and blood - Eucharist is a not a re-sacrifice of Jesus (mass) - Rejected confirmation, marriage, penance, ordination, and extreme unction as sacraments "The Freedom of the Christian Man" - True faith causes us to work not for salvation but to be a servant of all - We are what we do: A) Adam didn't gain righteousness by working; he WAS righteous B) Bishops don't become bishops by doing bishop-works; they become bishops and then are able to do bishop-works C) Bad-builders are not made bad by their bad houses; bad houses are built by already bad-builders

1680-1789. Age of the Lights

"Philosophes" (French philosophers) - Argued that Reason, not Christ, was the light of the world - Reason would progressively renew the world "Enlightenment" - Kant believed that unhampered reason, without any external direction, would truly liberate mankind Yet Christianity would also flourish in this time. (See below)

1400-1500s Nationalism on the Rise

(1) Conciliar Movement puts power in the hands of the people. (2) Luther's "95 Theses" have a national effect and advocated for the power of the people (3) Reformation of the church came through the protection and advocacy of political governors. In other words, there was trust in national leaders.

Rise of the Ottoman Empire

1281-1923. House of Osman ruled the "Ottoman Empire". - 1453 Turks take Constantinople which was the capital city of the Christian Byzantine Empire (modern day Istanbul, Turkey). - Christians not permitted to evangelize Muslims - Christians not permitted to marry Muslims - Christians forced to pay huge taxes - Raised up Christian and Muslim boys to be military leaders for the Muslim sultans - Church patriarchs under the control of the Muslim sultans

1300-1500s. Political, social, economic, and religious environment of Europe.

(1) European population decreases and lives under fear of death: - Hundred Years War (1337-1453) left many dead. Gunpowder invented. - Famines - Black Death (1347-1350); bubonic plague, Ebola-like virus, or anthrax? (2) How could people assuage God? - Hermit life? Seclusion? Asceticism? Mysticism? (3) Great innovations occur. - architecture, sculptures, paintings, educational reform, Greek and Roman manuscript findings, printing press invented in 1440 (4) Discovery of "new" lands. Christopher Columbus (Italian) sailed to the Caribbean believing God ordained it. (5) Turks (Muslims) take Constantinople (1453). (6) Priest numbers grew. (7) Renaissance: "To the Source!" cared about ancient texts (Gk., Lt., Heb.).

New England Church (Issues & Legacy)

(1) Hutchinson Controversy (Boston) - Anne Hutchinson led a conventicle (small group) that grew - expounded a double predestination view of some people being stuck in a covenant of works (destined to perdition) and a covenant of grace (destined to salvation) - denounced Puritan ministers for them supposedly teaching a covenant of works - claimed she received direct revelation from God - banished from the colony (2) Quakers (Boston, Rhode Island, Massachusetts Bay colony) - Mary Dyer was a disciple of Anne Hutchinson - Joined "Religious Society of Friends" (aka Quakers) hearing George Fox's preaching - Became an activist Quaker - Eventually put to death for spreading her views throughout the area (3) Salem Witch Trials - Witch hunts happened in France and Switzerland largely due to a book called "The Hammer of the Witches" (1486) that argued for it - Reached its peak in Europe (1581-1675) - Estimated deaths 40,000-60,000 people - Craze came to New England - Total of 25 were executed in New England LEGACY: Congregational churches (A) Old Lights = low Calvinism, high Enlightenment (B) Old Calvinists = high Calvinism, low Enlightenment (C) New Lights = Great Awakening, new birth theology

Atheists Attack Christianity

(1) Ludwig Feuerbach (1804-1872). Germany. - "The Essence of Christianity" stated that God is not real but instead is a mere human projection built of human attributes - When we pray we don't pray but just engage in self-catharsis (2) Ludwig Buchner (1824-1899). Germany. - Claimed that science has debunked supernaturalism - Religious people should stay out of science and science out of religion (3) Alfred Grotjahn (1869-1931). Germany. - University of Berlin professor - Social Darwinist - Eugenics advocate (4) Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900). Germany. - Atheist German philosopher - son of a Lutheran pastor - taught at University of Basel - Attacked Christianity for being a "religion of the weak" in that it imposes a false guilt upon us - Foolish: God having children with women, sages that tell us not to work, justice = vicarious sacrifice - Argued for the "Superman" ("overman") in which a person could achieve by human effort and progress apart from religion - Reason and Christian faith do not mesh - "God is dead" - "No absolutes exist" (which is an absolute!) - Mental collapse in 1889 that lasted 11 years till his death (5) Karl Marx (1818-1883) - Germany, France, Belgium, UK - social critique & economist - spent hours in libraries (on the dime of his wife) - material is all; production is all; work is all - Good things He hated poverty He loved creative work He had a utopian goal of workers in society - Hated capitalism because it reduced people to dollars - Believed that power was used to oppress (esp. religious power) - Thus, get rid of God! - Upheaval (revolution) sometimes necessary for society - "Communist Manifesto" (1848) (6) Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) - Austria - God = delusion - Religion stems from: an infantile need for a father helps restrain our animalistic-violence - Thus, now that we are more civilized, we don't need religion - Religion = "universal obsessional neurosis" (7) Betrand Russell (1872-1970) - UK - Man will die and rot - Man = accident - Self doesn't exist - All beauty & creativity will end in nothingness - No good or evil - Matter is all there is - "I believe that when I die I shall rot, and nothing of my ego will survive." "A Free Man's Worship": - I believe "'That man is... the outcome of accidental collocations of atoms; that no fire, no heroism, no intensity of thought and feeling, can preserve an individual life beyond the grave; that all the labors of the ages, all the devotion, all the inspiration, all the noonday brightness of human genius, are destined to extinction in the vast death of the solar system...." "Brief and powerless is man's life; on him and all his race the slow, sure doom falls pitiless and dark. Blind to good and evil, reckless of destruction, omnipotent matter rolls on its relentless way; for man, condemned today to lose his dearest, tomorrow himself to pass through the gate of darkness, it remains only to cherish, ere yet the blow fall, the lofty thoughts that ennoble his little day..."

1300-1500. Papal Issues

(1) Pope Gregory VII: Wrote the "Dictatus Papae" to give popes power to depose emperors. (2) Pope Innocent III (1161-1216) used this same power in Lateran IV to demonstrate his power to reform the church through canon law. (3) Trust in the papacy in decline due: - Pastoral Pluralism: one bishop per 2-5 districts meant no pastoral care. - Pastoral Absenteeism: bishops never there - Papal Abuse: Operated as political/military leaders and not as pastors. Abuses of simony, sexual deviance (pederasty, concubines, prostitutes), indulgences, greed. Popes/bishops paid small fines to have concubines and to have illegitimate children (but didn't need to repent). (4) Schism: 3 Popes vied for power (Rome, Avignon, Pisa). Clement V 1st of 7 popes in Avignon. Avignon papacy especially corrupt. (5) Conciliar Movement ended the Great Schism (1378-1417) of the 3 Papacies which gave the people the power to elect popes meaning Christ's authority flows not directly to the pope but to his Church as a whole.

Religious Tolerance: John Owen

(A) Heresy should not be punished - OT Law forbids idolatry (not heresy) - Heresy is a differing of religious opinion that doesn't deserve death (diff. sins. diff. punishment) - Rom. 13 does not sanction heresy-punishment but instead civil-punishment (B) Intolerance is the mark of pagan rulers in Scripture (Pharaoh, Nebuch., Nero)

1694-1778. Voltaire

(Francois Marie Arouet) Voltaire - Frenchmen - attended a Jesuit college - issue with the problem of evil - pushed against his Jansenist brother's view of God (Armand) Loved England - "the people think freely and nobly" there - "Reason is free" there - Tried to propose this model to the French people Pushed against Pascal's view that sin deceives our reason and thus only grace can save us. Voltaire believed reason could indeed perfect us apart from grace. Geneva - attempted to "convert" Christians to his deism - attempted to "convert" two pastors there Argued for luxury and human progress. Rationalism (anti-Romanticism) - We ought rely on our reason for knowing reality (external observation) - Pushed against Rousseau his whole life and Rousseau against him God does not intervene in the world (anti-Rousseau). - Wrote "Crush the infamous thing" in regard to Christianity Lisbon Earthquake - 20,000 (or 30-40,000) people died seemingly so blindly that he believed that perhaps life was so blind and wouldn't progress and would end in misery for all Social Action - He still pushed against injustice - "Calas Case" (Jean Calas) - He was a French Huguenot who was wrongly put to death for supposedly killing his son who supposedly wanted to convert to Catholicism. - Voltaire for 3 yrs. advocated to clear Calas's name and did God - professed to believe in God - more deist - believed that God is necessary to keep us in line - believed that even if there wasn't a God we'd have to invent one

Calvin's "Institutes"

1539 = 1st edition, 6 chapters 1559 = grew to 80 chapters - Book 1: The Knowledge of God - Book 2: The Knowledge of God the Redeemer in Christ - Book 3: The Way we receive the Grace of Christ - Book 4: The External Means or Aids by which God Invites us into the Society of Christ and Holds us therein - True faith must grip the heart and affect the life - True knowledge must be judged by the life - True doctrine means nothing without fruit

1680-1789. Christianity in the Age of the Lights

(See "Age of Lights" above). - Christianity still maintained a dominate role in European thought - Could be called the "Age of the Bible" because it was the most "printed; it was the most read, the most edited, the most sought after [book]." (historians Yvon Belaval and Dominique Bourel, p. 390 Woodbridge and James)

Hermeneutics of Suspicion

* Coined by Paul Ricoeur (1913-2005) - French Philosopher Describes thinking of Nietzsche, Marx, & Freud - interprets everything suspiciously - finds meaning beyond the obvious (reads against the grain, between the lines) - instead of simple explanations, the less kind, more complex, least obvious idea is the best interpretation - In other words: you think 'x' is about this but it is REALLY about that. (Rita Fileski, literary theorist) "thinkers jointly constitute a "school of suspicion." That is to say, they share a commitment to unmasking "the lies and illusions of consciousness;" they are the architects of a distinctively modern style of interpretation that circumvents obvious or self-evident meanings in order to draw out less visible and less flattering truths (from Ricoeur's 'Freud and Philosophy: An Essay on Interpretation.' New Haven: Yale UP, 1970. 356) - http://journal.media-culture.org.au/index.php/mcjournal/article/view/431

1805-1873. Bishop Samuel Wilberforce

* NOT William Wilberforce Claimed that Darwin's views were incompatible with Christian belief. - God is the author of nature and Scripture Debate: The British Association in Oxford (1860) - Huxley and Wilberforce - Debated Darwin's theories - Wilberforce to Huxley: So you're saying that your ancestor was an ape? - Huxley to Wilberforce: I'd prefer that than tracing my ancestry back to someone who doesn't use his brain.

1638-1712. Richard Simon

- (France) Father of Biblical Criticism - Jesuit trained "A Critical History of the Old Testament" - published in response to Spinoza's view that Moses did not write the entire Pentateuch (in "Tractatus Theologico-politicus") - Simon argued his 'public scribes' theory in which a community of scribes penned the Pentateuch (guided by the Holy Spirit) - Argued for 'perfect neutrality' in regard to taking all beliefs out of the equation when assessing biblical material - Argued that the Bible could not be infallible due to its compilation

1632-1704. John Locke

- (UK) Raised in a Puritan family - attended Christ Church College (Oxford) - heard John Owen preach there regularly (school's dean) - valued Newton, Boyle, Huygenius, and Richard Simon "Second Treatise on Government" - argued for people's ability to overthrow a divine right monarch if that monarch violates his covenant to care for the people as a loving father - argued for limited govt., revolution as a right, and property as a right "The Essay on Human Understanding" - How do we know things? - Opposed Descartes's view that people have innate knowledge - Instead, humans are "tabula rasa" = "blank slates" in that they only know things by experiencing the external world. - Thus, people are shaped by the external world and nothing else "The Reasonableness of Christianity as delivered in the Scriptures" - Locke saw himself as a Protestant - all one had to do is believe in Christ as the Messiah and to obey him - Christianity is reasonable - Put lots of confidence in reason to perfect man since it was unaffected by the Fall "Letter Concerning Toleration" (of religion) - See "Religious Tolerance: John Locke" ABOVE

1809-1882. Charles Darwin

- Attended Edinburgh University and Cambridge - Originally considered himself a Christian - Never pushed against the existence of God Darwin's Influences: - Read Thomas Malthus's "An Essay on the Principle of Population" proposed a struggle for survival among people (1798, Darwin read it in 1838) - Read Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's proposal that all species descended from other species (1801, 1809) - After publishing "Origin of the Species" in 1859 Darwin read Alfred Wallace's work (1858) that independently supported his own views of evolution "Origin of the Species" (1859) - had already abandoned Christian belief - challenged the idea that all species were independently created - defined "natural selection" as the process by which slight variations that prove useful to a species remain whereas other variations die out ("survival of the fittest" is the same essential idea but was coined by Herbert Spencer). - did not believe it pushed against religion - did seem to push against aspects of species creation listed in Genesis 1-2 "The Decent of Man" (1871) - proposed the idea that humans descended from "ape-like" ancestors

1837-1920. Abraham Kuyper

- Netherlands. - Theologian, politician, journalist, educator - Attended University of Leiden - Became a liberal pastor and had one of his old parishioners meet with him regularly to tell him he wasn't a Christian and needed to read Calvin and he converted. - Became Reformed - Ministered in Utrecht - Ministered in Reformed Church in Amsterdam - The State Reformed Church wouldn't reform so Kuyper broke from it and created the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands - Started a seminary, started a newspaper, got elected in Parliament, started the University of Amsterdam. Sphere Sovereignty - Believed that there wasn't any part of all creation over which God wasn't sovereign, thus, Christians ought to influence every part. - "there is not a square inch in the whole domain of our human existence over which Christ who is Sovereign over all, does not cry: 'Mine!'" - Idea of Sphere Sovereignty is that the world is divided into spheres with their own rule. Science, economics, state, church, family, history, ethics, etc. And you can't apply the rules of one completely to the domain of another and yet each domain overlaps and influences the others. - The point: extend God's kingdom into ALL spheres of life!

British Society (1700s)

- Population surged - Affluence surged - Poverty also surged - Slave trade surged - Alcoholism surged (Gin) - Prostitution, violence, crime surged - Boredom surged (among the elites; led to gambling, sensual dances, brutal games, men fighting, sex, drinking, etc.)

1770-1831. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

- Praised reason - Absolute Idealist (meaning he was a monist in the sense that he believed that 'being' and 'thought' were one and could be described by terms of single reality or substances) - Taught that throughout history the "world Spirit or Absolute Idea passes through stages in history" (Woodbridge and James, 547) - Stages are: thesis antithesis synthesis new thesis - In other words, the Spirit out there is evolving in new forms of thought as we evolve

King James I (originally of Scotland then England)

- Queen Elizabeth I died in 1603 - James I succeeded her James I had for years ruled Presbyterian Scotland (since 1567) so Puritans in England thought he would be sympathetic to their reform ideas. Asked him to reform: - ban popish ceremonies (sign of the cross in baptism, wearing of the surplice, rings in marriage, bowing at Jesus' name) - shorter services - more rigid Sabbaths - better preaching Episcopacy Views: - Yet he wanted to enforce episcopacy because it aligned more with royal authority than with Puritan presbyters - Declared "No Bishop, No King" Approved of the KJV in 1611

1542-1587. Mary Queen of Scots

- Scottish father (King James V of Scotland) and French mother (Mary of Guise) - Dad died so Mary became "infant queen" of Scotland - the current French king (Henry II) betrothed his son 3 yr. old son, Francis, to Mary - Mary spent her youth in France - At the age of 16 Mary married Francis. Then Mary Tudor died. So Henry II declared Mary and Francis to be the King and Queen of England - Yet Francis died - Mary returned to Scotland a widow Queen - As Queen of Scotland attempted to remain Queen of England instead of her cousin, Elizabeth - embroiled in suspicious potential murder of her next husband, Henry Stuart ("Lord Darnley") - eventually imprisoned and executed by the order of Elizabeth (cousin)

David Livingstone

-great fame as a discoverer -1841 took gospel into Lake District of Central Africa -10yrs with the Tswana ppl -famous for being a missionary, geographical discovery and attack on slave trade

Theology of the Pious

1) Conversion -theological emphasis on regeneration of individual rather than justification (which they did affirm) 2) Centrality of Scripture -it is the supreme authority -studied it more for devotion/edification than for academia -Spener encouraged laity to learn Biblical languages -there is a connection btwn H. Spirit and Scripture 3) Sanctification -theology's goal was sanctification and personal piety -preaching aimed at moral laxity rather than justification by faith -tended toward moralism and legalism -worldly amusements-dancing, theater and public games were sins 4) Church Renewal -sought enhanced role for laity -"the priesthood of all believers" was a rallying cry for Xn laity to participate in minstry -pulpits to manned by regenerate to edify parishioners -small groups was another vehicle in which to nurture laity LEGACY of Piety Movement: - German pietists influenced the early Moravians who then went almost literally around the entire world with the gospel - John Wesley would eventually be changed by his short time with Moravians on a voyage - His experience with their passionate faith led to his own awakening movement - Today = American Methodists, Holiness Movement

German Pietists

1635-1705. Philip Jakob Spener - Founder of "German Pietism" - People must be immersed in God's Word - the heart must change - devotional readings, meditation, small groups are necessary for this - started pastoral training schools Hermann Francke (1663-1727) - divinity schools ought teach the original languages - pushed for further language study Johann Albrecht Bengel (1687-1752) - developed a textual analysis of the NT variants - used the text critical principle of the harder reading being the most preferred - emphasized ancient witnesses as primary King of Denmark, Frederick IV (1671-1730) - sent missionaries to India: A) Bartholomew Ziegenbalg B) Heinrich Plutschau - Ziegenbalg translated the Bible into Tamil, set up a school and missionary college Frederick William I (1688-1740) became king - greatly influenced by pietism - supported the Word of God going forth through ministers in the land (primarily through the University of Halle) Radical Pietists: Jakob Bohme -had mystical experiences and encouraged that those who have experiences have a more intimate experiences of Xn life Gottfried Arnold -emphasized transformative power of Xn "new birth" -defended heretics-infuriated orthodox Lutherans -actually became more appreciate of confessional Lutheranism late in life Moravians: Zinzendorf- reader of diverse theology -invited Unity of the Brethren(trace back from John Hus)-from Moravia and Bohemia to settle at estate -had a "Moravian Pentecost" Zinzendorf becomes leader-encourages missionary work Rebecca Protten -married a Moravian missionary -she was a former slave -helped establish the first African Protestant Church in N. World John Wesley -greatly influenced by Moravians -Peter Boehler reminded him of assurance -visited Zinzendorf -admired Moravians but broke with them Willam Carey pointed to Moravians as examples of missionary passion.

Religious Tolerance: William Penn

1644-1718 'The Tower was the worst of all arguments to convince him.' (banishment) - Sent to American (Pennsylvania) to start his own colony (religiously free)

c. 1495-1536. William Tyndale

1st English Protestant meeting held at the White Horse Inn in Cambridge. Tyndale was possibly one of its attendees. English Translation - After studies at Oxford, Tyndale was convinced that the Bible must be translated into English. - Catholic bishops were against this - Went to Wittenburg using Luther's German translation as a model - made his 1st English NT+Pentateuch+parts of OT (1526) Imprisonment and Death - On the run from King Henry VIII - eventually imprisoned (1535) for 16 months - put to death in 1536 (strangled)

Post 1630's. Jansenism

A Jansenist is essentially a Reformed Catholic. - Cornelius Jansen (eventually a bishop) - Jean Du Vergier (eventually an abbot) Both while studying at the Catholic University of Leuven became deeply immersed in studying Augustine of Hippo. Jansen wrote a manuscript defending his views: 1. Original sin 2. Human depravity 3. Necessity for divine grace 4. Predestination Port Royal convents became major disseminaters of Jansen's views (called "Jansenism"). Pope Innocent X issued a bull condemning its views: - opposed the view that without grace humans can't respond to God - opposed the view that grace can't be resisted - opposed the view that Christ only died for the elect Blaise Pascal would later defend the views of one Jansenist writer.

1714-1770. George Whitefield

A part of the "Holy Club" with the Wesleys. Preached to miners, fishers, farmers, markets, fields, etc. in America (also went to England, Scotland, and Wales to preach there) - ordained priest in the Anglican communion - 20,000-30,000 people could hear him preach - took 6 wks of solitude, prayer, and Scripture memorization - evening prayer - got to know people - Had an theatrical side - Benjamin Franklin was fascinated by his preaching ability - Calvinist (was concerned with Wesley's Arminian beliefs) Helped start the "Reformed Methodist" group along with Howell Harris and others. Preached 7500+ sermons!

French Revolution: Religion and Terror

A) Religion Jacobin Revolutionaries -believed should excise Xn faith from France -went on a "dechristianization" campaign which didn't eradicate faith Maximilian Robespierre -advocated a cult of reason over a cult of the supreme being French ppl start talking of loyalty to the state with terms that they would have used to describe loyalty to God. French Xns and Revolution -initially protestants and Catholics supported it -hoped a Xn monarchy would emerge -yet Xns became distraught by "anti-Xn" orientation of revolutionary govt-turned away divine right monarchy -priests became servants of the state as they were elected, not authority from ordination -around 25k Catholic clergy went into exile or were deported -anti-clerical mobs killed Catholics -Catholic peasants (royalists) revolt and the revolt is suppressed by Napoleon B) The Terror Jacobian revolutionaries attempted to draft larger armies of citizens to protect republic from foreign foes Efforts were put into eliminating internal foes through use of Terror -Louis XVI was executed via guillotine -Marie Antoinette was executed as well -revolutionaries (esp Jacobians) terrorized suspects -hauled suspects before tribunals-if found guilty was either guillotined, deported or imprisoned -16.6k executed -bloodiest months under Robespierre -mass deaths in the suppression of the Catholic peasant (royalist) revolt

Charles I

After James I died in 1625, his son Charles took the throne - Believed that kings are "little Gods on earth" Relationship Between Crown and Puritans Worsen: - Appointed William Laud as archbishop of Canterbury-embarked on religion policy of High Anglicanism emphasizing ceremony and theology that leaned toward Arminianism. - Sought to impose on the Scottish Church a prayer book in 1637 which caused an uproar. - Charles led two campaigns to quell the rebellion but it was futile Parliament then revolted: -Laud was accused of high treason -parliament passed a law that king couldn't dissolve parliament without its consent -Charles fled to London in 1642

1822-1889. Albrecht Ritschl

Professor of Systematics and NT at Bonn and Gottingen (Germany) - Opposed Baur's approach to Scripture - Claimed Baur exaggerated the Peter/Paul divide - said Baur used incomplete sources - Highlighted: Redemption (divine grace at work) God's Kingdom (the ethical work of Christians)

1703-1758. Jonathan Edwards ("Great Awakening")

American born (in CT). - Not often a "hell-proclaimer" as people say - Delivered sermons: easily, naturally, solemnly (clear and precise and powerful) - Turn to Christ! (not moral striving) - Revival began over a sermon series on justification by faith (preached to the affections, theology of love, linked to Augustine) Faith for Edwards - Knowledge - Assent - Trust (We need all three. Faith needs to be "lively") "Religious Affections" - sermon that argued that true faith grips the "loves" of our lives - What we love is what we follow. - What we love is what we believe. - This pushed against the dead-doctrinalism of his day - When the Spirit grips the affections it will begin to naturally change the life Edwards called for a whole-life gospel obedience. - As in, the Holy Spirit doesn't create one virtue in us but grows them all over the course of one's life. Believed "new birth" can take on many forms. The "Great Awakening" that his ministry experienced was very good but had some issues as well: - trances, visions, shaking, roaring, shrieking, animal bellowing, loss of decorum, new converts preached (women and children), irreverent slandering of other preachers Created a divide between: - "Old Lights" = intellectualism (focused on flawed practices) - "New Lights" = affections (focused on the heart) Great Awakening's Roots Today: - Conversionism (must have a big conversion) - Activism (must be active in groups) - Centrality of Scripture - Centrality of Cross

Protestant Christian Missions

Andrew Fuller -reiterated the natural and moral inability of the sinner -argued that pastors had duty to preach the Gospel The Pioneering Role of William Carey -William Carey called "father of modern missions" -encouraged Baptist colleagues to engage in foreign missions -influenced by Andrew Fuller -discovered he was a natural linguist -cobbler, ran a Xn school and was a pastor -recognized and was influenced by missionaries before him-including John Wesley and Moravians -his encouragement led to the Baptist missionary society John Eliot -missionary to the Native Americans-translated Bible into their language Protestant task was daunting-90% lived in Europe, N.A and England Austraila had small protestant settlement Unfortunately reaching the "unknown" sometimes led to racial superiority when missionaries experienced different cultures -Carey notable had a genuine respect for the culture of India Missionary Socities/Organizations start growing Missionary Strategists -encourage self-propogating churches rather than natives relying on missionaries -John Nevius a missionary to China and Korea advocated the financial support of natives for native leaders-give sense of responsibility -Eugene Stock-"best missionaries" are natives to their own countrymen Native Missionaries -esp notable are African to African -James Africanus Beale Horton-parried racism African Missionaries numbers swell in 2nd half of 19th Cen. -in approx 30 years-9 missionaries to 148

1491-1547. King Henry VIII

Arthur (his brother) died leaving his wife, Catherine of Aragon, as a widow. So Henry married Catherine even though this was against Catholic law (Pope Julius II granted it). His "Act of Supremacy" (1534) - 6 out of 7 of their children died. Only Mary lived ("Bloody Mary") - fornicated with Catherine's female assistant, Anne Boleyn and impregnated her - got his marriage with Catherine annulled - married Anne Boleyn (gave birth to Elizabeth) - and broke from the Catholic church with his "Act of Supremacy" making the king the full head of the Church of England (Theology was still Catholic) Marriages: - Catherine of Aragon (annull., died under guard) = child: Mary - Anne Boleyn (executed) = child: Elizabeth - Jane Seymour (died 12 days after birth) = child: Edward VI - Anne of Cleves (annulled, lived) - Catherine Howard (executed) - Catherine Parr (married till his death, then she remarried) Children: - Mary (by Catherine of Aragon) - Protestant persecutor (ruled 5 yrs.) - Elizabeth (by Anne Boleyn) - Moderate Protestant (ruled 50 yrs.) - Edward VI (by Anne Seymour) - (ruled 6 yrs.)

1517. Luther's "95 Theses"

As a Roman priest he felt unworthy to give the Eucharist because HE, as a priest, had the power to turn it into the ACTUAL body and blood Jesus. "Ex Opera Operato" = "Out of the operation operated" or "Out of the doing it is done". At this time it didn't matter if the priest or lay person understood what was happening. What mattered was that it WAS happening. Luther proposed a debate at which he gave 95 theses against indulgences (among other things). - Thesis #21: "Hence those who preach indulgences are in error when they say that a man is absolved and saved from every penalty by the pope's indulgences;" - Thesis #27: "There is no divine authority for preaching that the soul flies out of purgatory immediately the money clinks in the bottom of the chest." - Thesis #53: "Those are enemies of Christ and the pope who forbid the word of God to be preached at all in some churches, in order that indulgences may be preached in others." - Thesis #54: "The word of God suffers injury if, in the same sermon, an equal or longer time is devoted to indulgences than to that word."

1642-1727. Isaac Newton

Believed: - Natural philosophy (science) and Biblical revelation were NOT in conflict - that natural laws actually point to the reality of a Creator and Architect of the universe His whole approach was (a) inductive investigation and (b) mathematical calculations together.

1800s. Tubingen School (Germany)

Biblical critics said we needed to view the gospels as largely mythical. (1) Ernest Renan ("The Life of Jesus") - Catholic - Attempted to find the "real" Jesus amidst the gospel accounts (2) Albert Schweitzer (1875-1965) - "The Quest of the Historical Jesus" (1910) - Argued that the gospels don't accurately reflect who Jesus truly was (3) David Frederick Strauss (1808-1874) - Professor of Tubingen University (Germany) - "The Life of Christ Critically Examined" - Argued that myths grew up around Jesus which block us from the true beauty of Jesus's life and ministry - Forced out of Tubingen (4) Ferdinand Christian Baur (1792-1860) - Taught Strauss - Developed the Peter/Paul divide saying that Peter wrote to Jews and Paul wrote to Greeks and thus Paul's letters were Hellenized in that they have Greek elements in them (5) Julius Wellhausen (1844-1918) - Developed the Documentary Hypothesis of: J Document (Jahvistic/Jehovistic) E Document (Elohistic) D Document (Deuteronomistic) P Document (Priestly Code)

1560-1609. Jacobus Arminius

Born in Netherlands. Studies: - Protestant University of Leiden, Amsterdam - Then Geneva - Also with Calvin's successor Theodore Beza - Then pastored in Leiden and took a teaching position in Leiden University Had issues with: - Supralapsarianism - Unconditional predestination - Irresistible grace - All were affirmed in the Belgic Confession (Dutch churches) - Unclear on total depravity: "man himself is dead in sins." - Unclear on perseverance of the saints Proposed "prevenient grace": grace from God that "goes before" the fallen person to assist their will to accept Christ. Colleague at Leiden University (Fransiscus Gomarus) pushed against him theological till Arminius's death.

Princeton Seminary (late 1800s, early 1900s)

Bulwark of theological doctrine for many years (1) Archibald Alexander (2) Charles Hodge - Systematic theologies in which proof texts are awesome. Didn't seek after originality for originality-sake). (3) Louis Berkhof - did not provide good proof texts for his ideas. (4) B.B. Warfield came from Princeton too. A little more open to evolution. Sophisticated Inerrantist. Inerrant in the message and intent of the text but not necessarily without total error (allows for phenomenological language, round numbers, etc.) (5) Machen - Opposed Liberalism. Westminster Theological Seminary - PCUSA drove them out - they founded WTS

1813-1855. Soren Kierkegaard

Danish Philosopher - Suffered from melancholia - Wanted people to be costly disciples of Christ and not dead religious people "Purity of Heart Is to Will One Thing", "Works of Love", "Sickness Unto Death" - Sin makes us incapable of winning God's favor - Sin blinds us from rationale understanding - Thus Christ saves us by faith and not by reason Religious Existentialism - Argued that radical, personal faith matters - Argued that you become who you are by your experiences and by your choices Levels of Development - Aesthetic Stage: Experience beauty - Ethical Stage: Morality in life - Teleological Suspension of the Ethical: Ethics can be suspended toward the goal of God - Existential Stage: Do you depend on Christ or not? "Understand life backwards but live forwards"

1894-1962. Richard Niebuhr

Christian Ethicist - Scathing quote against liberalism: "A God without wrath brought men without sin into a kingdom without judgment through the ministrations of a Christ without a cross."

Puritans in England

Church of England needed "purification" during Queen Elizabeth's reign. Reform came through: - Sermons: longer sermons (shortened prayer-book readings); better sermons (pushed against stock-read sermons) - Prophesyings ("Conventicles"): sermon small-groups in which ministers met weekly to discuss sermons to get better (outlawed but continued); based on Zurich format - Underground Presbyterian church models spread as well - Started home churches in which the Bible was read and discussed by entire households (family, neighbors, house-workers, etc.) - Pushed against immorality of the day (whoredum, dicing, bull/bear biting [attacked by dogs for entertainment], bawdy plays, etc.)

1646. Westminster Confession of Faith (Overview)

Confessions were normal in this time period Confessions & Councils Err: - this is how it begins! - Scripture, not confession, is king Dealt with Issues of the Day: - Authority (Scripture) - Divorce - Magisterial involvement - Election/Pred. - Church structure - Sacraments being clarified - etc. Human Will & Agency: - Affirms God's control - Affirms human agency (God works through secondary means which is our will) God's Sovereign Grace: - Justification is an act of God's free grace Misses: 1) missions (England WAS the mission field) 2) the Holy Spirit 3) decrees of God 4) decrees of God's love 5) race? cultural particularity? 6) Sabbath = rest not mandated (pushed against King James on this) Pope = Anti-Christ: - Reacting to Trent - Saying the Pope is stepping in the place of Jesus What makes a sin more heinous? 1) Riper age, experience leader 2) if you sin against leader - This is probably showing an influence of medieval manuals. Structure: 1-9 History of Salvation 10-18 Order Salutis -justification-court -redemption-of commerce -propitiation-realm of temple -reconciled--realm of friendship 19-29 Describe Christian life 30 Church 31-32 End of Life Pastoral because 119 of 151 were pastors

WCF Context

Context: 1) During Elizabeth 2) after King James 3) King Charles- anglo-Catholic written during civil war of King Charles where he was declaring that his will was God's will (and while he mandated Anglicanism) -thus in dealing with civil magistrate-job is to protect church not rule church -reject rule and affirm protection -WCF-->King is under law/ God's law rules the nation WCF starts with the Question of Authority -because of rising nationalism -because science and observation lead to doubt of authority -because why should do bidding of another person? (King Charles was an authoritarian) -therefore WCF starts with authority of scripture-because of God -statement of its clarity-use of clear to interpret unclear WCF is explicitly against anabaptists Goes against Roman Catholic -scripture and tradition rule church -scripture is primary source, but not sole source

1545 - 1563. Council of Trent

Convened in response to: 1. Luther burning the Papal Bull (1520) 2. Growing Protestantism thereafter 3. Finally convened in 1545 for nearly 20 yrs. Councils 1-8: Under Pope Paul III (1545-1547) Councils 9-14: Under Pope Julius III (1551-1552) Councils 15-25: Under Pope Pius IV (1561-1563) Main Tenants: 1. Authority - Scripture & Tradition = equal in authority - Latin Vulgate = only authorized version - OT, Apocrypha, NT affirmed 2. Justification - Declaration AND infusion of righteousness (confusing sanctification and justification) - Grace requires cooperation - Justification can be lost - Justification re-gained through penance - Canon 9: "If any one saith, that by faith alone the impious is justified; in such wise as to mean, that nothing else is required to co-operate in order to the obtaining the grace of Justification, and that it is not in any way necessary, that he be prepared and disposed by the movement of his own will; let him be anathema." 3. Sacraments - 7 Sacraments - Transubstantiation ("a change is brought about of the whole substance of the bread into the substance of the body of Christ and of the whole substance of the wine into the blood of Christ." Council 13) 4. Ecclesial Power - Trent submitted to the pope's final approval thus effectively ending future conciliarism in the Catholic church

French Churches: Protestant Restoration, Revival and Theological Disputes

DeChristianization-weakened French protestanism 1802-Under Napoleon Reformed/Lutherans had to sear oath of fidelity 1818-spiritual revival began to spread within churches -Cook and Haldane promoted this revival -debates broke out btwn proponents and critics of revival -disputes btwn if would have mandatory confession of faith or "freedom of examination" Robert Gaussen -defended plenary inspiration, infallibility of scripture. -founded a theological school for students called Oratoire -Charles Spurgeon esteemed this work

Religious Tolerance

Definition: Civil authority is only concerned with external acts in religious pluralism Why did it happen? - People were tired of religious killing from the 30 Years War - Seen as a better way to promote unity in the state than religious conformity Case for it: - Force never converts - Beliefs are believed not forced by will - Governments have mixed interests (power vs. truth) thus aren't good religious guides - Magistrates can be wrong like anyone else about what is true

1491-1551. Martin Bucer

During Calvin's Strasbourg Interlude: - Calvin left Geneva for a bit and met Martin Bucer, the professor of theology at the Strasbourg Gymnasium - Bucer mentored Calvin as a father in the faith - Bucer instilled a temperate demeanor in Calvin

1469-1536. Desiderius Erasmus

Dutch. Humanistic and biblical studies. While in a monastery he read Jerome and Valla. Chrisitans ought to: - be pious (disciplined) - imitate Jesus' ethical life of self-sacrifice "Novum Instrumentum": his own Greek NT. - revised the translation based upon the Greek text - checked against Augustine and Jerome - checked against oldest Latin copies (A) William Tyndale (c. 1494-1536) used Erasmus's NT to translate his English Bible. (B) Martin Luther would used Erasmus's NT to translate his German Bible. Debated Luther (1520s): - Erasmus = Fall left our wills free - Luther = Fall put our will in bondage

Hudson Taylor

Early Life -turned away from Chirst Conversion -read "it is finished" and realized sufficiency of Christ's death -1854 arrived in China as a missionary -promoted "faith missions"-"God's work, done in God's way, will never lack God's supplies" -died in 1905 -missionaries followed him to China

Dissenters: "Evangelical Revival"

England was godless (see "British Society" [17th century] above). Evangelical movement against godless England. Saw themselves as recovering the core of the gospels that the Church of England had lost. Led primarily by: - John Wesley - Charles Wesley - George Whitefield Stressed: - personal conversion - Biblical authority - living out one's faith in good works

1558-1603. Elizabeth

Eventually Queen Elizabeth I (ruled 50 yrs.) - daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn - sister with Mary ("Bloody Mary") - persecuted Protestants - during teen years became Protestant in doctrine however worshiped liturgically as a Catholic to appease her sister Mary (Catholic Queen) who was persecuting Protestants - Mary sought to execute Elizabeth under suspicion of helping Protestant rebels but didn't succeed - Succeeded Mary as Queen after Mary's death - Elizabeth remained unmarried but led many suitors on (Philip II of Spain, Eric XIV of Sweden) Her "Act of Supremacy" (1559) - reasserted the Church of England's independence from Rome - kept Elizabeth as "Supreme Governor" of the Church of England Her "Act of Uniformity" (1559) - Set out the form of the English Church: "middle way" 1. Catholic liturgy 2. Protestant doctrine - "Book of Common Prayer" made normative throughout English churches

Issues with Darwin's Beliefs

Evolution or Devolution? - Darwin stated that: "natural selection works solely by and for the good of each being..." tending "towards perfection" - Critics wondered why some things go extinct? Why do some things devolve? How can things tend toward perfection if things have no superintended goal? Racism & Eugenics: - Applying Darwin's views creates racists views that some humans are superior to others - This leads to "eugenics" which is the belief that we ought eliminate inferior beings Infanticide, Suicide, and Eugenics: - Ernst Heinrich Haeckel (zoologist) brought Darwinism to Germany - Argued for infanticide, suicide, eugenics (eliminating the weak), that a personal god didn't exist nor do people have immortal souls Darwinism Works with Christianity: - Henry Drummond (American) argues for the compatible of Christian views and Darwinism All of this pushed theologians toward: - Existentializing Christianity (like Schleiermacher's emphasizing personal experience) - Catholic modernist wanted to accommodate Christian views - Catholic conservatives did not - Thomist Christians began emphasizing apologetics and theistic proofs sometimes potentially arguing that reason alone could convince people of Christianity

The French Revolution

Fall of the Bastille (July 14, 1789) -Fearing a preemptive strike, Parisians and the gardes francais attacke the Bastille -Commander was taken prisoner and then decapitated -Bastille was demolished -Sovereignty of the nation was not under the king, but of the people. The French Revolution was interpreted by Marxist and socialist leading historians as a major step towards socialism and possibly Communism French Revolution -was the consequence of the bourgeoisie (middle class) and peasants (lower class) feeling pushed to the margins and the upper class continuing to grow in wealth -peasants engaged in revolts -culminated in the Fall of the Bastille

1647-1706. Pierre Bayle

Father was a French Reformed pastor. Bayle separated religion from morality. "Historical and Critical Dictionary" - brilliant - hundreds of articles - would state a an orthodox thesis that cross-referenced other articles that would then debunk the orginal thesis - in so doing he could present "orthodox" ideas but then covertly subvert then by the cross-references

1703-1791. John Wesley 1707-1788. Charles Wesley

Father was an Anglican priest. Grandparents were Dissenters (so against the Anglican Church). John Wesley - Educated at Oxford - "Holy Club" group included his brother Charles, himself, and George Whitefield. Sought to live out their faith radically and obediently. - Worked with the Chickasaw Indians along with Charles (not very successful) - Traveled there along with Moravian missionaries and were affected greatly by the passion of their faith. - back in England he learned from another Moravian (Peter Boehler) that dominion over sin and a constant sense of forgiveness were marks of conversion - In addition to this, he read Luther's Preface to his Romans commentary and felt like he was born anew (warmed heart) at Aldersgate, London) - 3 days later, the same happened to Charles (felt it in his heart) - codependent (addicted to helping) - divorced his wife of 20 yrs. Charles Wesley - Wrote 9,000+ hymns! Positives for John Wesley: - Open air preaching, itinerant - Scripture infallible and authoritative - True faith is necessary - Wanted his followers to be people of prayer - Both Wesley's established "societies" of Christians, instead of churches, to function as small groups of fellowship, prayer, accountability, and teaching - flexible method - emphasized repentance, faith, and holiness Issues for John Wesley: - non-trained and non-ordained preachers were raised up - Arminian - Believed in the perfectibility of people - One can lose their salvation - Lots of this can be seen in "Scripture: The Way of Salvation"

1934. Wycliffe Bible Translators

Founded by William Cameron Townsend - translated NT in over 1200 languages - entire Bible in over 400 languages - portions in over 2300 languages

Era of Revolutions

French Revolution took place in the context of series of revolutions -revolutions before and after French revolution-Europe, N. World, S. America -rise of socialist and marxist ideas served to justify revolutions -Marx said "religion is the opiate of the ppl" i.e religion is a way for those in power to control those without power. -however, some revolutions and social activists were doing so in the name of Christ Revolution Defined -for the French it wasn't equated with restoration but as initiation of new order

1455-1536. Jacobus Faber

French humanistic and biblical teacher. His Bible studies taught: FOCUS = ancient Bible study - no purgatory - Christ's death redeems (works do not redeem) - theology was not a science (like Scholastics thought) - theology is wisdom from Scripture - originally Aristotelian but then Neoplatonist

1689-1755. Baron de Montesquieu

French politician and quasi-sociologist. How do humans relate to one another? - Newton sought the "Laws of nature" - Montesquieu sought the "Laws of human nature" - proposed that monarchies work better in Catholic lands and republics work better in Protestant lands - Freedom? Could never fully explain how humans have true freedom if blind laws govern them.

1713-1784. Denis Diderot

French. Jesuit trained. Atheist - "The thought that there is not a god has never frightened anyone, but rather the thought that there is one, such as the one that has been described to me" (Thought 10). "Encyclopedie" - millions of words (17 volumes of text, 11 volumes of drawings) - 220+ writers (priests, pastors, theologians, philosophes, scientists) - Voltaire and Rousseau contributed 1000's of articles - Showed the order and relationships of all fields of knowledge while showing general principles upon which each field is based - Like Bayle, he adopted the cross-referencing method to propose "orthodox" beliefs and then debunk them through referencing other articles Freedom - As a materialist didn't know how humans could be completely free if determined by physicality (yet espoused human freedom)

German Higher Criticism Begins (1700s)

GERMAN ENLIGHTENMENT: All of these would be considered "Neologians" (1740-1790) in that they mixed Christian theology, new scientific thought, and new biblical criticism. (1) Christian Thomasius - founder of University of Halle - Enlightenment & Christianity go together (2) Karl F. Bahrdt (1741-1792) - non-Christian Enlightenment thinker - attacked Christian beliefs (3) Christian Wolf - controversal Halle teacher - rationalistic philosopher - belief in god not necessary for morals - believed reason and revelation go together BERLIN - The Center for Enlightenment: Frederick the Great - King of Prussia - then "Germany") - enraptured by French philosophes - provided them safe haven in his court (Voltaire and Maupertuis were two of these) - Chrisitan Wolf (above), ejected from Halle, but was re-admitted under Frederick the Great (1740). AUTHORITY OF SCRIPTURE REJECTED by: (1) Hermann Samuel Reimarus (1694-1768) - German philosopher and writer (deist) - Scripture not true - Reason, not revelation, leads us to religious knowledge - Christ did not think he was the Messiah - Disciples stole his body to fake his resurrection (2) Johann Salomo Semler (1725-1791) - Taught at University of Halle - Bible fallible - pull the "dross" from the "real" (3) Gottfried Ephraim Lessing (1729-1781) - "accidental truths of history can never become the proof of necessary truths of reason" - historical events cannot est. universal truths - Lessing popularized Reimarus's work (4) Johann Philipp Gabler (1753-1826) - taught at University of Aldorf. - parse out the "facts" of the Bible from "myth" (miracles)

Dissenters: General & Particular Baptists

General Baptists (began in Holland and moved to England) - Arminians - no infant baptism - no double predestination - Christ died for the sins of all (generally) but that not all would believe - Some would eventually hold an anti-Trinity view Particular Baptists - Calvinists - adopted much of the WCF (opposed ordinances, ecclesiology, church/state relations) - Christ died for the elect - infant baptism - Congregationalist ecclesiology

1489-1565. Guillaume Farel

Geneva. Moved to Catholic Geneva (months before Calvin). Fiery sermons and public disputations led to: - No mass - Catholic clergy could become Protestant or leave

1906-1945. Dietrich Bonhoeffer

German - "Confessing Church" opposed Hitler - taught all over (Union in NY in 1939) - returned to Germany - Operation Valkyrie (1944) was a hit on Hitler - captured and hanged in a prison camp (1945) two weeks before Americans liberated it - German medical doctor in that Nazi camp wrote about Bonhoeffer before his death: "In the almost fifty years that I have worked as a doctor, I have hardly seen a man die so entirely submissive to the will of God." Main Contributions: - When dire evil requires action to oppose it - "Costly Grace" = actually taking up the cross of Christ - Obedience to Jesus no matter how hard - "Religionless Christianity" = living completely connected and immersed in the world to impact it for Christ - "Life Together" book about deep Christian fellowship

1884-1976. Rudolf Bultmann

German theologian and professor - U. of Marburg - "Kerygma" is king ('proclamation' - message) - 'Message' of Jesus matters, not his history - We can't know the historical Jesus (e.g. the fact that people think he is God is a mere "post-Easter retrojection") - no miracles, no infallibility, no atonement, no heaven/hell/demons = all myths - Discern the "kernel" of truth from the "husk" (demythologizing Christianity) - the gospel = to encounter "Christ" through his message and decide to then live "authentic" human lives thereafter

August Hermann Francke (1663-1727)

Germany. Graduated from U of Leipzig -in 1687 he experienced a conversion there This conversion was paradigmatic for Pietisim: -conversion is preceded by agonizing conviction of sin that is datable to which one can point for confirmation Led a revival which sparked conflict with university and led to his expulsion from the city "Pietist" was a term coined by detractor Joachim Feller As a prof. at University of Halle = Pietism NOT anti-intellectual -educator -started: orphanage, home for indigent widows, institute for training of teachers, medical clinic, home for begers, publishing house for printing and distribution of Bibles, and the Paedagogium-school for upper-class students

1630s. Roger Williams

Got to Boston (1631). Was expelled from Massachusetts Bay Colony for his pastoral views. - Relocated in the Narragansett Bay which he called "Providence" - This was declared the 1st free Protestant colony (free from any other political authority) - Established the First Baptist Church in America there (1638) having been convinced that faith-baptism was accurate

c. 1440. Printing Press

Invention by Johannes Gutenberg in Mainz. Greatly increased the dissemination of Reformation and then Humanistic ideas.

1407-1457. Lorenzo Valla

Italy. "Christian" rationalistic humanist who taught: - predestination & salvation by grace - inherent goodness of man (rationalism) Argued that the "Donation of Constantine" (found in the Pseudo-Isidore Decretals from the 700s, gave the pope the power to appoint secular rulers) was a forgery not penned by Constantine. Doubted Jerome's penning of the Vulgate. Disagreed with the Gk. metanoia being translated as penance in Lt. Emphasized going back to the Greek text of the NT.

1304-1374. Petrarch

Italy. "Francesco Petrarca": humanist poet. Made up the title "Renaissance man" and was one himself. Studied: - ethics, history, philosophy (of Cicero), poetry, etc. He loved the ancient philosophical lifestyle. Believed philosophy ought to create the "good life." Greatly admired Augustine as well.

1463-1494. Pico della Mirandola

Italy. Published 900 theses by the age of 24! Cocky. Sought debate. "On the Dignity of Man": (title given posthumously). - Humans have free will - heterodox, Neoplatonic Christian thoughts - synthesized Greek and Christian thought - believed philosophy and "right thought" could purify us "Disputations Against Astrology": He argues that Christianity is better than astrology, magic, and hermetic religions. Overall view of Christianity: - Fall didn't really effect us - rationalism and philosophy can save us

DeChristianization Campaign

Jacobian revolutionaries (radical activists led by Robespierre) -thought that the use of terror was rational -wanted to establish dictatorship to protect revolution Robespierre -assumed role of dictator -under him the movement of deXnization began to thwart suspected Xn opponents of the revolution Great Festival dedicated to the Cult of Reason Temples of Reason were erected while priests were called to abdicate their function Clergy were executed and deported. Robespierre saw reason as unifer of French Ppl -ordered Cult of Reason to be replaced by Cult of supreme being -Robespierre was turned on by members of the Convention and he was guillotined.

Missions to the East

Japan - By late 1540's Portuguese Jesuits make it to Kyushu, Japan - Thousands convert - Decline years later due to Daimyo Hideyoshi's suspicion of their western influence (a powerful figure in Japan) China - Jesuit Matteo Ricci made it there later 1500's - Protestant Scot Robert Morrison, 1st Protestant to reach China (1807). Made a Chinese dictionary. - William Milne (his colleague) worked on translating the OT into Chinese, made a press, and a Christian school in Malaysia Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864): China - Radical Hong Xiuquan saw himself as the messiah and brother of Jesus and led the "Taiping Heavenly Kingdom" movement - The Qing Empire fought them leading to 20,000,000+ deaths - Led to many Chinese hating Christianity Korea - Yi Sung-hun baptized in 1784 in Beijing, China. Returned to Korea (homeland) and evangelized. - American "Student Volunteer Movement" sent hundreds of missionaries to Korea leading to 30,000+ baptisms Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901) - Originally missionaries (Protestant and Catholic) had great freedom to move through China caring for orphans, the sick, opium addicts, giving food, giving the gospel, planting churches, Christian schools, and hospitals. - Yet, lots of missionaries separated themselves from Chinese culture too much and sequestered their own children from Chinese children - Boxers (secret society "The Righteous and Harmonious Fists", 50-100,000) and Qing Dynasty imperial troops (70,000) rebelled against anyone who was seen as a foreign threat - Thus they targeted foreign Christians and Chinese converts - Thousands were killed or raped, missionaries destroyed - When the rebellion was stopped, Allies imposed harsh reparations on Chinese - All of this hurt Christian and Chinese relations

1792-1875. Charles Finney

Jefferson County, NY - Commonly referred to in the "2nd Great Awakening" = but really this was just a continuation of the first one. Two-weeks after conversion he led a preaching tour: - Revivals - Moralistic - Arminian (reason king) - Manipulate to get altar call conversions Many defecting groups came from his legacy in this area: ("Burned Over District") - Joseph Smith (Mormons) - Seventh Day Adventists - Spiritualism - Universalists - Swedenborgs (Jesus had already returned) - Shakers (no sex)

Early 1400s. John Hus Seeks Reform

John Hus was executed (1415) for teaching: - Infallibility and thus authority of the Bible - Pope's should repent - Pope not the head of the Church but Christ is

1780-1850. Spiritual Awakening in Europe

King Frederick William III of Prussia (1798) - Wanted to unify the kingdom by Reformed and Lutheran churches coming together - 1829's forced obedience led many Lutherans to immigrate to Australia and America Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Norway - Pietists spread - Greater spiritual care of the people - emphasized good preaching - Poor economy and religious restrictions led 1,600 pietists to immigrate to America under Johann Georg Rapp British and Foreign Bible Society - In Germany and Scandinavia - printed Bibles, books, tracts distributed by itinerant preachers - Prayer meetings held - Bible readings in homes Norway, Sweden, Finland - Norway broke from Denmark but ceded to Sweden - War issues rise between them - Swedish Christians separated from the state church to form the "Free Church" and some immigrated to America Germany/Scandinavia - Friedrich August Tholuck (1799-1877) pushed against Strauss and Baur. He taught at the University of Halle. Argued that pietist tendencies: conversion, discipleship. Pushed against Hegel and Schleiermacher and other Neologians. - Ernst Wilhelm Hengstenberg (1802-1869) defended the whole Bible as the Word of God. Pushed against biblical criticism. - Netherlands state churches formed and Calvinists separated forming Reformed churches

Anti-Atonement Today

Liberal ideas oppose the atonement. YET, substitution is WOVEN into our world! - Did you pay for college? - Did you pay for health insurance? - Did you raise yourself? - Did you fight for our country's freedom? - Hunger Games, Matrix, Armageddon, Mighty Ducks, 13 Hours, Sons of Anarchy, Iron-Man, Spiderman, Batman, Superman, Captain America, Avengers, Guardians of the Galaxy (Substitution themes) - We LOVE when people trade places for others

Christians Respond to Deism

Lord Herbert ("Father of English Deism") 1. God exists 2. Give reverence to God 3. Worship through practical morality 4. Repent 5. We will be rewarded based on how we lived - Deism elevated reason over revelation. - Bible has errors. - God is not involved. - Natural religion is king (natural law and moral law) Apologists - based their refutations of deism on facts and evidence - argued for Scripture as authority - argued against atheism and deism - English apologists argued that reason was a good tool if used well - Scotland's Thomas Reid refuted Hume's arguments as leading to absurdities

1509-1564. John Calvin

M.A. in theological studies from the University of Paris starting at the age of 14! - abandoned this and studied law - then fell into a group of French humanists Converted largely through: - Melchoir Wolmar (Lutheran Gk. teacher in Orleans and then at the University of Bourges) befriended Calving during his law studies - Pierre Robert ("Olivetanus" = "Midnight Oil") translated the French Bible in Orleans and friend of Calvin Fled to Strasbourg from Protestant persecution in Paris. - There wrote beginnings of "Institutes of the Christian Religion" - Traveled through Geneva - While there, Farel heard that the author of "Institutes" was in town and pressed him to stay and pastor there. Calvin refused. Felt called to "private study" but capitulated to Farel and took his call in Geneva. Geneva (1st stay) - Most Genevans stayed "Catholic" so Calvin and Farel for two years had to win them to the Protestant cause in the now Protestant Geneva Strasbourg Interlude - Calvin left Geneva for a bit and met Martin Bucer, the professor of theology at the Strasbourg Gymnasium - Bucer mentored Calvin as a father in the faith - Bucer instilled a temperate demeanor in Calvin - Calvin married Idelette de Bure (worried his friends because he chose work over his wife) Geneva (2nd stay) - Ordered Genevan church structure in "Ecclesiastical Ordinances" this way: 1. Pastors: preaching, sacraments, discipline w/ elders 2. Teachers: clergy education, doctrinal purity 3. Elder: discipline, church attendance, morality 4. Deacons: poor, hospitals, orphans, refugees - "The Venerable Company of Pastors" were a group of pastors and teachers who met each Friday to study Scripture and quarterly to oversee education, ordination, and mutual discipline - "Consistory" was a group of clergy AND laymen (pastors, elders, magistrates) to aid in morality, ensuring that a pastor visited each home annually - Death penalty = heresy, blasphemy, adultery (2nd offense). Tortured occurred as well. - Preaching Sun., Mon., Wed., Fri. (expository) - Always battled Genevan Libertines (powerful immoral families) for the moral reform of Geneva Michael Servetus (Spaniard) - executed in Geneva for heresy - against deity of Christ, Trinity, original sin, infant baptism - Calvin and Farel tried to get him to repent - Calvin years earlier risked his life to win Servetus back to orthodoxy - After persistently coming back to Geneva to false teach, Genevan authorities burned Servetus to death Calvin on Evangelism & Missions: - Encouraged congregation to share the gospel - Due to refugees Genevan churches were filled with Spaniards, Italians, Scots, English, French, and Germans - 151 missionaries equipped and sent to France - led to the planting of thousands of churches and 3,000,000+ converts in France alone Calvin's Preaching and Commentaries - Natural - Engaging - Passionate - Pithy - "Lucid brevity" - Text by text - Calvin's Romans Commentary (300 pgs) Distinctives: 1. Can't know God without knowing the self 2. Three Uses of the Law (Mirror, Civic, Guide) 3. Lordship of Christ 4. Three offices (Prophet, Priest, King)

1483-1546. Martin Luther

Mentor Johann Staupitz encouraged him to get a PhD from University of Wittenberg. - Preached 3 sermons a week at parish church while teaching at Wittenberg - Studied the Psalms and Romans especially. - Romans 1:17 "righteousness of God" crushed him Discovered: - "passive righteousness" (that which we receive) - "substitution" throughout Scripture Conversion led to his seeking reform of the Church. Indulgences: Johan Tetzel had been hired the Church to sell indulgences all over Germany. - Penance, Pilgrimages, Purgatory huge in this time Protestant Reform (others included): 1. Justification by faith alone 2. Priesthood of all believers 3. Authority of the Bible After 95 Theses, Pope Leo X called Luther to recant. Heidelberg Disputation (1518) [after his "95 Theses" were posted.] - "40 Theses" - 1. Law of God can't make us righteous - 2. The will can't help us (sin) - 3. Grace says, "Believe and everything is already done." - 4. The core gospel text is Luther's defense Leipzig Disputation (1519) - Debates against Johann Eck who wrote 13 theses against him (and Luther responded with 13 countertheses. - Luther argued that church councils could err which Eck denied. The Diet of Worms (1521) - After Pope Leo X excommunicated Luther the Roman Emperor (Charles V) had to oppose Luther. - Luther summoned to this "imperial hearing" - Luther had 1,000+ knights pledged to protect him - Emperor, noblemen, and church officials present - Luther called to recant of his writings. Given 24 hours to think. (A) Some writings were devotional (B) Some writings opposed the papacy (C) Some writings opposed individuals - Luther decided: "I will not retract one iota, so Christ help me." He based all his comments on Scripture and reason. - Declared a heretic - Upon leaving, Luther was "kidnapped" and whisked away to the Wartburg Castle for protection. Orchestrated by Frederick the Wise (Frederick III, Elector of Saxony). *Electors were highly independent "governors". Wartburg Castle (1 year; 1521-1522) - Luther hid here - Translated the Greek NT into German "common" tongue for the every-man - Published and circulated through Wittenberg, Germany Upon return to Wittenberg: - Monasteries closed - Priests and nuns were marrying - Worship reformed (thankfulness to Christ not penance) - Iconoclasm (no images) - Social reform exploded: empowerment of the poor (no begging), hospitals, schools, orphanages, soup kitchens, shelters, "common chest" of public monies used by the govt. for these services - Luther marries Katharina von Bora (has kids, married 20 yrs.) Issues with Luther: 1. Two Kingdoms (visible - lower; invisible - higher) 2. Bigamy of Count Philip allowed. 3. Anti-semitism early and late 4. Antinomianism 5. Baptismal regeneration-leaning

1618. Synod of Dort (met in western Netherlands)

Met in response to the "Remonstrance Articles". - "Counter-Remonstrance" written up by Fransiscus Gomarus's followers (he was the colleague who pused against Arminius in Leiden) - 100+ delegates attended from England, Scotland, France, & Switzerland - All Calvinist meeting - Ruled Arminius's teaching as heretical - Rejected the Remonstrance Articles 1. Total depravity 2. Unconditional election 3. Limited atonement 4. Irresistible grace 5. Perseverance of the saints Later known as the "Five Points of Calvinism" or "TULIP". Afterward in the Netherlands, 200+ pastors were ejected from their pulpits and 80+ were imprisoned or sent out of the country. Arminianism would creep back about 6 years later.

The Rise of Modernization (1780-1919)

Modernization: - Weakened sense of corporate identity - Weakened sense of trusting the past - Strengthened sense of progress and trusting in the reason of today - Secularization is linked to this in the idea that progress occurs when we shed primitive religion Industrial Revolution: (1780-1840) - Coal used to power ships - Steam engine invented - Inventions surged - Factory work surged (thus work could be done regardless of weather and daylight) - Mass production becomes king - Travel time decreases (roads get better, trains, horse-buses, etc.) - Communication increases with travel - Leads to population growth - Leads to colonization on the part of England, France, Belgium, Portugal, Germany "Natural Knowledge": - Belief grows that we can master nature through science and technology to bring happiness to mankind. - Reason, science, and tech trumps God - Science becomes king (Thomas Huxley argued that the physical sciences trump the humanities and classical studies)

Irony of the French Revolution

The French people (especially radical revolutionaries like Maximilien Robespierre) sought a revolution of reason - Yet, during the Terror of 1793-94 people were brutally killed in the name of "reason" - They even used the philosophe writings to adjudicate their actions that they were acting for the ultimate good of France - Reason now was the savior. Reason now was to be worshiped in the "Temple of Reason"

c. 1491-1556. Ignatius of Loyola

Originally Ignacio Lopez de Loyola. - solider, shattered leg by cannonball in battle - studied "The Life of Christ" during recuperation - converted - Had a vision of Mary wiping his sins away - Imagined himself in the Gospel accounts with Jesus (in his book "Spiritual Exercises") Society of Jesus (later "Jesuits") - Commissioned by Pope Paul III - Loyola the leader - Military order - After 2 "trial" yrs., took vow of poverty, chastity, obedience - Spent 10 yrs. study of philosophy and theology - Then oath of obedience to the Pope "Rules for Thinking with the Church" - Wrote 18 rules - Essentially total allegiance to the Catholic Church, its traditions, and the Pope above all: "To be right in everything, we ought always to hold that the white which I see, is black, if the Hierarchical Church so decides it..." (Rule 13) First line in his "Spiritual Exercises" - "Man is created to praise, reverence, and serve God our Lord, and by this means to save his soul." Commissioned to: - Estab. schools and universities - Missionary equipping abroad (China) - Stop Protestant spread Today: Jesuits are some of the most free-thinking Catholics of all.

Dissenters (17th century)

Orthodox Protestants (some heterodox) who would not conform to the Church of England. - Puritans - Quakers - General Baptists - Particular Baptists - Fifth Monarchy Men - Ranters - Socinians English Protestants at this time: - Episcopalians - Presbyterians - Independents - Erastians (state over church)

1839-1901. Louis Auguste Sabatier

Paris, France - Taught that theology needed to stop operating from a method of authority to a method of experimental observation - Essentially it can't be dogmatic anymore but most be open to critique - Christ not God. He only had the "God-Conscience" - Invited his followers to know this for themselves of the mutual love within between God and them

Theological Renewal in German Pietism

Peace of Westphalia made room for Catholicism, Lutheranism and Calvinism-depended on the prince -weary from bloodshed they lobbed theological bombs at the other Pietism was a war-weary reaction to the scholastic theology of Lutheranism. -it was an intrachurch renewal movement -sought "living orthodoxy" - reaction to dead orthodoxy of confessional, state Lutheranism

1775. Lisbon Earthquake

Portugal - 9:40am Sunday All Saints Day - Highest day for church attendance - 20,000 (or 30-40,000) died out of 200,000 people - Both Protestants and Catholics blamed the other - All people saw this as an act of God against the deplorable moral state of Lisbon - Voltaire would argue the opposite: this blind suffering was evidence AGAINST God's existence

1634. Amyraldism

Post Synod of Dort, Moses Amyraut proposed a variation to Calvinism: "Hypothetical Universalism" or "Four-Point Calvinism" - Instead of Christ's atonement being particular (or limited) it was universal in scope but limited in application. In other words, Christ atoned for the sins of all time but this is only made effectual by those who put their faith in him. This view was opposed but tolerated in the Reformed churches of France, Holland, and Switzerland.

Theological Renewal in English Puritanism

Puritanism was extremely diverse while sharing a common theology -differed in church polity, worship style, even expressions of piety

1620s and 1630s onward. Puritianism in New England

Puritans impatient with the pace of reform (and the crown's intolerance for them) left to the either the Netherlands or the N. World (these were known as Pilgrims or "separating puritans") John Winthrop-Puritan lawyer who obtained a royal charter to establish the Massachusetts Bay colony -Winthrop wanted the colonists to be a "city on a hill" -captivated many with the idea of a Christian commonwealth -Winthrop's colonists were nonseperating, but wanted reform through embracing quasi-congregational church structure. New England Puritans -embraced vision of a "purified" society -obey God's commands --> for blessing -strict observation of Sabbath - Families were structured this way as well. -included public piety-prohibition of secular entertainment (just as England Puritans-bear baiting, theater etc) -distinct in that emphasis on credible public deceleration of conversion required for membership -later the "half-way covenant" emerged-granted baptism but not participation in the Lord's supper if no "born again" experience. This "half-way covenant" would hopefully lead to such an experience. -not a theocracy--clergy were not allowed any formal governing roles -they left to pursue religious freedom but they were intolerant of others with the same goal.

1759-1833. William Wilberforce

Quakers, John Newton, Welsey and others pushed against slavery before Wilberforce. 1791 Wilberforce made a speech to House of Commons urging them to abolish slavery. Slavery abolished in England in 1807.

Mary Slessor

Responded to Livingstone wanting someone to continue his work Volunteered to serve as single woman to serve in Nigeria -in a land of headhunters, witch doctors and sudden death she taught Jesus as the Great Physician and Savior, son of God who made all things. -defied hostile chiefs and warriors -took care of abandoned children -known as the "white ma" of the ppl

Roman Catholicism, state a secularism

Roman Catholicics missionaries tried to reinvigorate faith -peasants often embroided folktales, magic and superstitions Reign of Kings Charles X -under reign roman Catholicism was established -royalist catholics took contorl of education -govt issued anti-sacrilage act King Louis Phillipe -alloewd more religious liberties 1848-Napoleon takes power. Elected president -became emperor by mid-1850s -granted greater liberties to the press -lost Franco-Prussian war and was defeated in 1871

Christian Scholastics vs. Christian Humanists

Scholastics: Placed weight on argument based upon ancient Christian authority figures. Humanists: Placed weight on grammar and rhetoric especially by referencing ancient sources.

d. 1572. John Knox

Scotland. Priest who tutored Protestant families and converted as a result. - Youth attracted to his preaching - Senior Pastor of their church (John Rough) called Knox to replace him in the middle of one his sermons - Was a galley slave in a boat for 19 YEARS - Released and preached in England for a year No Kneeling: - refused to kneel to the elements - thought this divinized them Mary Queen of Scots began imprisoning and killing Knox's friends. - So he fled to Geneva in 1555 - Worked with Calvin (who mentored him) - Married - Moved back to Scotland (1559) "First Blast of the Trumpet of the Monstrous Regiment of Women" - Wrote this directed at Mary's regime - Published around when she died 1st Presbyterian Church - In Scotland he banded with the local lords to outlaw the mass - Church that was established was lord-led, not congregational, not hierarchical (Catholic), not monarchical (Lutheran)

30 Years War (1618-1648)

Setting: - All over Europe: Europe was a patchwork of nations at this time (principalities, dukedoms, city-states, ecclesial territories). - Fuel: Civil power (economic and dyanastic). But used religion to bolster positions. - Violence: Catholics thought it would be best if all protestants were killed (Hus, Luther, Inquisitions, Incas, St. Bart's Day Massacre). William the Silent fought back-wanted religious freedom. Loved by the people. - Protestants gathered in a Bohemian castle (Prague defenestration) to complain to two Catholic conciliars and they proceeded to throw the two Catholics out of the window Why? - Catholics afraid to lose Europe-both religiously and politically - Started because: who gets to choose the Holy Roman Emperor - 7 electors Around 1600: 1) Catholic violence 2) people building up armies 3) assassination of arch-duke (Ferdinand of Bohemia) France: - Hueguenots massacred (St. Bart's). Over half of France's kings killed Protestants up through 1800. Sweden: - War ended after Gustavus Adolphus (Swedish King) was killed. Results: - 20,000,000 million died - People use religion to bolster their interests. - Treaty of Westphalia Protestantism limited in expansion. Evangelism restricted. State desires now dictate war. Religion used to catalyze war. Religion seen as a: (A) war starter and thus (B) must be privatized.

1511-1553. Michael Servetus

Spanish Heretic: - executed in Geneva for heresy - against deity of Christ, Trinity, original sin, infant baptism - Calvin and Farel tried to get him to repent - Calvin years earlier risked his life to win Servetus back to orthodoxy - After persistently coming back to Geneva to false teach, Genevan authorities burned Servetus to death

1478-1550s. Inquisitions

Spanish Inquisition (1478) to combat: - Judaism - Secret Muslims ("Moriscos") - Then Protestants (when they arose) Italian Inquisition (1542) in Rome to combat: - Protestants

Reformed Methodists

Started by Whitefield, Howell Harris, Daniel Rowlands, and John Cennick. - Countess Huntington converted and opened up her home to allow itinerant evangelists to minister to her friends. She financially supported them as well. - William Romaine was a gifted preacher in the movement too - Pushed against Wesley's Arminian leaning

1886-1968. Karl Barth

Swiss-German - "perfectability of man" was in the air in his time - realized liberalism didn't work for pastoring - WWI liberal pastors signed up with the Kaiser - shaped by Luther, Calvin, Kierkegaard - believed liberalism tried to make Christianity palatable which then made it lose its way - WWII was a part of the "Confessing Church" against Hitler Main Contributions: - God is wholly other so belief apart from reason is necessary (fideist) - Scripture 'contains' the Word of God and becomes it when we read it: Jesus IS the Word - Analogical speech cannot capture God - Language is deficient - Jesus is THE elect and THE rebrobate (leans universalistic)

1484-1531. Ulrich Zwingli

Switzerland. Random Facts: - Educated in Vienna & Basel (center of humanism) - studied NT Greek and church fathers - Zwingli corresponded with Erasmus - Critical of certain civic policies: Differed on Erasmian humanism stayed more reserved - sexually promiscuous w/ a local girl in Einsiedeln - chaplain for Swiss mercenaries in Glarus Preaching/Teaching: - Rejected lectionary preaching in Glarus - Preached instead expositionally from the Gk./Hb. Plague: - Zurich plague hit and he kept pastoring Reform: - called for moral and doctrinal reform of the church - "Sausage Affair": rejected the Lenten prohibition of eating meat (1522, Grossmunster) - pushed for Swiss priest marriages (already was living with Anna Reinhart who he later married) - against papal greed, shrine of Mary, works-righteousness Theology: during 3 disputations he argued: - against clerical celibacy - for salvation by grace alone - Scripture over tradition - no papal authority - no mass - no works for salvation - no intercession of saints - no penance - no purgatory Zwingli opposes the Anabaptists: - Debated in favor of infant-baptism against his friend and won - Anabaptists were told to stop preaching faith-baptism. They wouldn't. Told to leave Zurich. They wouldn't. So the CIVIL authorities executed Felix Manz by drowning in the river. Zwingli dies in battle: - Died fighting a battle sparked by the death of a Protestant preacher (Jacob Kaiser) by Catholic officials. Died in the Second Battle of Kappel. Eucharistic Views: - Zwingli: "Memorial View" = Christ not present - Catholics: "Physical View" = Christ present - Calvin: "Spiritual View" = Christ spiritually present

1712-1788. Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Switzerland. Born in Protestant family in Geneva. - His mom was the daughter of a pastor - She died having him in childbirth Constantly exploited women sexually. Moved to Paris and rubbed shoulders with "philosophes" there (like Diderot). - Eventually argued that humans are born good because they come from God but are corrupted by the world Return to Nature - he believed that if we threw off luxury that we would be truly happy - Voltaire argued the opposite: luxury and progress was everything Historical Reconstruction of Beginnings - Pushed against Genesis - Believed humans became evil when they started claiming "mine" Despised the gospel-renditions of Jesus. But respected Jesus. - He was a Pelagian Romanticism (anti-Rationalism) - We ought rely on our internal emotions and subjective experiences for reality - Pushed against Voltaire his whole life and Voltaire against him God intervenes in the world (anti-Voltaire). He wrote: "The family is the first and most holy institution of nature." And yet, he abandoned ALL of his children to orphanages. - He believed he was the best person who had ever lived "The Social Contract" - he argues that we ought to govern ourselves with our own laws that come from our 'general will' Civil Religion 1. God exists and rewards good deeds 2. God punishes evil deeds 3. Tolerate all religions 4. Natural religion underlies all religions

1525. Swiss Brethren (Anabaptists to come)

Switzerland. Conrad Grebel (1448-1526), friend of Zwingli, debated him about faith-baptism vs. infant-baptism (1525). - Grebel argued for faith-baptism - Zwingli argued for infant-baptism - Zwingli declared victor (infant-baptism won) and Swiss Brethren were commanded to silence on the issue. Swiss Brethren a.k.a. "Anabaptists" trace their roots to this date.

1504-1575. Heinrich Bullinger

Switzerland. Replaced Zwingli as pastor in Zurich. - Great theological unifier (unlike Zwingli) - Second Helvetic Confession = Calvin and Bullinger came to an agreement on the Eucharist - studied ancient languages - spent time in small group Bible studies in Zurich ("prophezei")

1851-1930. Adolf von Harnack

Taught church history at University of Berlin - dissertation on Marcion and Gnosticism - convinced that Gnosticism pervaded Christian beliefs from the beginning therefore what we have is not what Jesus taught - Our job is to separate out the true Jesus from the false add-ons - His classes drew up 400 students "What Is Christianity" - His university lectures from 1899-1900 - Skeptical about knowing history - No miracles - Christ not God in the flesh - "Son of God" means Christ knew God was his Father - Main tenants: (1) Fatherhood of God, (2) Brotherhood of man, (3) Infinite value of the soul. The Kingdom is in the future but is now an internal reality. The love of God for us is an internal experience. Doctrine is not important. Living ethically and out of love is.

Magisterial Reformation

The point is that true reform happens WITH magistrates but not separate from them. City leaders become convinced of the Christian reform and thus pass laws in favor of the Church. - Lutheran Reform: supported by magistrates - English Reform: supported by dynastic families Typically the first to be influenced is the literate middle class (not elites) which then transfers to the lower classes. Case Study: change occurred in Geneva (Farel/Calvin) through magisterial reform (preaching/teaching changed the views of magisterial leaders who in turn enacted laws against Catholic practices). Calvin appealed to the "lesser magistrate" in view of keeping "higher magistrates" in check.

Fundamentalism & Evangelicalism (Post 1900s to Today)

These strands are similar but distinct. 1. Fundamentalist (typically seen as...) - Purity through separation - Biblical literalists - Moral legalists (Pietistic) - Non-scientific - Seen as fighters. *Some are overly dogmatic. - Separate over secondary issues. - Separate politically then enter back in - TEND TO STAY CLOSE TO DOCTRINE - If separates too much then it becomes a "wilderness cult in a secular society" (Carl Henry) 2. Evangelicalism (typically seen as...) - Life-affirming - Culturally engaged - Intellectual - Fundamental but better behaved - Believe the Bible - Evangelistic - Gracious but sometimes 'too' gracious - Seen as looser on views. - TEND TO DEVIATE FROM DOCTRINE Christianity of the Heart: - Trust Christ AND... (1) Live toward God (William Ames - 1620 in "The Marrow of Theology") - Puritan that said fighting about doctrine is not enough. We need to express our doctrine through Head, Heart, Hands. (2) Edwards argued for the affections being moved (3) Spener (German Pietism) argued for a converted clergy from the heart (4) Machen too (anti-Liberalism in that doctrine and life go together) Social Gospel/Political Action: - Originally, orphanages, schools, hospitals, etc. came WITH doctrine (A) Fundamentalists withdrew from the world. Then said 'oops' we need to go back. (B) Liberals always engaged. - Schleirermacher (theology is anthropology). - Harnack (brotherly love is king). Theological minimalist. And tend to be successful among successful people. - Walter Rauschenbusch speaks about Christians going into the trenches of suffering and to promote the healing APART FROM the gospel doctrine - 1st time in history to have social reform movements APART FROM Jesus. talks about Christians putting themselves in the trenches of human suffering but eventually leaning away from the gospel to just care for people without doctrine. (Post-millenialism, utopian leaning, died post 1915 because of WWI). (C) Social Darwinism - opposite - Survival of the fittest opposes human care.

Anabaptist Movements (1500's onward) - Radical Reformers

Three main "types" of Anabaptist: 1. "Mainstream": Bible = authority 2. "Spiritualists": Experience = authority 3. "Rationalists": Reason = authority Swiss Brethren - Started by Michael Sattler (1490-1527) - Primary authory of "Schleitheim Articles" (1527). (1) faith-baptism, (2) ethical community, (3) memorial Eucharist, (4) separate from society, (5) pastor high morals, (6) no Christian in civil govt., (7) all oaths prohibited. Pacifists - Strongly emphasized the not taking up of the sword Communalism - Felix Manz advocated this - Sharing of all things (Acts 2 and 4) Spiritualists - Started by Hans Deck (German) - Opposed original sin, predest., bondage of the will, and the emphasis on preaching and sacraments because they "de-emphasized" human responsibility. - True authority rests in the soul, not external Melchiorites - Started by Melchior Hoffman - Believed he was Elijah - end times, spiritualism, Christ near return Radical Kingdom of Munster (Germany) - Started by Bernard Rothmann (radical apocalyptic views) - Passed onto Jan Matthys who preached the end of time (April 5, 1534) and pronounced Munster a communal state (sharing all). The end did not come in 1534 so he launched a violent attack on the "godless" and died. - Then John of Leiden (his lieutenant) took on the cause, ran naked in the streets for 3 days in a trance, took 16 wives, declared himself the "king of righteousness" and was put to death. Mennonites - Started by Menno Simons the pacifist (originally a Catholic priest) Roots of Anabaptism in America Today: - Discipleship - Biblical Literalism - Power of the Holy Spirit - Church Separate from the State - Pacifist - Sharing of Goods

1910. World Missionary Conference

WMC held in Edinburgh, Scotland - pushed by the "Student Volunteer Movement" with goal of evangelizing the world in a generation - President John R. Mott (Methodist layman) - 1200 delegates from missions agencies came together to talk about translations, mobilization, and training indigenous leadership - Created the "International Missionary Council" (1921). Mott helped created 30 Christian councils around the globe to aid in missions

1714-1773. Howell Harris

Welsh (Travecka, Wales). - Heard the open field preaching of Griffith Jones and came to radical faith - Griffith had also started "circulating schools" of in which students could study the Welsh Bible together - Harris, after his powerful conversion, did open-air and home-to-home preaching. Thousands would come to hear Harris preach. - Harris was encouraged by reading Jonathan Edwards's "A Narrative of the Surprising Work of the Spirit of God" - Harris would espouse "circuits" of lay preachers to travel

The Renaissance

When was it? Historians disagree: 1300s, 1600s, 1650s, 1700s? Tenants of the Renaissance. - Reborn: Literal meaning of "renaissance" implying a new discovery of many aspects of life. - Individualism: emphasis on 'me' not 'we'. - Perfection: notion of the "perfect man" is sought. What is the perfect life? - Cultural Darkness: belief that there was a recovering of ancient beauty, art, culture, writings that were "lost" in the past. But this is not true. - Iconoclasm: Christian iconoclasm led to the destruction of lots artifacts and sculptures, thus, a push back against Christianity. - Humanism: Again, many see this period as a totally "anti-Christian" time when in fact Christianity BOOMED in this time. While there were many atheists and agnostics, Christian thought permitted the culture.

16th and 17th Century Questions

Where does ultimate authority rest? - Catholic tradition? - Scripture? - The autographs of Scripture? Its copies? Its translations? - Whose interpretation is correct? How do scientific advances change our view of the world? - Scientists moved from individuals doing their work to a community of scientists sharing their information (Royal Society, Paris Academy of Sciences - The universe and earth originally described by 'organism' analogies now are described as 'machine' analogies - God's control of the universe shifts toward abstract "Natural Law" that governs all - Ancient authorities doubted - Universe not viewed as a closed system but as an infinite one

Remonstrance Articles

Written up AFTER Arminius's death (post 1609) by two of his supporters: - Jan Uytenbogaert - Simon Episcopius 1. Conditional Election: election conditioned on foreseen faith 2. Universal Atonement: Christ's atonement unlimited in scope 3. Saving Faith: fallen humanity unable to exercise saving faith on their own 4. Resistible Grace: Grace is resistible 5. Uncertain Perseverance: falling from grace is possible

State of Religion/Life after the 30 Years War (post 1650s)

• Low literacy • Bad medicine • Bad water • Bad diet • Lots of alcoholism (gin) • High mortality • Plague • Bad morality: gambling, tobacco, bear-biting, prostitution, drinking, etc. • Superstition high (syncretism of Christian and other beliefs)