Reformation and Renaissance Test

what were the earliest territories to accept Protestant relgion?

Holy Roman Empire

who was the biggest person involved in church reform?

Martin Luther

what happened to Florence after they expelled the Medici dynasty?

- Savonarola became the political and religious leader of a new Florentine republic and promised Florentines even greater glory in the future if they would reform their ways

Dante

(1265-1321) Italian poet and Renaissance writer. His greatest work is The Divine Comedy.

Holy Office

The official Roman Catholic agency founded in 1542 to combat international doctrinal heresy - published the Index of Prohibited Books, a catalogue of forbidden reading that included works by humanists such as Erasmus as well as by Protestants

Peace of Aubsburg

an agreement in 1555 that ended the habsburg-valois wars and gave german princes the right to determine the religion of their subjects, either Catholicism or Lutheranism - there was no freedom of religion within territories, however. Princes or town councils established state churches to which all subjects of the area had to belong. Dissidents had to convert or leave - ended religious war in Germany for many decades

where could the Renaissance's idea that they Italians were living in a new era be found?

ancient Latin and Greek literature and philosophy

Machiavellian

cunning and ruthless: came as a term because Machiavelli's book The Prince, which Machiavelli was denounced for

Lorenzo Ghiberti

designed bronze doors for the San Giovanni Baptistry in Florence. The doors were nicknamed "The Gates of Paradise" by Michelangelo.

popolo

disenfranchised common people in Italian cities who resented their exclusion from power

St. Augustine

early christian leader who writes the book City of God that instructs how Christians are to be - claimed the City of God was superior to the City of Man, which was sort of the opposite of what people in the Renaissance were teaching

patronage

financial support of writers and artists by cities, groups, and individuals, often to produce specific works in specific styles

Giorgio Vasari

first to use the term Renaissance

how did Calvin transform Geneva?

he transformed it into a community based on his religious principles - the most power organization in the city became the Consistory, a group of laymen and pastors charged with investigating and discipling deviations from doctrine and conduct - serious crimes and heresy were handled by the civil authorities, which, with the Consistory's approval, sometimes used torture to extract confessions - between 1542 and 1546 aline seventy-six persons were banished from Geneva, and fifty-eight were executed for heresy, adultery, blasphemy, and witchcraft.

what was the education during the renaissance like?

humanism - a program of study designed by Italians that emphasized the critical study of Latin and Greek literature with the goal of understanding human nature - humanists thought that their recommended course of study in the classics would provide essential skills for future politicians, diplomats, lawyers, military leaders, and businessmen, as well as artists and writers - humanists poured out treatises, often in the form of letters, on the structure and goals of education and the training of the rulers and leaders - taught that an active life in the world should be the aim of all educated individuals and that education was not simply for private or religious purposes but also for the public good

civic humanism

humanism with the added belief that one must be an active and contributing member to one's society (specifically educated men)

conciliarists

people who believed that the authority in the Roman church should rest in a general council composed of clergy, theologians, and laypeople, rather than in the pope alone (Masiglio and Occam)

Jesuits (Society of Jesus)

religious organization that became the "spiritual arm" for the Counter-Reformation - members of the Society of Jesus, founded by Ignatius Loyola, whose goal was to spread the Roman Catholic faith

what other group was excluded from the institutions of Renaissance culture?

rural people and for less well off town residents

communes

sworn associations of free men in northern Italian cities led by merchant guild that sought political independence from local nobles - merchant guilds that formed the communes built and maintained the city walls and regulated trade, collected taxes, and kept civil order within them - the local nobles frequently moved into the cities, marrying the daughters of rich commercial families and starting their own businesses, often with money they had gained through the dowries provided by their wive

humanism

the Renaissance passion for what was human and the discovery or rediscovery of this same inclination in the classical world

Benedetto Dei

the merchant and historian who boasted of his beloved Florence when he wrote to a Venetian acquaintance, "The number of banks amounts to thirty-three: the shops of the cabinetmakers, whose business is carving and inlaid work, to eighty-four...there are forty-four goldsmiths' and jewelers shops."

virtu

the quality of being able to shape the world according to one's own will

predestination

the teaching that God has determined the salvation or damnation of individuals based on his will and purpose, not on their merit or works

what were some cities where the popolo was successful?

they were able to establish a republican government in Bologna, Siena, Parma, Florence, Genoa, and other cities. These victories proved temporary, however, because they could not establish civil order within their cities

Cassandra Fedele

wrote humanist learning most famous female scholar of time said studies of humanities made princes more noble and wrote about how Plato said states with rulers who were also philosophers were the most successful

what was the Spanish national state based on?

- absolute religious orthodoxy and purity of blood served as the theoretical foundation of the Spanish national state - rested or marital politics as well as military victories and religious courts

who was Ferdinand and Isabella's son and what did he fall heir to?

Charles V - he fell heir to a cast and incredibly diverse collection of states and people, each governed in a different manner and held together only be the person of the emperor - he was set on a path to world monarchy - believed it was his duty to maintain the political and religious unity of Western Christiandom

who were two of the most well known christian humanists?

Ficino and Pico

where was a humanist education popular?

Florence, Venice, and other Italian cities, and by the 16th century across the Alps in Germany, France, and England

Giotto

Florentine painter - led the use of realism; his treatment of the human body and face replaced the formal stiffens and artificiality that had long characterized representation of the human body

Ursuline order of Nuns

Formed by Angele Merici in 1535, goal was to christianize society and teach girls to be future wives/mothers

Renaissance

French word meaning "rebirth," used to describe the rebirth of the culture of classical antiquity in Italy during the fourteenth centuries

The Supremacy Act (1534)

Henry VIII of England declared that he was independent from the Pope's control, and therefore his entire country would belong instead to the Anglican church. This act made him the head of the church and the ultimate religious authority in England.

Islamic Spain

In 711 Muslim forces invaded and in seven years conquered the Iberian peninsula. It became one of the great Muslim civilisations; reaching its summit with the Umayyad caliphate of Cordovain the tenth century. Muslim rule declined after that and ended in 1492 when Granada was conquered.

was there a significant change between signiori and communes?

No. Although some signiori kept the communal government in place these had no actual power. As a practical matter, there wasn't much actual difference between oligarchic regimes and signiori. Oligarchies maintained a facade of republican government, but the judicial, executive, and legislative functions of government were restricted to a small class of wealthy merchants

Christian humanists

Northern humanists who interpreted Italian ideas about and attitudes toward classical antiquity and humanism in terms of their own religious traditions

what are some later groups that showed the same radical ideas?

Quakers, with their pacifism; the Baptists, with their emphasis on inner spiritual light; the Congregationalists, with their democratic church organization; and in 1787 their authors of the US constitution, with their opposition to the "establishment of religion" (state churches), would trace their origins, in part, to the radicals of the sixteenth century

The School of Athens

Raphael. 1509-1511 C.E. Fresco.

why was it difficult for Italy to develop one unified state?

Renaissance Italians had a passionate attachment to their individual city states: political loyalty and feeling centered on the city. This intensity of local feeling perpetuated the dozens of small states and hindered the development of one unified state

Anna Jansz

She was excommunicated for heresy by drowning because of her connections with David Joris in 1539 - a Protestant Martyr

what did the major Italian power (the 5 major city-states) control (what smaller city states)?

Siena, Mantua, Ferrara, and Modena, and they competed furiously among themselves for territory

John Calvin

Swiss theologian (born in France) whose tenets (predestination and the irresistibly of grace and justification by faith) defined Presbyterianism (1509-1564) - a Protestant leader

which of Vasari's works demonstrates virtu?

*The Lives of the Most Excellent Painter, Sculptors, and Architects*

John of Spoleto's intellectual opinion of the schism

- "The longer this schism lasts, the more it appears to be costing, and the more harm it does to; scandal, massacres, ruination, agitations, troubles, and disturbances"

Charles V first diet

- - diet is an assembly of the nobility clergy, and cities of the Holy Roman Empire) in the German city of Worms and summoned Luther to appear - Luther refused to give in to demands that he take back his ideas, saying, "Unless I am convinced by the evidence Scripture or by plain reason, I cannot and will not recant anything for it is neither sad nor right to go against conscience" - his appearance at the Diet of Worms in 1521 created an even broader audience for reform ideas, and throughout Central Europe other individuals began to preach and publish against the existing doctrines and practices of the church, drawing on the long tradition of calls for change as well as on Luther

in what years were printing presses becoming more used around the world?

- 1465 - could be found in Italy - 1470 - could be found in Paris - 1480 - could be found in London - 1499 - could be found in Stockholm, Constantinople and Lisbon

when was excommunication supposed to become final?

- 1521 - by this time, Luther's theological issues had become interwoven with public controversies about the church's wealth, power, and basic structure - the papal legate wrote of the growing furor, "All Germany is in revolution. nineteenths shout Luther as their war cry; and the other tenth cares nothing about Luther, and cries 'Death to the court of Rome'"

during what century did reform to the Christian church begin to take place?

- 16th century

what time period inspired the Renaissance?

- Ancient Greece and Rome - they did not look back to the "dark ages," because it was too formal, too compartmentalized, too confining, too systematic

women writing religious works

- Arugula von Grumbacj, a German noblewoman, supported Protestant ideas in print, asserting, "I am not unfamiliar with Paul's words that women should be silent in church but when I see that no man can or will speak, I am driven by the word of God when he said, he who confesses me on earth, him I will confess, and he who denies, him I will deny."

who helped spread Wyclif's ideas?

- Bhomenian students from the University of Oxford and1400 Brough his ideas with them to Prague, the capital of what was the Bohemia and is now the Czech Republic - Jan Hus, another theologian, built on his ideas

The Institutes of the Christian Religion

- Calvin's formulation of Christian doctrine, which became a systematic theology for Protestantism - first published by Calvin in 1536, and in its final form in 1559 - Calvin's ideas are shown, such as his belief in the absolute sovereignty and omnipotence of God and the total weakness of humanity. Before the infinite power of God, he asserted, men and women are as insignificant as grains of sand

who did the cardinals elect after they declared Urban's election invalid?

- Cardinal Roberrt of Geneva, the cousin of King Charles V of France, as pope, who to the name of Clement VII - there were thus two popes in 1378 - Urban at Rome and Clement VII at Avignon, beginning the Great Schism

which Spanish kingdoms dominated others?

- Castile and Aragon dominated the weaker Navarre, Portugal and Granada

what were the kingdoms of Spain?

- Castile, Aragon, Navarre, Portugal, Granada, the Iberian Peninsula

the Iberian Peninsula had been won by what religion?

- Christianity (with the exception of Granada)

Cristian and Jews relationship during the centuries of the reconquista

- Cristian kings had recognized Jewish rights and privileges; intact, jewish industry, intelligence, and money had supported royal power - While Christians borrowed from Jewish moneylenders and while all who could afford them sought Jewish physicians, a strong undercurrent of resentment of Jewish influence and wealth festered

what places started making political changes in the 1520s and 1530s?

- Denmark-Norway, Sweden, England, France, and eastern Europe

what did Florentines interpret the invasion as?

- Dominican friar Girolamo Savonarola preached in Florence a number of fiery sermons predicting that God would punish Italy for its moral vice and corrupt leadership - Florentines interpreted the invasion as the fulfillment of this prophecy, and expelled the Medici dynasty

how was Spain different from England and France?

- England and France both formed unified nation-states, but Spain remained a conglomerate of independent kingdoms

Thomas More

- English humanist - wrote the controversial dialogue, Utopia

Henry VI

- English ruler - pious and mentally disturbed - under him, the authority of the monarchy sank lower than it had been in centuries

economic conditions marking the Renaissance

- Europe was slow to recover from the Black Death between 1347 and 1351, but by the middle of the fifteenth century, finance, commerce, agriculture and industry were all on the upswing - guild system was starting to break down - kings and nobility grew wealthier, and merchants grew even more - Italy, Germany, the Low Countries and in England were the main beneficiaries of the wealth that flowed into Europe

Black Death in Florence

- Florence lost half its population, and serious labor unrest shook the political establishment, but the Florentine economic structure remained stable, and the city grew again

Leonardo Bruni

- Florentine city official and historian - his book written in 1436 closely links the death of Cicero to the decline of the Roman republic - made clear that by the time of him writing this, a new era had begun and the period of decay had ended - the first to divide history into three eras - ancient, medieval, and modern

Marsilo Ficino

- Florentine humanist - set out to reconcile Plato and Moses Socrates and Christ

Francesco Petrarch

- Florentine poet and scholar - spent long hours searching for classical Latin manuscripts in dusty monastery libraries and wandering around the many ruins of the Roman Empire remaining in Italy - became obsessed with the classical past and felt the writers and artists of ancient Rome had reached a level of perfection in their work that had not since been duplicated - believed writers of his own day should follow these ancient models - believed the recovery of classical texts would bring about a new golden age of intellectual achievement, an idea that many others came to share

Petrarch

- Florentine poet and scholar - spent long hours searching for classical Latin manuscripts in dusty monastery libraries and wandering around the many ruins of the Roman Empire remaining in Italy - became obsessed with the classical past and felt the writers and artists of ancient Rome had reached a level of perfection in their work that had not since been duplicated - believed writers of his own day should follow these ancient models - believed the recovery of classical texts would bring about a new golden age of intellectual achievement, an idea that many others came to share - cast aside Aristotle as well as scholasticism, the great medieval combination of Theology and Philosophy - more interested in the glories of this world

Plato and the Platonic Academy

- Florentine scholars admired Plato - the Medici family rebuilt the Platonic Academy - was created around 390 BC, and had remained in existence until Byzatine emperor Justinian closed its doors in 529 - at the new Platonic academy, people like Ficino and Pico della Mirandola would study there

Raphael Sanzio

- Florentine, got the commission for frescoes in the papal apartments, and in his relatively short life he painted hundreds of portraits and devotional images, becoming the most sought-after artist in Europe - also oversaw a large workshop with many collaborators and apprentices - who assisted on the less difficult sections of some paintings - and wrote treatises on his philosophy of art in which he emphasized the importance of imitating nature and developing an orderly sequence of design and proportion

who did the rest of the European nations side with (Clement or Urban)?

- France with the French pope, Clement - England with Clement - Aragon, Castile, and Portugal hesitated, but sided with Clement - German emperor recognized Urban - at first Italian city-states recognized Urban, but later they opted for Clement

The Goliards

- Goliards were a group of clergy who wrote bibulous, satirical Latin poetry - their literature abounded in the frank enjoyment of life and its pleasures - the writers and wandering scholars were roundly condemned by the stern St. Dominic and Pope Innocent III went on to lead a Holy Crusade to stamp out the Cathari as well as the Goliards. And although Thomas Aquinas was certainly no pagan and clearly no devotee of the Goliards, it is also clear that he embraced his own brand of humanism, not denying himself the pleasures of earthly existence. His entire philosophy was grounded in the supremacy of that most human of man's qualities - human reason.

Swedish Protestant Reformation

- Gustavus Vasa, who came to the throne during a civil war with Denmark, also took over control of church personnel and income - Protestant ideas spread, through the Swedish Church did not officially accept Lutheran's theology until later in the century

what dod Luther, Zwingli, and other earlier Protestants agree on?

- How is a person to be saved? - Catholics taught that salvation is achieved by both faith and good works, whereas protestants held that salvation comes by faith alone, irrespective of good works or the sacraments. God, not people, initiates salvation - Where does religious authority reside? - Christian doctrine had long maintained that authority rests bth in the Bible and in the tradition teaching of the church. For Protestants, authority rested in the Bible alone. For a doctrine or issue to be valid, it had to have a scriptural basis. Because of this, most Protests rejected Catholic teachings abut the sacraments - the rituals the church had defined as imparting Gods benefits on the believer - holding that only baptism and the Eucharist have scriptural support - What is the church? - Protestants held that church is a spritual preisthood of all believers, and invisible fellowship not fixed in any place or person which differed markedly from the Roman Catholic practice of a hierarchical clerical institution headed by the pope in Rome - What is the highest form of Christian life? - The medieval church had stressed the superiority of the monastic and religious life over the secular. Protestants disagreed and argued that every person should serve God in his or her own individual calling

Loyalty to the Catholic church in Ireland

- Ireland had been claimed by English kings since the twelth century, but in reality the English had firm control of only the area around Dublin, known as the Pal - in 1536, on orders from London, the Irish parliament, which represented only the English laws severing the church from Rome - The Church of Ireland was established on the English pattern, and the English ruling class adopted the new reformed faith - most Irish people remained Roman Catholic, thus adding religious antagonism to the ethnic hostility that had been a feature of English policy toward Ireland for centuries - Irish armed opposition to the Reformation led to harsh repression by the english

when/how/why did Henry decide to remove the English Church from papal jurisdiction?

- Rome was thwarting his matrimonial plans - in a series of measures during the 1530s, Henry used Parliament to end the authority of the pope and make himself the supreme head of the church in England

Marsiglio of Padua

- Italian lawyer and uivserity official - agreed with Occam - wrote the Defensor Pacis, in which he argued against the medieval idea of a society government by both church and state, with church supreme - argued the state was the great unifying power in society, and the church should be subordinate to it. Church leadership should rest in a general council made of of laymen as well as priests and superior to the pope - was excommunicated for his radicalizingal ideas, and his work was condemned as heresy - as was Occam's

entry of Ferdinand and Isabella into Granada

- Jan. 6th, 1492 - signaled the conclusion of the reconquista - Granda was incorporated into the Spanish kingdom, and in 1512 Ferdinand conquered Navarre in the north

who was the printing press created by and what were the mechanics behind it?

- Johann Gutenberg recognized the the metal stamps used to mark signs on jewelry could be covered with ink and used to mark symbols onto a surface in the same way that other craftsmen were using carved wood stamps to print books - Gutenberg and his assistants made metal stamps - later called type - for every letter of the alphabet and built racks that held the type in rows, which could be rearranged for every page and so used over and over

what was necessary for reforms to become permanent and how did Luther and Zwingli make sure that this happened?

- Luther and Zwingli realized that in order for reforms to become permanent, political authorities a well as concerned individuals and religious leaders would have to accept them - Zwingli worked closely with the city council of Zurich, and city councils themselves took the lead in other cities and towns of Switzerland and south Germany. They appointed pastors who they knew had accepted Protestant ideas, required them to swear an oath of loyalty to the council, and oversaw their preaching and teaching - Luther worked with the political authorities as well in his territory that was ruled by a noble. He viewed them as fully justified in asserting control over the church in their territories. He demanded that German rulers reform the papacy and its institutions, and he instructed all Christians to obey their secular rulers, whom he saw as divinely ordained to maintain order.

why did Luther's ideals appeal to German leaders?

- Luther often used the phrase "we Germans" in his attacks on the papacy, to appeal to national feeling influencing many rulers otherwise confused by or indifferent to the complexities of the religious matters of the time. - some German rulers were sincerely attracted to Lutheran ideas, but material considerations swayed many others to embrace the new faith. The rejection of Roman Catholicism and adoption of Protestantism would mean the legal confiscation of lush farmlands, rich monasteries, and wealthy shrines. Thus many political authorities in the empire became Protestant in part to extend their financial and political power and to enhance their independence from the emperor

Hungary and the Reformation

- Lutheranism was spread by Hungarian students who had studied at Wittenberg, and sympathy for it developed at the royal court of King Louis II in Buda. - concern about the "German heresy" by the Catholic hierarchy and among the high notes found expression in a decree of the Hungarian diet in 1523 that "all Lutherans and those favoring them...should have their property confiscated and themselves punished with death as heretics" - The majority of Hungarian people were protestant until the late seventeenth century, when Hungarian nobles recognized Habsburg (Catholic) rule and Ottoman Turkish withdrawal in 1699 led to Catholic restoration.

Michelangelo's David and the Last Judgement

- Michelangelo worked largely on commissions from patrons, like most Renaissance artists - officials of the city of Florence commissioned him to sculpt the statue of Old Testament Said anticipating his fight against the the giant Goliath, and the statue came to symbolize the republic of Florence standing up to its larger and more powerful enemies - thirty years later, Michelangelo was commissioned by the Pope to paint a scene of the Last Judgement on the Altar of the Sistine Chapel, where he had earlier spent fourr yesrs covering the ceiling with magnificent frescoes.The massive work shows a powerful Christ standing in judgement, with souls ascending into heaven while others are dragged by demons into Hell - the David captures ideals of human perfection and brilliance, whereas the Last Judgement conveys both terror and divine power

what was the role of the MiddleAges on the Renaissance?

- Middle Ages was Avery ordered formalistic, and compartmentalized society of the Middle Ages - people moved out of the narrow framework through which they functioned - realities such as a surplus of agricultural produce, the increasing urbanization of Europe, a swelling population, wider trading zones and a thirst for knowledge finally broke the stranglehold of the medieval matrix

most famous civic humanist

- Niccolo Machiavelli - after the ouster of Medici with the French invasion of 1494, Machiavelli was secretary to one of the governing bodies in the city of Florence; he was responsible for the diplomatic missions and organizing a citizen army - two decades later, power struggles in Florence between rival factions fought the Medici family back to power, and Machiavelli was arrested, tortured, and imprisoned on suspicion of plotting against them. He was released but had no government position, and he spent the rest of his lifee writing - political theory, poetry, prose works, plays, and a multivolume history of Florence - and making fruitless attempts to regain employment

Northern European art vs. Italian art

- Northern European art tended to be more religious in orientation than that produced in Italy

what pihlsopher did Petrarch stud the most?

- Plato - the lyrical, soulful Plato was the antithesis of the logical, scientific, unemotional Aristotle - believed Plato was the antidote to Aristotle

Pope Julius II and Michelangelo

- Pope Julius II commissioned Michelangelo to paint the ceiling of the Vatican's Sistine Chapel in 1508, demanding that the artist work as fast as he could and frequently visited him at his work with suggestions and criticisms

Descent from the Cross

- Rogier van der Weydan shows Christ's descent from the cross, surrounded by nine sorrowing figures, 1435

Cicero

- Roman author and statesman - lived during the turbulentera where Julius Caesar and other powerful generals transformed the Roman Republic into an empire - supported a return to a republic government - humanists admire his use of language, literary style, and political ideas

why did the marriage of Maximilian and Mary anger the French?

- they considered Burgundy French territory, and it inaugurated centuries of conflict between the Austrian house of Habsburg and the kings of France

The Chess Game

- Sofonisba Anguissola shows her three younger sisters playing chess. Each sister looks at the one immediately older than herself, with the girl on the left looking out at her sister, the artist. Anguissola's father, a minor nobleman, recognized her talent and arranged for her to study with several painters. She became a court painter at the Spanish royal court, where she painted many portraits. Returning to Italy, she continued to be active, painting her last portrait when she was over 80. 1555

religious war in Switzerland

- Switzerland was originally part of the Holy Roman Empire, though it was really a loose confederation of thirteen largely autonomous territories called cantons - Some Cantons remained Catholic, and some became Protestant, and in the late 1520s, both went to war - a treaty was made that basically allowed each canton to determine its own religion and ordered each side to give up its foreign alliances, a policy of neutrality that has been characteristic of modern Switzerland

who opposed Henry's decision?

- Thomas More

Villa Capra

- Venetian architect Andrea Palladio modeled this country villa, constructed for a papal official in 1566, on the Pantheon of Ancient Rome - completely symmetrical, capturing humanist ideals of perfection and balance

Edward IV

- Yorkist - began establishing domestic tranquility - succeeded in defeating the Lancastrian forces - after 1471 began to reconstruct the monarchy - Edward, his brother Richard III, and Henry VII of the welsh house of Tudor worked to restore royal prestige, to crush the power of the nobility, and to establish order and law at the local level. All three rulers used methods that Machiavelli himself would have praised, ruthlessness, efficiency, and secrecy - he and subsequently the Tudors, except Henry VIII, conducted foreign policy on the basis of diplomacy, avoiding expensive wars. Thus the English monarchy did not have to depend on Parliament for money, and and the Crown undercut that source of aristocratic influence

Catholic Reformation

- a 16th century movement in which the Roman Catholic Church sought to make changes in response to the Protestant Reformation

what did Johannes Gutenburg and Johannes Fust produce in 1451?

- a 42 lines Bible and a 32 line Latin Grammar - one text was religious, the other secular (both were typed)

Michael Servetus

- a Spanish humanist and refugee - burned at the stake for denying the scriptural basis for the Trinity, rejecting child baptism, and insisting that a person under twenty cannot commit a mortal sin, all of which were viewed as threats to society

The Roman Inquisition

- a committee of six cardinals with judicial authority over all Catholics and the power to arrest, imprison, and execute suspected heretics

indulgence

- a document issued by the Catholic Church lessening penance or time in purgatory, widely believed to bring forgiveness of all sins - individuals who sin could be reconciled to to God by confessing their sins to a priest and by doing an assigned penance, such as praying or fasting - a piece of paper signed by the pope or another church official, that substituted a virtuous act from the treasury of merits for penance or time in purgatory - used during the Crusades and the Middle Ages

Procession of the Magi

- a huge fresco by Bennozzo Gozzoli covering three walls of the Medici Palace in Florence - shows members of the Medici family and other contemporary individuals in a procession as they brought gifts to the infant Jesus - ordered in 1459 by Cosimo and Piero de' Medici, who had just finished building the family palace in the center of the city

what new period did the French invasion inaugurate? (what did it entail?)

- a new period in Italian and European power politics - Italy became the focus of international armies, particularly those of the Holy Roman Empire and France in a series of conflicts called the Habsburg Valois wars - the Italian cities suffered severely from continual warfare, especially in the frightful sack of Rome in 1527 by imperial forces under the emperor Charles V. Thus the failure of the city-states to consolidate, or at least to establish a common foreign policy, led to centuries of subjection by outside invaders. Italy was not to achieve unification until 1870

who were charges of clerical immorality aimed towards?

- a number of priests who were drunkards, neglected the use of celibacy, gambled, or indulged in fancy dress

The True and False Churches

- a picture in which Lucas Cranach the Younger shows Luther standing in pulpit, reaching the word of God from an open Bible. At the rights, a flaming open mouth symboling the jaws of Hell engulfed the pope, cardinals, and friars, one ind of "false church." At the left, Cranach shows a crucified Christ emerging out of the "lamb of God" on the alter as people are receiving communion. This image of the "true church represents the Lutheran understanding of the Lord's Supper, in which Christ is really present in the bread and wine, in contrast to the view of other Protestants such as Zwingli, who was the ceremony as a symbol or memorial

what did the merge with nobles and merchants create and what problem did it create among Italian communes?

- a powerful oligarchy, a small group that ruled the city and surrounding countryside. Yet because of rivalries among competing powerful families within the oligarchy, Italian communes were politically unstable

Calvinist presence in Scotland

- a ready audience for Calvinism was found in Scotland - there, political authority was the decisive influence in reform. The monarchy was weak, and factions of virtually independent nobles competed for power. - King James V and his daughter, Mary, Queen of Scots, staunch Catholics and close allies of Catholic France, opposed reform, but the Scottish nobles supported it

New Christians (conversos)

- a term for Jews and Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula who accepted Christianity; in many cases they included Christians whose families had converted centuries earlier - often well educated and held prominent positions in government, the church, medicine, law and business - exerted and influence disproportionate to their numbers

Protestant Work Ethic

- a work ethic of the protestants that encouraged individual endeavors towards gaining wealth - Sociological term used to define the Calvinist belief in hard work to illustrate selection in elite group - way of life based on Biblical teaching that God expects all men to work and all work is a noble duty to be performed toward God

What was the immense appeal of Luther's religious ideas and those of other Protestants and what were some of the main ideas of it?

- advocated a simpler personal religion based on faith, a return to the spirit of the early church, the centrality of the Scriptures in the liturgy and in Christian life, and the abolition of elaborate ceremonies - precisely the reforms the Christian humanists had been calling for. - thought that clergy should not have special legal privileges and still have to pay taxes and

Martin V

- after being elected the new leader proceeded to dissolve the council - nothing was done about reform, the third objective of the council in Constance - in the later part of the 15th century, the papacy concentrated on Italian problems to the exclusion of universal Christian interests- the schism and the conciliar movement had exposed the crying need for ecclesiastical reform, thus laying the foundation for the great reform efforts of the sixteenth century

why do we know mostly male Renaissance artists?

- all the most famous and prolific Renaissance artists were male - the types of art in which more women were active, such as textiles, needlework, and painting on porcelain, were not regarded as "major arts," but only as "minor" and "decorative" arts - like painting, embroidery changed in the Renaissance to become more naturalistic, more visually complex, and more classical in its subject matter - embroiderers were not trained to view their work as products of individual genius, however, so they rarely included their names on the works

women's actions in getting education

- although humanist academies were not open to women, a few women did become educated in the classics - argued in letters and published writings that reason was not limited to men and that learning was comparable with virtue for women as well as men

anti-Semitism in the 14th century

- anti-Semitism in Spain was aggravated by fiery anti-Jewish preaching, by economic dislocation, and by the search for a scapegoat during the Black Death - anti-Semitic pogroms swept the towns of Spain, and perhaps 40 percent of the Jewish population was killed or forced to convert - those who converted were called New Christians or conversos

Filippo Brunelleschi

- architect who looked to the classical past for inspiration, designing a hospital for orphans and foundlings in which all proportions - of the windows, height, floor plan, and covered walkway with a series of rounded arches - were carefully thought out to achieve a sense of balance and harmony

what did Machiavelli feel about God's morals in judging governments?

- argued that governments should instead be judged by how well they provided security, order, and safety to their populace. A ruler's moral code in maintaining these was not the same as a private individual's, for a leader could - indeed, should - use any means necessary.This pragmatic view of the purposes of government, along with Machiavelli's discussion of the role of force and cruelty, was unacceptable to many

what were some problems that conversos encountered and what was Queen Isabella's ole in it?

- aristocratic grandees resented the conversos' financial dependence; the poor hated the converse tax collectors; and churchmen doubted the sincerity of their conversion - Queen Isabella shared these suspicions, and she and Ferdinand had received permission from Pope Sixtus IV in 1478 to establish their own Inquisition to "search out and punish converts from Judaism who had transgressed against Christianity by secretly adhering to Jewish beliefs and performing rites of the Jews" - investigations and trials began immediately, as officials of the Inquisition looked for conversos who showed at sign of incomplete conversion, such as not eating pork

how did humanists view Caesar's transformation of Rome?

- as a betrayal of the great society, marking the beginning of a long period of decay that the barbarian migrations then accelerated

Luther debate with Johann Eck

- at Leipzig in 1519 - Luther was ordered to come to Rome, although because of the political situation in the empire, he was instead able to engage in this debate with a representative of the church, Johann Eck - refused to take back his ideas and continued to develop his calls for reform, publicizing them in a series of pamphlets in which he moved further and further away from Catholic theology - wrote that both pope and Church councils could err, and secular leaders should reform the church if the pope and clerical hierarchy did not - there was no distinction between clergy and laypeople, and requiring clergy to be celibate was a fruitless attempt to control a natural human drive - Luther authorized the publication of his works

Pico della Mirandola

- attempted to find a universal religion grounded in the combination of Plato's ideas, Jewishk Kabbala and Christianity - wrote the Oration on the Dignity of Man, in which he declared that unlike other creatures, mankind has not been assigned a fixed place in the universe, and that our destiny is not determined by anything outside us. God has bestowed us the liberty to determine the form and value our lives shall acquire, in other words, man is the master of his own destiny

who were charges of clerical ignorance addressed to?

- barely literate priests who simply mumbled the Latin words of the Mass by rote without understanding their meaning - many priests, monks, and nuns lived ious lives of devotion, learning, and service areas, but everyone also knew (and repeated) stories about lecherous monks, lustful nuns, and greedy priests

what city-states were a target for invasion in the late 1400s and who tried to invade them?

- because of their great wealth and dividedness, Venice, Florence, Milan, and the papacy were a target for invasion - Florence and Naples entered into an agreement to acquire Milanese territories, and Milan called for French support, to which the French king Charles VIII invaded Italy in 1494

why did Calvin not ascribe free will to human beings and what was his view on salvation?

- because that would detract from the sovreignty of God - Men and women cannot actively work to achieve salvation; rather, at the beginning of time who would be saved and who damned. This viewpoint was known as predestination

York and Lancaster civil war

- between 1455 and 1471, adherents of the ducal houses of York and Lancaster contended for control of the Crown in a civil war - commonly called the Wars of the Roses because the symbol of the Yorkists was a white rose and that of the Lancastrians a red one - the chronic disorder hurt trade, agriculture, and domestic industry

Luther and Zwingli's ideas of celibacy (and protestants in general)

- both believed that a priest's or nun's vows of celibacy went against human nature and God's commandments, and that marriage brought spiritual advantages and so was the ideal state for nearly all human beings - Luther married a former nun, Katherina von Bora, and Zwingli married a Zurich widow, Anna Reinhart - most other Protestant reformers also married - their wives had to create a new and respectable role for themselves - pastor's wife - to overcome being viewed as simply a new type of priest's concubine. They were living demonstrations of their husband's convictions about the superiority of marriage to celibacy, and the were expected to be models of wifely obedience and Christian charity

what ideas were used in the new places with religious reform?

- built on Lutheran and Zwinglian ideas to develop their own theology and places for institutional change - most important leader John Calvin, whose ideas would profoundly influence the social thought and attitudes of European peoples and their descendents all over the world

council meeting at Constance

- called for by German emperor Sigismund - three objectives were to wipe out heresy, to end the schism, and to reform the church - members included cardinals, bishops, abbots,, and professors of theology and canon law from across Europe - Jan Hus wa tried, condemned, and burned at the stake as a heretic in 1415 - also eventually healed the schism, deposing both the Roman pope and the successor of the pope chosen at Pisa, and it isolated the Avignon pope. The conclave elected a new leader, the Roman cardinal Colonna, who took the name Martin V

council at Pisa in 1409

- called for by the cardinals of Rome and Avignon - the gathering of prelates and theologians deposed both popes and selected another - neither Avignon pope nor the Roman pope would resign, however, and the appalling result was the creation of a threefold schism

Isabella d'Este

- came from an upper class ruling family - her husband left/was captured, leaving her to rule, and after he died she took over his full job - her father believed in the equality of men and women so she and her siblings were very well educated in many different areas of study, she spoke Greek and Latin as well as playing the flute, singing, dancing, and debating - founded a School for women where they had to observe a strict code of morals - was a patron of the arts, which was unusual for women because they did not usually have enough money for that

what did Henry VII do instead of having a nobility and what did his council do?

- chose men from among the smaller landowners and urban residents trained in law - the council conducted negotiations with foreign governments and secured international recognition of the Tudor dynasty through the marriage in 1501 of Henry VII's eldest son, Arthur, to Catherine of Aragon, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain - dealt with real or potential aristocratic threats through a judicial offshoot, the Court of Star Chamber, so called because of the stars painted on the ceiling of the room - applied methods that were sometimes terrifying: accused persons were to entitled to see evidence against them; sessions were secret; juries were not called; and torture could be applied to extract confessions

what were the three main concerns of the critics (people showed anticlericalism)?

- clerical immorality - clerical ignorance - clerical pluralism (the practice of holding more than one church office at a time)

what types fo primary sources show anticlericalism in the early 16th century?

- court records, bishop's visitations of Parises, and popular songs, and printed images

first permanent royal army in Europe

- created by Charles VII - created by establishing regular companies of cavalry and archers - recruited, paid and inspected by the state

New Eating translation of the New Testament

- created in 1516 - in the preface, Erasmus says, "I wish that even the weakest woman should read the Gospel - should read the epistles of Paul. And I wish these were translated into all languages, so that they might be read and understood, not only by Scots and Irishmen, but also by Turks and Saracens."

Jan Hus

- denied papal authority, called for translations of the Bible int the local Czech language, and declared indulgences - papal offers of remission of penance - useless - gained many followers - led to a growing sense of Czech nationalism in opposition to the pope's international power - he and his followers were successful in defeating the combined armies of the pope and the emperor many times - in the 1430s, the emperor finally agreed to recognize the Hussite Church in Bohemia, which survived into the reformation and then merged with other Protestant churches

what did the marriage of the persistent Ferdinand of Aragon and he aggressive Isabella of Castile bring?

- did NOT bring administrative authority - constituted a dynastic union of two royal houses, not the political union of two peoples - although they pursued a common foreign policy, until about 1700 Spain existed as a loose confederation of separate kingdoms, each maintaining its own cortes (parliament), laws, courts, and systems of coinage and taxation

what was the effect of the dissolution of monasteries?

- did not achieve a more equitable distribution of land and wealth;rather, the redistribution of land strengthened the upper classes and tied them to both the Tudor dynasty and the new Protestant church - led to important changes in government administration - vast tracks of formerly monastic land came temporarily under the Crown's jurisdiction, and new bureaucratic machinery had to be developed to manage those properties Cromwell reformed and centralized the king's household, the council, the secretariars, and the Exchequer -New departments of state were set up - surplus funds from all departments went into a liquid fund to be applied to areas where there were deficits - this balancing resulted in greater efficiency and economy, and Henry VIII's reign saw the growth of the modern centralized bureaucratic state

how did Protestants feel about the relationship between men and women? (who should have more power, etc.)

- did not break with medieval scholastic theologians in their idea that women were to be subject to men - women were advised to be cheerful rather than grudging in their obedience, for in doing so they demonstrated their willingness to follow God's plan - men were urged to treat their wives kindly and considerately, but also to enforcee their authority, through physical coercion if necessary - European mariage manuals used the metaphor breaking a horse for teaching a wife obedience, though laws did set limits on the husband's power to do so

what year did Henry VII die and what did he leave behind (what was the state of the country)?

- died in 1509 - left behind a country at peace both domestically and internationally, a substantially augmented treasury, an expanding wool trade, and a crown with its dignity and role much enhanced - he was greatly missed

Protestant allowance of divorce

- differed from Catholic doctrine - although permitting divorce was a dramatic legal change, it did not have a dramatic impact on newly Protestant areas - because marriage was the cornerstone of society socially and economically, divorce was a desparate last resort

Great Schism

- divided Western Christendom until 1417 - the division, or split, in church leadership from 1378 to 1417 where there were two, then three, popes - weakened the religious faith of many Christians and brought church leadership into serious disrepute

support of the religious changes under Henry VIII

- divisive issue for historians - some English people have been dissatisfied with the existing Christian Church before Henry's measures, and Protestant literature circulated . Traditional Catholicism exerted an enormously strong and vigorous hold over the imagination and loyalty of the people, however. Most clergy and officials accepted Henry's response , but not all

John Knox

- dominated the reform movement, which led to the establishment of a state church - Knox was determined to structure the Scottish church after the model of Geneva, where he had studied and worked with Calvin - in 1560s, he persuaded the Scottish parliament, which was dominated by reform-minded barons, to end papal authority and rule by bishops, substituting governance by presbyters, or councils of ministers. The Presbyterian Church of Scotland was strictly Calvinist in doctrine, and adopted a simple and dignified service of worship, and laid great emphasis on preaching.

what were a couple things that led to the Renaissance?

- economic growth laid the material basis for the Italian Renaissance - ambitious merchants gained political power to match their economic power

what types of people called for reform within the church?

- educated laypeople such as Christian humanists and urban residents, villagers and artisans, and church officials themselves

who was attracted towards the Protestant religion?

- educated people and humanists - the insistence that everyone should read and reflect on the Scriptures attracted literate and thoughtful city residents, including many priests and monks who left the church to become Protestant clergy.

two fundamental themes that run through all of Erasmus's works

- education in the Bible and the classics is the means to reform, the key to moral and intellectual improvement - called for a renaissance of the ideals of the early church to accompany the renaissance in classical education that was already going on, and criticized the church of his day for having strayed from these ideals - renewal should be based on what he termed "the philosophy of Christ," an emphasis on inner spirituality and personal morality rather than scholastic theology or outward observances such as pilgrimages or venerating relics - his important ideas, and Christian Humanism in general, roots of the Protestant Reformation, althoughErasmus himself denied this and never became a follower of Luther

what did Pope Paul III do in 1542?

- established the Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Roman and Universal Inquisition, often called the Holy Office, with jurisdiction over the Roman Inquisition, a powerful instrument of the Catholic reformation - within the Papal States, the Inquisition effectively destroyed heresy, but outside the papal territories, its influence was slight

what did the council requre people to do?

- every diocese to establish a seminary for the education and training of the clergy - seminary professors were to determine whether candidates for ordination had vocation, genuine callings to the preisthood

what did humanists like about Plato's teachings?

- felt that Plato's emphasis on the spiritual and eternal over the material and transient fit well with Christian teachings about the immortality of the soul - the Platonic idea that the highest form of love was spiritual desire for pure, perfect beauty uncorrupted by bodily desires could easily be interpreted as Christian desire for the perfection of God

Greek philosophy and Florentine humanists

- fifteenth century Florentine humanists became interested in Greek philosophy, especially Plato's ideas - under the patronage of Cosimo de' Medici, the scholar Marsilio Ficino began to lecture to an informal group of Florence's cultural elite; his lectures became known as the Platonic Academy, but they were not really a school - Ficino regarded Plato as a divinely inspired precursor to Christ, and he translated Plato's dialogues into Latin and wrote commentaries attempting to synthesize Christian and Platonic teachings

Protestant Reformation in Denmark-Norway

- first area outside the empire to officially accept the Reformation was the kingdom of Denmark-Norway under King Christian III - Danish scholars studied at the Universtiy of Wittenburg, and Lutheran ideas spread into Denmark very quickly - in the 1530s, the king officially broke with the Catholic church, and most clergy followed. The process went smoothly in Denmark, but in northern Norway and Iceland (which Christian also ruled) there were violent reactions, and Lutheranism was only gradually imposed on a largely unwelling populace

aggressive methods for rebuilding governments used in the 15th century

- first in Italy, the France, England, Spain - rulers began reducing violence, curbing unruly nobles, and establishing domestic order - attempted to secure this borders and enhanced methods of raising revenue - monarchs of Western Europe emphasized royal majesty and royal sovereignty and insisted on the respect and loyalty of all subjects, including the nobility - in Central Europe Holy Roman emperors attempted to do the same, but they were not able to overcome the power of local interests to crate a unified state

how was Savonarola removed from power and who came after him?

- for a short time he was wildly popular, but eventually people tired of his moral denunciations, and he was excommunicated by the pope, tortured, and burned at the very spot where he had overseen the bonfires. The Medici returned as the rulers of Florence

why did people of the Renaissance follow humanism?

- found the tools of textual criticism, Latin grammar and the passion of the scholar, however, medieval scholars found this as well - what the Renaissance humanists really found was a great authority with whom they could arm themselves against the compartmentalization of the medieval matrix. The existence of the matrix and the rediscovery of ancient ways of thought produced tension and conflict - Renaissance humanists began to ask, "Who are we?" and they began to discover the beauty of form and they found Plato, whose ideas they greatly admired

Botticelli, Primavera, 1482

- framed by a grove of orange trees, Venus, goddess of love, is flanked on the right by Flora, goddess of flowers and fertility, and on the left by the Three Graces, goddesses of banquets, dance, and social occasions. Above, Venus's son Cupid, the god of love, shoots darts of desire, while at the far right the wind-god Zephyrus chases the nymph Chloris. The entire scene rests on classical mythology, though some art historians claim that Venus is an allegory for the Virgin Mary. Botticelli captured the ideal for female beauty in the Renaissance: slender, with pale skin, high forehead, red-blond hair, and sloping shoulders

Desiderius Erasmus publications

- from Rotterdam - a few of his publications are The Education of a Christian Prince (1504), and The Praise of Folly (1509) - created a new Latin translation of the New Testament alongside the first printed edition of the Greek text (1516)

Albrecht Durer

- from the German city or Nurembourg, studied with artists in Italy, and produced woodcuts, engravings, and etchings that rendered the human form and the natural world in amazing detail. He was fascinated with the theoretical and practical problems of perspective, and designed mechanical devices that could assist artists in solving these

signori

- government by one-man rule (either condottiero, merchant, or noble) in Italian cities such as Milan; also refers to these rules - rule would be passed down to his son

what groups beginning in the 1520s rejected the idea that church and state needed to be united?

- groups in Switzerland, Germany, and the Netherlands sought instead to create a voluntary community of believers separate from the state, as they understood it to have existed in New Testament times - generally termed "radicals" for their insistence on a more extensive break with prevailing ideas - some adopted the baptism of adult believers, for which they were called by their enemies "Anabaptists," meaning "rebaptizers" - some groups attempted communal ownership of property, living very simply, and rejecting anything they thought unbiblical - some reacted harshly to members who deviated, but others argued for complete religious toleration and individualism

what did medieval political philosophers feel about church and state?

- had debated the proper relation between church and state. but they regarded the standards by which all governments should be judged as emanating from moral principles established by God

Petrarch's Letter to Posterity

- he says "Among the many subjects which interested me, I dwelt especially upon antiquity, for our own age has always repelled me...In order to forget my own time I have constantly striven to place myself in a spirit of other ages, and consequently, I delight in history." - he talks about how he is interested in the time of Ancient Greece and Rome, and how he is disgusted by the current age that they lived in

what was Calvin's life like as a young man?

- he studied law, which had a decisive impact on his mind and later his thought - converted to Protestantism in 1533, when he was between 23-24 years old - he thought that God had selected him to reform the church, accordingly, he accepted an invitation to assist in the reformation of the city of Geneva. There, beginning in 1541, he worked assiduously to establish a well-disciplined Christian society in which church and state acted together

aside from the printing press, what other thing attributed to Luther's success?

- his incredible writing skill

"bonfires of the vanities"

- huge fires on the main square of Florence in which fancy clothing, cosmetics, pagan books, musical instruments, paintings, and poetry that celebrated human beauty were gathered together and burned

what were the three main values of the Renaissance?

- humanism - secularism - virtu/individualism

what did Paul III and his supports suggest?

- improvements in education for the celrgy, the end of simony (the selling of church fices) and stricter control of clercial life

1344 King Edward III

- in 1344 King Edward III of England repudiated his huge debts to Florentine bankers, forcing some of them into bankruptcy, but the city was not destroyed since it was founded so economically strong

Isabella and Ferdinard's children and who they married etc.

- in 1496, their daughter Joanna, heiress to Castile, married the archduke Philip, heir to the Burgundian Netherlands and the Holy Roman Empire - Philip and Joanna's son Charles V thus succeeded to a vast inheritance. When Charles's son Philip II joined Portugal to the Spanish crown in 1580, the Iberian Peninsula was at last politically united

opposition to Henry's reforms

- in 1536 popular opposition in the north to the religious changes led to the Pilgrimage of Grace, a massive rebellion that proved the largest in English history. The pilgrims accepted a truce, but their leaders were arrested, tried, and executed - People rarely converted from catholic to Protestant overnight - people responded to an action of the Crown that was played out in their own neighborhood - the closing of a monastery, the ending of Masses for the dead - with a combination of resistance, acceptance, and collaboration - some enthusiastically changed to Protestant forms of prayer, with others recited Protestant prayers in church while keeping pictures of Catholic saints at home

Elizabethan Injunctions about Religion

- in 1599, acting through Parliament, Queen Elizabeth issued a series of rules governing many aspects of religious life. These prohibited clergy and laypeople from engaging in certain religious practices, and required them to do others - all clergy, etc. should follow the laws like any other person - talked about how often they should have sermons and what they should discuss

1547 Ordinances in Calvin's Geneva

- in Geneva, John Calvin encouraged city leaders to issue ordinances that regulated many aspects of life, and establishing the Consistory to enforce them - Concerning the Times of Assembling at Church - when churches are closed, no one shall enter, it is a superstition - Blasphemy - those who have blasphemed shall first share his devotion and bow down to the Lord, second pay a fine, and third be put in a the pillory - Drunkenness - no shall invite someone else to drink or else they will pay a fine, taverns be closed during the sermon, if you are found intoxicated you shall pay a fine, may be put in prison for a third offence - Songs and Dances - if anyone sings immoral or outrageous songs, or dance the virollet, they shall be put in prison for three days then sent to the consistory - Usury - no one should take interest or profit on a loan more than five percent - Games - no should should bet money on a game

Pope Paul III general council (council of Trent)

- in Trent 1545 to 1563 - called not only to reform the Catholic Church but also to secure reconciliation with the Protestants - Lutherans and Calvinists were invited to participate, but their insistence that the Scriptures be the sole basis for discussion made reconciliation impossible - the political objectives of Charles V and France both worked against reconciliation. Charles wanted to avoid alienating the Lutheran nobility in the empire, and France wanted the Catholics and Lutherans to remain divided in order to keep Germany decentralized and weak

what artistic works represented the merchant's dominant influence in the community?

- in early Renaissance Italy, powerful urban groups often flaunted their wealthy commissioning works of art. The Florentine cloth merchants, for example, delegated Fillippo Brunelleschi to build the magnificent dome on the cathedral of Florence and selected Lorenzo Ghiberti to design the bronze doors of the adjacent Bapistery, a separate building in which baptisms were performed

dispute between King Philip the Fair of France and Pope Boniface VIII

- in the early 14th century - after Boniface's death, in order to control the church and its policies, Philip pressured the new pope, Clement V, to settle permanently in Avignon from 1309 to 1376, a period in church history often called the Babylonian Captivity

German Peasants' War of 1525

- in the early 16th century the economic condition of the peasantry was generally worse than it had been in the 15th century, and the crop failures in 1523 and 1524 made this even worse - Nobles had aggrieved peasants by seizing village common lands, by imposing new rents and requiring additional services, and by taking the peasants' best horses or cows whenever a head of household died. The peasants made demands that they believed conformed to the Scriptures, and they cited radical thinkers as well as Luther as proof that they did. - Luther wanted to prevent rebellion, so he initially sided with the peasants. But when rebellion broke out, peasants did not receive the support they thought they would from Luther. Freedom from Luther's church meant independence from the authority of the Roman Church, not opposition to legally established secular powers. He also claimed that they did not have Biblical support, because he maintained that Scripture had nothing to doo with earthly justice or material gain, a position that Zwingli supported.

the reformation in Bohemia

- in the fifteenth century, a Czech majority was ruled by Germans - Most Czechs had adopted the ideas of Jan His, and the emperor had been fired to recognize a separate Hussite church. Yet Lutheranism appealed to Germans in Bohemia in the 1520s and 1530s, and the nobility embraced Lutheranism in opposition to the Catholic Habsburgs - The forces of the Catholic Reformation promoted a Catholic spiritual revival in Bohemia, and some areas reconverted, This complicated situation would be one of the causes of the Thirty Year's War in the early seventeenth century

individuals and rulers sponsoring works of art

- in the late 15th century, wealthy individuals and rulers, rather than corporate groups, sponsored works of art - patrician merchants and bankers, popes, and princes spent vast sums on the arts to glorify themselves and their families

what helped create an expanding market for reading materials by the 15th century?

- increase in urban literacy, the development of primary schools, and the opening of more universities - made the current system of professional copyists writing by hand and block-book makers, monks, and nuns churning out reading materials as fast as they could impractical because of the growth of literature that needed to be published

what were some of the effects of the German Peasants' War?

- increased the authority of lay rulers - the Reformation lost much of its popular appeal after 1525, though peasants and urban rebels sometimes found a place for their social and religious ideas in radical groups - Peasants' economic conditions did moderately improve. For example, in many parts of Germany, enclosed fields, meadows, and forests were returned to common use

when did a territory truly become Protestant?

- individuals mat have been convinced of the truth of Protestant teachings by hearing sermons, listening to hymns, or reading pamphlets, but a territory truly became Protestant when its ruler, whether a noble or a city council, brought in a reformer or two to reeducate the territory's clergy, sponsored public sermons, and confiscated church property, which happened in many of the states of the Holy Roman Empire during the 1520s

Spiritual Exercises

- intended for a four week period of retreat - set out a training program of structured meditation designed to develop spiritual discipline and allow one to meld one's will wish that of God

how did the decrees of the Council of Trent lay a solid basis for the spiritual renewal of the Catholic Church?

- it gave equal validity to the Scriptures and to tradition as sources of religious truth and authority - reaffirmed the seven sacraments and the traditional Catholic teaching on transubstantiation - tackled the disciplinary matters that had disillusioned the faithful, requiring bishops to reside in their own dioveses, supressing pluralism and simony, and forbidding the sale of indulgences

Leonardo da Vinci

- labelled a genius in the Renaissance period - a special kind of human being with exceptional creative powers - born in Florence, the son of Caterina, a local peasant girl, and Her Piero da Vinci, a notary public, he was taken in by his father - his most famous portrait, the Mona Lisa, shows a woman with an enigmatic smile, may be the best-known painting in the history of art - considered the first "Renaissance man," a phrase still used for a multitalented individual - created the Vitruvian Man, a drawing by Leonardo showing correlations between the ideal human proportions and the geometric shapes of the circle and square - painted The Last Supper

Pope Leo X

- lived at the same time as Luther - authorized the Saale of a special Saint Peter's indulgence to finance his building plans in Rome - Albert of Mainz, the archbishop who controlled the area in which Wittenberg was located, was an enthusiastic promoter of this indulgence sale - for his efforts, Albert received a share of the profits so that he could pay off a debt he ha incurred in order to purchase a papal dispensation allowing him to become the bishop of several territories as well

William of Occam criticism of the church

- lived before the Great Schism - saw the papal court at Avignon during the Babylonian Captivity - argued vigorously against the opacity and also wrote philosophical works in which he questioned the connection between reason and faith that had been developed by Thomas Aquinas -argued all governments should have limited powers and be accountable to those they govern, and church and state should be separate

who did humanists look to for models of government?

- looked back to the classical past - Bruni - argued that republicanism was the best form of government - others used the model of Plato's philosopher-king in the republic to argue that rule by an enlightened individual might be best - both sides agreed that educated men should be active in political affairs of the city

what were female artists not allowed to paint/study that male artists would have?

- male nude, a study that was viewed as essential if one wants to paint large history or biblical paintings with many figures - could not learn the technique of fresco, in which cloys are applied directly to wet plaster walls, because such work had to be done in public, which was judged inappropriate for women - no access to artistic academies, because it was viewed improper for them to attend with a group of male artists - artistic workshops were male-only settings in which men of different ages came together for training and created bonds of friendship, influence, patronage, and sometimes intimacy

Muslims in Spain

- many Muslims in Granda were forcibly baptized and became another type of New Christian investigated by the Inquisition

clerical pluralism and absenteeism

- many clergy held several benefices, or offices, simultaneously, but they seldom visited the benefices, let alone performed the spiritual responsibilities those offices entailed - instead, they they collected revenues from all of them and hired a poor priest, paying him just a fraction of the income to fulfill the spiritual duties of a particular local church - many Italian officials in the papal curia, the pope's court in Rome, held beneficiaries in England, Spain, and Germany. revenues from those countries paid the Italian clerics' salaries, provoking not only charges of absenteeism but also nationalistic resentment aimed at the upper levels of the church hierarchy, which was increasingly viewed as foreign. This was particularly the case in German, where the lack of a strong central government to negotiate with the papacy meant that demands for even were especially high

Protestant reformation's impact on women

- many nuns were in convents not out of a strong sense of religious calling, but because their parents placed them there. But, convents provided women of the upper classes with an oppertunity to use their literary, artistic, or administrative talents - the Reformation generally brought the closing of convents and monasteries, and marriage became virtually the only occupation for women. Some women in convents recognized this and fought it, or argued that they could still be pious Protestants within convent walls. Most nuns left, however. - women were not allowed to be members of the clergy

why did the church come under increasing disaster?

- many religions tried to offer consolation in times of crisis or disaster, but in the 14th century, the Christian Church offered little solace - many priests and friars helped the sick and hungry, but others paid more attention to worldly matters, and the leaders of the church added to the sorrow and misery of the times. In response to this lack of leadership, members of the clergy challenged the power of the pope, and laypeople challenged the authority of the church itself. Women and men increasingly relied on direct approached to God, often through mystical encounters, rather than on the institutional church.

humanist disagreements about education for women

- many saw the value of exposing women to classical models of moral behavior and reasoning, but they also wondered whether a program of study that emphasized eloquence and action was proper for women

Henry VIII marriage to Catherine of Aragon

- married to the Catherine of Aragon,the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella and a widow of Henry's older brother, Arthur. - Marriage to a brother's widow went against canon law, and Henry had been required to obtain a special papal dispensation to marry Catherine - produced only one living heir, a daughter Mary - Henry thought God was showing his displeasure in this marriage by not giving him a son by 1527, and he appealed to the pope to have the marriage annulled - annulment would not have normally been a problem but Charles V was in Rome at the time, and Pope Clement VII was essentially their prisoner. Since Charles V was the nephew of Catherine, he opposed annulment

Jesuits

- members of the Society of Jesus, a Roman Catholic religious order founded by Ignatius of Loyola - founded by Ignatius Loyola - played a powerful international role in strengthening Catholicism in Europe and spreading the faith around the world - Loyola studied books about Christ and the saints and decided to give up his military career and become a soldier of Christ. During the year he spent in seclusion, prayer, and ascetism, he gained insights that went into his great classic, Spiritual Exercises - Jesuit schools adopted the modern humanist curicula and methods, educating the sons of the nobility as well as the poor - exerted great political influence

what did merchants do when the republican governments in some Italian cities failed?

- merchant oligarchies brought in powerful military leaders to establish order. These military leaders, called condottieri, had their own mercenary armies, and in many cities they took over political power once they had supplanted the existing government

change in the church's role

- merchants needed firm and stale governments free from older feudal obligations, so strong centralized monarchies make their appearances - Niccolo Machiavelli - believed that governments should not take actions based on God's morals, but rather what would provide the most safety, security, and order to the people

what do recently analyzed documents of the Inquisition tell us?

- most conversos identified themselves as sincere Christians; many came from families that had received baptism generations before - in response to conversos; statements, officials of the person's status as a Jew, they argued, could not be changed by religious conversation, it was in the person's blood and was heritable, so Jews could never be true Christians - in "purity of blood laws," having pure Christian blood became a requirement for noble status - discussion of "Jewish blood" later expanded into the "Jewish race"

when did Michelangelo come to Florence and what did he do there?

- moved from Rome in Florence in 1599 - Egan the series of statues, paintings, and architectural projects from which he gained and international reputation: the Pieta, Moses, the redesigning of the plaza and surrounding palaces on the Capitoline Hill in central Rome, and, most famously, the dome for Saint Peter's and the ceiling and altar wall of the nearby Sistine Chapel

reasons for the success of Florence during the Renaissance

- on fertile soil, its favorable location on the main road northward from Rome made Florence a commercial hub, and the city grew wealthy buying and selling all types of goods throughout Europe and the Mediterranean - Florentine merchants loaned and invested money, and they acquired control of papal banking towards the end of the 13th century - Florentine merchants began to dominate European banking on both sides of the Alps

military event in 1536 that effected the Hungarian state and the Protestant reformation there

- on the plain of Mohacs in southern Hungary, the Ottoman sultan Suleiman the Magnificent inflicted a crushing defeat on the Hungarians, killing King Louis II, many of the nobles, and more than sixteen thousand ordinary soliers - The Hungarian kingdom was then divided into three parts: the Ottoman Turks absorbed the Great Plains, including the capital, Buda; the Habsburgs ruled the north and west; and Ottoman-supported Janos Zapolya held eastern Hungary and Transylvania

what was the reason there were a few women who became sculptors and painters?

- one female sculptor and several female artists are known today from the Renaissance period - the majority of femalee painters were the daughters of painters or of minor noblemen with ties to artistic circles - many were the eldest daughters or came from families where there were no sons, so their fathers took unusual interest in their careers - many women painters began their careers before they were even 20 and either produced far fewer paintings after they married or stopped painting entirely

Jan van Eyck

- one of the earliest artists to use oil-based paints successfully, and his religious scenes and portraits all show great realism and remarkable attention to human personality

how does the School of Athens show humanist ideas?

- people are meeting to study reading, writing, and educational pursuit, which humanists valued - similar architecture of Ancient Greece and Rome, with sculptures of Apollo and Athena - Plato and Aristotle stand in the center - uses perspective to help recreate the old architecture with a new technique - secular image

Pico della Francesca and Andrea Mantega

- pioneered perspective, the linear representation of distance and space on a flat surface, which enhanced the realism of paintings and differentiated them from the flatter and more stylized images of medieval art

clerical privileges and immunities

- priests, monks, and nuns were exempt from civiv responsibilities, such as defending the city and saying taxes - religious orders frequently held large amounts urban property, in some cities as much as 1/3 - city governments were increasingly determined to integrate the clergy into civic life by reducing their privileges and giving them public responsibilities - urban leaders wanted some say who would be appointed to high church offices, rather than having this decided far away in Rome, bringing leaders into opposition with bishops and the papacy, which for centuries had stressed the independent of the church from lay control and the distinction between members of the clergy and laypeople

what was the effect of printing of people's private lives and how did it stimulate the literacy of laypeople?

- printers printed professional reference sets for lawyers, doctors, and students, and historical romances, biographies, and how-to manuals for the general public - published books on a wide scale of topics full of woodcuts and engravings, they found that their illustrations increased a book's sales - single page fly sheets allowed great public events and "wonders" such as comets and two-headed calved to be experienced vicariously by a stay-at-home readership - print bridged the gap between the written and oral cultures

Titian

- produced portraits, religious subjects, and mythological scenes, developing techniques of painting in oil without doing elaborate drawings first, which speeded up the process and pleased patrons eager to display their acquisitions - Titian and other 16th century painters developed an artistic style known in English as "mannerism" in which artists sometimes distorted figures, exaggerated musculature, and heightened color to express emotion and drama more intently

Martin Luther

- propelled the wave of movements we now call the Reformation - educated with a law degree and studied a legal career - a religious calling led him to join the Augustinian friars, a religious order whose members often preached to, taught, and assisted the poor - ordained a preist in 1507 - reached a new understanding of Christian doctrine, often summarized ad "faith alone, grace alone, Scripture". Believed that salvation and justification come through faith. Faith is a free gift of God's grace, not the result of human effort.

what idea did theologians start emphasizing in beginning in the twelfth century?

- purgatory, a place where souls on their way to heaven went to make further amends for their earthly sins - both earthly penance and time in purgatory could be shortened by rating on what was termed the "treasury of merits," which was a collection of all the virtuous acts that Christ, the apostles, and the saints had done during their lives

Bohemia and the church

- reforms took place, leading to the formation of a church independent of Rome a century before Luther

in what ways was Geneva a model of a Christian community for many Protestant reformers?

- religious refugees from France, England, Spain, Scotland, and Italy visited Calvin's Geneva - many of the most prominent exiles from Mary Tudor's England stayed - the church of Calvin - often termed "Reformed" - served as the model for the Presbyterian Church in Scotland, the Huguenot Church in France, and the Puritan churches in England and New England

difference between Renaissance art and Middle Ages art

- religious topics, like the Annunciation of the Virgin and the Nativity, remained popular - during the 15th century, more humanist ideas spread more widely, classical themes and motifs, such as the lives and loves of pagan gods and goddesses, figured increasingly in painting and sculpture, with the facial features of the gods sometimes modeled on living people - Renaissance portraits showed human ideals, often portrayed in the more realistic style increasingly favored by both artists and patrons

what was religious freedom lie in the 16th century?

- remaied a public matter - the ruler determined the offical form of religious practice in his jurisdiction - almost everyone believed that the presence of a faith different from that of the majority represented a political threat to the security of the state

Savonarola changes to government

- reorganized the government, convincing it to pass laws against same-sex relations, adultery, and drunkenness - organized groups of men to patrol the streets looking for immoral dress and behavior - had religious processions and what became known as "bonfires of the vanities"

how did the papacy respond to Luther's published criticism of the church and how did Luther respond back?

- responded with a letter condemning some of Luther's propositions, ordering that his books be burned, and giving him two months to recant or be excommunicated - Luther retaliated by publicly burning the letter

Charles VII of France

- revived the monarchy and France after the Black Death (though he seemed an unlikely person to do so) - reconciled the Burgundians and Armagnacs who had been waging civil warfare thirty years - by 1453 French armies had expelled the English from French soil except in Calasis - reorganized the royal council, giving increased influence to lawyers and bankers, and strengthened royal finances through taxes on certain products and on land, which remained the Crown's chief sources of income until the Revolution of 1789

marriage in increasing power

- royal and noble sons and daughters were important tools of state policy - the benefits of an advantageous marriage stretched across generations, a process that can be seen most dramatially with the Habsburgs

Archbishop Albert's indulgence sale

- run by a Dominican friar named Johann Tetzel, who mounted an advertising blitz - promised that the purchase of indulgences would bring full forgiveness for one's own sins or release from purgatory for a loved one - one slogan, "As soon as coin in coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs" - brought phenomenal success, and people traveled from miles around to buy indulgences

Marsilo Ficino's letter in 1492

- says, "If we are to call any age golden, it is beyondd doubt that age which brings forth golden talents in different places. That such is true of this our age [no one] will hardly doubt. For this century, like a golden age, has restored to light the liberal arts, which were almost extinct: grammar, poetry rhetoric, painting, sculpture, architecture, music...and all this in Florence. Achieving what had been honored among the ancients, but almost forgotten since, the age has joined wisdom with eloquence, and prudence with the military art....Tis century appears to have perfected astronomy, in Florence it has recalled the Platonic teaching from darkness into light...and in Germany...[there]have been invented the instruments for printing books." - talks about what makes a golden age, and how they are living in one now - says the golden age they are living in now has restored light to the liberal arts (grammar, poetry rhetoric, painting, sculpture, architecture, music) in Florence - many scientific advancements as well

Donatello

- sculptor who revived the classical figure, with its balance and self-awareness

what were two of the main ideas of the Renaissance?

- self-sufficiency and individuality - greater emphasis on human potentiality for growth and excellence

what were some basic institutions established in the High Middle Ages? (twelfth and thirteenth century)

- sheriffs, inquests, juries, circuit judges, professional bureaucracies, and representative assemblies

how does the ceiling of the Sistine chapel show humanist ideas?

- shows an interaction between God and Adam, where they are shown as average humans - their fingers re not yet touching, and Adam does not yet have knowledge and free will, when the fingers touch he will receive this knowledge and free will - shows realism, a technique used in Ancient Greece and Rome, and was revisited n the Renaissance

how were monasteries and convents reformed

- so that they followed more rigorous standards - In Spain, for example, the Carmelite nun Teresa of Avila founded her new convents and reformed her Carmelite order to bring it back to stricter standards of asceticism and poverty, a task she understood God had set for her in mystical visions.

artistic value during the Renaissance age

- some patrons rewarded certain artists very well, and some artists gained public acclaim as, in Vasari's words, "rare men of genius" - led many historians to believe that the Renaissance was the beginning of the concept of the artist as having a special talent

radicals in the German city of Munster, 1530s

- some religious radicals thought the end of the world was coming soon, and in the 1503s a group took over the city of Munster, which they predicted would be the site of a New Jerusalem that would survive God's final judgement - called for communal ownership of property and expelled those who refused to be rebaptized - combined armies of Catholics and Protestants besieged the city and executed its leaders. The insurrection at Munster and the radicals unwillingness to accept a state church marked them as a societal outcast and invited hatred and persecution, for both Protestant ant Catholic authorities saw a state church as akey to maintaining order - Anabapists and other radicals were banished or cruelly executed by burnings, beating, or drowning

conflict between different Protestant groups

- some sided with Zwingli and Calvin, stressing that the "word of God" should be the only instrument used in the work of evangalization, often stripped statues, images, and decoration out of church, creating a stark , bare simplicity - Martin Luther, by contrast, believed that painting and sculpture had value in spreading the Gospel message because "children and simple folk are more apt to retain the divine stories when taught be pictures and parables than merely by words or instruction

Louis XI

- son of Charles VII - called the "Spider king" because of his treacherous character - improved upon Charles's army and used it to control the nobles' separate militias and to curb urban independence - army was also employed in 1477 when Louis conquered Burgundy upon the death go its ruler Charles the Bold. - 1480, the extinction of the house of Anjou with the death of its last legitimate male heir brought Louis the countries of Anjou, Bar, Maine, and Provence

social consequences for the laypeople in the council of trent

- stipulated that more a marriage to be valid, the marriage vows had to be made publicly before a priest and witnesses - Trent thereby ended the widespread practice of private marriages in Catholic countries, curtaining the number of denials and conflicts that inevitably resulted from marriages that took place in secret

Alberti view on education for women

- stressed that a wife's like should be restricted to the orderliness or the household, food preparation and the serving of meals, the education of children, and the supervision of servants (he never married, so he never put his ideas into practice in his own home)

what was the most vital element for the development of states during the Middle Ages and why was this a problem during the hundred Years War?

- strong monarchy - during the Hundred Years' War, no ruler was able to take effective leadership (the resurgent power of feudal nobilities weakened the centralizing work begun earlier)

what was the effect of the printing presses?

- the "great age of information" - printed books began to fall into the hands of those who were not intellectuals - gave hundreds or thousands of people identical books, allowing them to more easily discuss the ideas that the books contained with one another in person or through letters

Council of Trent 1563

- the Catholic Church addressed the subject of art - declared that honor and veneration should be given to likenesses of Christ, the Virgin Mary, and the saints; that images should remind people of the saints' virtues in order to encourage imitation; and that pectoral art should promote piety and the love of God

Habsburg Dynasty and marriages

- the Holy Roman emperor, Frederick III, a Habsburg who was the ruler of most of Austria, acquired only a small amount of territory - but a great deal of money - with his marriage to Princess Eleonore of Portugal in 1452. - He arranged for his son Maximilian to marry Europe's most prominent heiress, Mary of Burgundy in 1477; She inherited the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and the Country of Burgundy in what is now eastern France. Through this union, the Austrian house of Habsburg, already the strongest ruling family in the empire, became an international power.

cooperation and relations with European states after 1500

- the Italian city-states anticipated future relations among competing European states after 1500 - whenever one Italian state appeared to gain a predominant position within the peninsula, other states combined against it to establish a balance of power - created permanent embassies with resident ambassadors in capitals where political relations and commercial ties needed continual monitoring

Imperial Diet in 1530 in Augsburg

- the Lutherans developed a statement of faith, later called the Ausberg Confession, and the Protestant princes presented this to the emperor. Charles V refused to accept it and ordered all Protestants to return to the Catholic church and give up any confiscated church property. This demand backfired, and Protestant territories in the empire - mostly northern German principalities and southern German cities - formed a military alliance. The emperor could not respond militarily, as he was in the midst of a series of wars with the French: the Habsburg-Valois wars, fought in Italy along the eastern and southern borders of France and eventually in Germany

disorder and violence in England in the fifteenth century

- the aristocracy dominated the government of Henry IV and indulged in disruptive violence at the local level, fighting each other, seizing wealthy travelers for ransom, and plundering merchant caravans - population continued to decline

what helped make the printing revolution possible?

- the availability of paper, which had been brought into Europe through Muslim Spain rather than developing independently

how did the political situation in Germany shape the course of the Reformation?

- the decentralized government in German and the entire Holy Roman Empire made it easy to launch a movement to reform the church, which would have been easily destroyed in a strong, centralized government such as Spain

what the impetus for the England's breaking with Rome?

- the desire of King Henry VIII for a new wife, though his own motives also included political, social, and economic elements

what change in the English parliament occurred in 1535-1539?

- the king ended 900 years of monastic life, dispersing the monks and nuns and confiscating their lands. Their proceeds enriched the royal treasury, and hundreds of properties were sold to the middle and upper classes, the very groups represented in Parliament

Vasari's discussion of his own works

- the last artist included in Vasari's work is himself - Renaissance thinkers did not exclude themselves when they searched for models of talent and achievement - begins discussion of his works modestly, but later then he goes on for more than 30 pages, clearly feeling that he has achieved some type of excellence

Protestants condemn prostitution

- the licensed brothels that were a common feature of the late medieval urban life were closed in Protestant cities, and harsh punishments were set for prostitution - many catholic cities soon closed their brothels as well - selling sex was couched in moral terms, as simply one type of "whoredom," a term, that also included premarital sex, adultery, and other unacceptable sexual activities

the expulsion of Jews and the unification of Spain

- the marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile in 1469 brought most of the Iberian Peninsula under one monarchy, although different parts of Spain retained cultures, languages, and legal systems - in 1492, Ferdinand and Isabella conquered Granada, where most people were Muslim, and expelled all practicing Jews from Spain, and of the 200000 jews, 150000 fled - Spanish Jews resettled in cities of Europe and the Mediterranean that allowed them in, including Muslim states such as the Ottoman Empire. Muslims are also expelled from Spain over the course of the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries - many Jews came to Spain after being expelled fro France and England

some developments that strengthened the French monarchy

- the marriage of Luis XII and Anne of Brittany added the large western duchy of Brittany to the state - King Francis I and Pope Leo X reached.a mutually satisfactory agreement about church and state powers in 1516 - the new treaty, the Concordat of Bologna, approved the pope's right to receive the first year's income of newly named bishops and abbots in France. In return, Leo X recognized the French ruler's right to select French bishops and abbots. French kings thereafter effectively controlled the appointment and thus the policies of church officials in the kingdom

Ulrich Zwingli and what he announced in 1519

- the most important early reformer other than Luther - a Swiss humanist, admirer of Erazmus - announced in 1519 that he would not preach from the church's prescribed readings, but relying on Erasmus's New Testament, go right through the New Testament from "A to Z, or from Matthew to Revelation - convinced that Christian life rested on the Scriptures, which were the pure words ofGod and the sole basis of religious truth - went on to attack indulgences, the Mass, the institution of monasticism, and clerical celibacy - in his gradual reform of the church in Zurich, he had the strong support of the city authorities, who had long resented the privileges of the clergy

Protestant

- the name originally given to followers of Luther (and also Zwingli), which came to mean all non-Catholic Western Christian groups - derives from the protest drawn up by a small group of reforming German princes at the Diet of Speyer in 1529. The princes "protested" the decisions of the Catholic majority, and the world gradually became a general term applied to all non-Catholic Western European Christians

what did machiavelli place the blame of the fall of Cesare Borgia?

- the operations of Fortuna, whose power even the best prepared and most merciless ruler could not fully escape, though he should try. Fortuna was personified and portrayed as a goddess in Ancient Rome and renaissance Italy

what were some of the reasons people were highly critical of the Roman Catholic Church and its clergy?

- the papal conflict with the German emperor Frederick II in the 13th century - the Babylonian Captivity and the Great Schism, badly damaging the prestige of church leaders - the fifteenth-century popes' concentration on artistic patronage and building up of family power did not help matters - papal tax collection methods were attacked orally and in print, with some even criticizing the papacy itself as an institution, and even the great wealth and powerful courts of the entire church hierarchy - argued that some of the doctrines taught by the church, such as the veneration of saints and the centrality of the sacraments, were incorrect - they suggested measures to reform institution, improve clerical education and behavior, and alter the basic doctrines, occasionally these had success

Babylonian Captivity

- the period from 1309 to 1376 the the popes resided in Avignon rather than in Rome. The phrase refers to the seventy years when the Hebrews were held captive in Babylon

which invention was crucial to Luther's success and why?

- the printing press - it rapidly reproduced and made known his ideas - also could include conducts and other illustrations, making it easier for even illiterate people to understand

Martin Luther, On Christian Liberty

- the reformer Martin Luther formulated a classic interpretation of liberty in his treatise on Christian Liberty, which contains the main themes of Luther's theology: the importance of faith, the relationship between Christian faith and good works, the dual nature of human beings, and the fundamental importance of scripture - writes that Christians were freed from sin and death through Christ, to through their own actions

what were some topics that protestants did not agree on?

- the ritual of the Eucharist - Catholicism holds the dogma of transubstantiation: by the consecrating words of the priest during the Mass, the bread and wine become the actual body and blood of Christ. in opposition, Luther believed that Christ is really present in the consecrated bread and wine, but this is the result of God's mystery, not the actions of a priest - Zwingli understood the Eucharist as a moral Ain which Christ was present in spirit among the faithful, but not in the bread and wine. - The Colloquy of Marburg, summoned in 1529 to unite Protestants, failed to resolve these differences, though Protestants reached agreement on almost everything else

how did the Babylonian Captivity damage papal prestige?

- the seven popes at Avignon concentrated on bureaucratic and financial matters to the exclusion of spiritual objectives, and the general atmosphere was one of luxury and extravagance, which was also the case at many bishops' courts - the leadership of the church was cut off from its historic roots and the source of its ancient authority, the city of Rome 1377 - Pope Gregory XI brought the papal court back to Rome but died shortly afterward. Roman citizens pressured the cardinals to elect an Italian, nd they chose a distinguished administrator: the archbishop of Bari, Bartolomeo Prignano, who took the name Urban VI

Cesare Borgia

- the son of Rodrigo, a Spanish nobleman who later became Pope Alexander VI. Combined his father's power and his own ruthlessness to build up a state of his own in central Italy. He made good use of military equipment and tactics, hiring Leonardo da Vinci as a military engineer, and murdered his political enemies, including the second husband of his sister, Lucrezia. He state fell apart after his father's death.

Jane Seymour

- the third wife of Henry VIII - gave Henry his desired son, but she died in childbirth

why are Ficino and Petrarch considered urban representatives of the Renaissance?

- their lives are ones of spiritual adventure and a thirst for knowledge

why were Venice, Genoa, and Milan successful during the Renaissance?

- they all were supported by a huge merchant marine, and had grown enormously through overseas trade

what did Calvinists believe about occupation?

- they believed that any occupation could be a God-given "calling," and should be carried out with diligence and dedication - this doctrine encouraged an aggressive, vigorous activism in both work and religious life, and Calvinism became the most dynamic work force in the sixteenth and seventeenth century Protestantism

what do other think about the view of predestination?

- they consider it to be a pessimistic view of the nature of God - Calvinists came to believe that although one's actions could do nothing to change one's fate, hard work, thrift, and proper moral conduct could serve as signs that one was among the "elect" chosen for salvation

how did Ferdinand and Isabella exert their authority?

- they curbed aristocratic power by excluding his nobles from the royal court, which had full executive, judicial, and legislative powers Unser the monarchy, instead appointing lesser land owners - the council and various government boards recruited men trained in Roman law, which exalted the power of the Crown - secured from the Spanish Borgia pope Alexander VI - Cesare Borgia's father - the right to appoint bishops in Spain and in the Hispanic territories in America, enabling them to establish the equivalent of a national church

how did merchant elites make qualifications for citizenship in the communes?

- they made membership in the communes dependent on a property qualification, years of residence within the city, and social connections. only a tiny percentage of the male population possessed these qualifications and thus could hold political office

why did government and church leaders both use and worry about printing?

- they printed laws, declarations of war, battle accounts, and propaganda, and they also attempted to censor books and authors whose ideas they thought challenged their authority or were incorrect - officials developed lists of prohibited books and authors, e forcing their prohibitions by confiscating books, arresting printer and booksellers, or destroying the presses of printer who disobeyed - none of this was very effective, and books were printed secretly, with fake title pages, authors, and places of publication, and smuggled all over Europe

how were Turks indifferent to the religious conflicts of Christians?

- they regarded the Christians as infidels - Christians of all types paid extra taxes to the sultan, but kept their faith. Many Magyar (Hungarian) nobles accepted Lutheranism - Lutheran schools and parishes headed by men educated at Wittenberg multiplied; and peasants welcomed the new faith.

how did the Protestants think of marriage and what did they look for in a perfect marriage?

- though they denied that marriage was a sacrament, they stressed that it had been ordained by God when he presented Eve to Adam, served as a "remedy" for the unavoidable sin of lust, provided a site for the pious rearing of the next generation of God-fearing Christians, and offered husbands and wives companionship and consolation - a perfect marriage was one that reflected both the spiritual equality of men and women and the proper social hierarchy of husbandly authority and wifely obedience - saw marriage as a contract in which each partner promised the other support, companionship, and the sharing of mutual goods - marriage was created by God as a remedy for human weakness, marriages in which spouses did not comfort or support one another physically, materially, or emotionally endangered their own souls and the surrounding community - unlike the Catholic Church, many protestants allowed divorce and remarriage

education of artists

- though they might be men of genius, artists were still expected to be well trained in proper artistic techniques and stylistic conventions; the notion that artistic genius could show up in the work of an untrained artist did not emerge until the twentieth century - beginning artists spent years mastering their craft by copying drawing and paintings; learning how to prepare paint and other artistic materials; and, by the sixteenth century, reading books about design and composition - some formal artistic "academies" began to form in 1563

what did officials think of the life that Carmelite nun Teresa of Avila propsed?

- thought it was too strict for women - at one point she was investigated by the Spanish Inquisition in an effort to make sure her inspiration came from God and not the devil - the process was dropped, and she founded man new converts, which she saw as answers to the Protestant takeover of Catholic churches elsewhere in Europe

what did Plato say is the best way to learn something?

- to think about its perfect, ideal form - following Plato's ideas, Renaissance authors speculated about perfect examples of many things

changes in trade from medieval times

- trade in luxuries began to give way to trade in staple commodities

the effects of the invention of movable-type printing

- transformed both the private and the public lives of Europeans by the dawn of the sixteenth century - print shops became gathering places for people interested I new ideas - gave hundreds or thousands of people identical books, allowing them to more easily discuss the ideas that the books contained with one another in person or through letters

Pope Urban VI

- tried to go about church reforms in a tactless manner - attacked luxury, denouncing cardinals and individuals by names, and even threatened to excommunicate some of them. The cardinals slipped away from Rome and met at Anagni. - They declared Urban's election invalid because it had come about under threats from the Roman mob, and excommunicated from the pope

Rogier van der Weyden and Jan van Eyck

- two Northern European painters who were considered the artistic equals of Italian painters and were much admired in Italy

what view did Plato and Cicero share with people living in the Renaissance?

- two men in the classical world who shared the same passion for a free life in the world of nature as people living in the Renaissance

Pope Paul III

- under him, the papal court became the center of the reform movement rather than its cheif opponent - the lived of the pope and his reform-minded cardinals, abbots, and bishops were models of decorum and piety, in contrast to Renaissance popes who concentrated on building churches and enhancing the power of their own families

what was the profits from loans, investments, and money exchanges used for in Florence?

- urban industry, such as clothmaking - contributed to the city's economic vitality and allowed banking families to control the city's politics and culture

how were patrons involved in the artist's work?

- varying levels of involvement - some simply ordered a specific subject or scene, while others oversaw the work of the artist or architect vey closely, suggesting themes and styles and demanding changes while the work was in progress

diversity of Poland-Lithuania

- vert diverse, Germans, Italians, Tartars, and Jew lived among Poles and Lithuanians. Such peoples had come as merchants, invited by medieval rulers because of their wealth or to make agricultural improvements - Each group spoke its native language, though all educated people spoke Latin - Lutheran ideas took root in Germanized towns but were opposed by ing Sigismund I as well as by ordinary Poles, who held strong anti-German feeling. The Reformed tradition of John Calvin, with its stress on the power of church elders, appealed to the Polish nobility, however. The fact that Calvinism originated in France, not in Germany, also made it more attractive than Lutheranism, But doctrinal differences among Calvinists, Lutherans, and other groups prevent united opposition to Catholicism, and a counter-Reformation gained momentum. By 1650, our largely to the efforts of the Jesuits, Poland was again staunchly Roman Catholic

how did people participate in religious activities in the early 16th century?

- villagers participated in processions honoring the local saints merchants and guild members made pilgrimages to the great shrines, such as Saint Peter's in Rome - paid for altars in local churches - men and women continued to remember the church in their wills - continued to devote an enormous amount of their time to religious causes and foundations

what were some of Henry's religious beliefs?

- was conservative theologically - the English church retained such traditional Catholic practices and doctrines as confession, clerical celibacy, and transubstantiation - under the influecne of Thmoas Cromwell and Thomas Cranmer, he did agree to place an English Bible in every church - also decided to dissolve the English monasteries, primarily because he wanted their wealth

unity in the Holy Roman Empire

- was hard due to the religious split - Charles V realized that he was fighting not only for religious unity, but also for a more unified state, against territorial rulers who wanted to maintain their independence, thus defending the church and empire

Henry VIII relationship with Anne Boleyn

- was in love with her while married to Catherine of Aragon - assumed that she would give him the son he wanted - when she failed to give him the son he wanted, he charged her with adulterous incest and in 1536 had her beheaded

the arts in Florence

- wealth allowed people greater material pleasures, a more comfortable life, and leisure time to appreciate and patronize the arts - merchants and bankers commissioned public and private buildings from architects, and hired sculptors and painters to decorate their homes and churches

John Myclif

- went further than the conciliarists in his argument against the medieval church - wrote that scripture alone should not be the standard of Christian belief and practice and that papal claims of secular power hd no foundation in the Scriptures - urged that the church be stripped of its property - wanted Christians to read the Bible for themselves and produced the first complete translation of the Bible into English - followers were called Lollards by hose who ridiculed them - Lollard teachings allowed women to preach, and women played a significant ole in the movement - some were persecuted in the fifteenth century, some were executed, some recanted, and others continued to meet secretly in houses, barns, and fields to read and sinus the Bible and other religious texts

the Reformation in Poland and the Great Duchy of Lithuania

- were jointly governed by king, senate, and diet (parliament) by 1500, but the two territories retained separate officials, judicial systems, armies, and forms of citizenship - the combined realms covered almost 500,000 square miles, making Poland-Lithuania the largest European polity, but a population of only about 7.5 million people was very thinly scattered over that land

which factor often determined the course of the Reformation in Eastern Europe?

- while political and economic issues determined the course of the Reformation in western and Northern Europe, ethnic factors often proved decisive in Eastern Europe, where people of diverse backgrounds had settled in the later Middle Ages

how did Ferdinand and Isabella expand their territories?

- with the revenues from ecclesiastical estates, they were able to expand their territories to include the remaining land held by Arabs in southern Spain

Henry VII

- worked to crush the power of the nobility, and to establish order and law at the local level (mentioned earlier) - summoned several meetings of Parliament in the early years of his reign, primarily o confirm laws, but the center of royal authority was the royal council, which governed at the national level. There he revealed his distrust of the nobility -

The Courtier

- written by Baldassare Castiglone - sought to train, discipline, and fashion the young man into the courtly ideal, the gentleman - said that the educated man should have a broad background in many academic subjects, and should train his spiritual and physical faculties as well as intellect - the perfect court lady, who, like the courtier, was to be well educated and ale to play musical instrument, to paint, and to dance

"On the Dignity of Man"

- written by Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, a brilliant student who studied Hebrew and Arabic along with the standard Latin and Greek - developed 900 theses , or points of argumentation, regarding philosophical, religious, magical, and other subjects, and he offered to defend them against anyone who wanted to come to Rome to debate him - the pope declared some of the theses heretics, blocked the debate, and had Pico arrested - after the death of Lorenzo in 1492, Pico was freed

The Prince

- written by Machiavelli - uses the examples of classical and contemporary rulers to argue that the function of a ruler (or any government) is to preserve order and security. Weakness only leads to disorder, which might end in civil war to conquest by an outsider, situations clearly detrimental to any people's well-being. A ruler should use whatever means he needs - brutality, lying, manipulation - to preserve the state, but should not do anything that would make the populace turn against him; stealing or cruel actions done for a ruler's own pleasure would lead to resentment and destroy the popular support needed for a strong, stable realm

Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of the Peasants

- written by Martin Luther as a response to to the German Peasant War - "Let everyone who can smite, slay, and stab [the peasants], secretly and openly, remembering that nothing can be more poisonous, hurtful or devilish than a rebel." - encourages people to stab and attack the peasants if they can, because the rebels were a danger to society - more than 75000 peasants were killed in 1525

Utopia (1516)

- written by Thomas More - describes a community on an island somewhere beyond Europe where all children receive a good education, primarily in the Greco-Roman classics, and adults divide their days between manual labor or business pursuits and intellectual activities - the problems that plagued More's fellow citizens, such as poverty and hunger, have been solved by a beneficent government - there is religious toleration, and order and reason reveal - because Utopian institutions were perfect, dissent and disagreementt were not acceptable - written as a dialogue between More and Raphael Hythloday, a character More invented. More and Hythloday first discuss the problems in Europe, and then Hythloday first describes how these have been solved n Utopia, ending with a long discussion of the Utopian ban on private property

The Education of a Christian Prince

- written in 1504 - combines idealistic and practical suggestions for the formation of a ruler's character through the careful study of the Bible and classical authors

The Praise of Folly

- written in 1509 - a witty satire poking fun at political, social, and especially religious institutions

Ninety-five Theses on the Power of Indulgences

- written in 1517 - directed to Archbishop Albert - his argument was that indulgences undermined the seriousness of the sacrament of penance, competed with the preaching of the Gospel, and downplayed the importance of charity in Christian life - nailed to the door of the church at Wittenberg Castle on October 31, 1517, with would have been very strange, as they were in Latin and written for those learned in theology, not for ordinary churchgoers - but it has become a standard part of Luther lore - printed in Latin and German

Leon Battista Alberti accomplishments

- wrote novels, plays, legal treatises, a study of the family, and the first scientific analysis of perspective; he designed churches, palaces, and fortifications effective against cannon; he invented codes for sending messages secretly and a machine that could cipher and decipher them - describes himself as "he" instead of "I" when discussing his own achievements made him a "Renaissance man"

Petrarch new system of education

- young men would study the works of anceint Roman authors, using them as models of how to write clearly, argue effectively, and speak persuasively - study of Latin classics became known as *studia humanitates*, usually translated to liberal arts - people who advocated it were known as humanists

under the opinion of the humanists, when had the glory of Rome been its brightest?

-under Roman author and statesman Cicero

al-Andalus

A Muslim-ruled region in what is now Spain, established by the Berbers in the eighth century A.D.

Society of jesus

A Roman Catholic order founded by Saint Ignatius of Loyola in 1534 to defend Catholicism against the Reformation and to do missionary work. - in additions to traditional vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, professed members vowed special obedience to the pope. Flexibility and the willingness to respond to the needs of time and circumstance formed the Jesuit tradition, which proved attractive to many young men. - achieved phenomenal success for the papacy and the reformed Catholic church

Society of Jesus

A Roman Catholic order founded by Saint Ignatius of Loyola in 1534 to defend Catholicism against the Reformation and to do missionary work. - saw their mission as improving people's spiritual condition rather than altering doctrine - their goal was not to reform the church, but "to help souls" - developed into a highly centralized, tightly knit organization - in addition to the traditional vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, professed members would vow their special obedience to the pope

The Index (of Prohibited Books)

A weapon of the Counter-Reformation of the Catholic Church; this documented books that disagreed with or criticized the Church. There was an early one issued by Pope Paul IV and another from the Council of Trent. This was supposed to protect people from immoral or incorrect theological works, but included scientific writing.

The Pilgrimage of Grace

An uprising in the North of England in 1536 posed a serious threat to the English crown. Both gentry and peasants were angry over the dissolution of monasteries, and feared that their spiritual needs would no longer be met. Henry VIII was able to suppress this as a result of his political power.

Paganism

Any of the polytheistic religions of the Greco-Roman world, an umbrella term for ancient Mediterranean religions other than Judaism and Christianity - Christians had tried to erase the pagan and secular concern among its people - the church leaders rejected the message of pagan literature, but still read and understood it, the ideas implicit within the works became part of their thinking. In this way, humanism had a minir influence on Christian literature

Meister Eckhart

Germany, d. 1327. One of series of mystics in Germany in 14th C - Expressed the belief that the individual could, in perfect solitude, commune with God. No need to be part of flock/congregation or under shepherd/priest. Mysticism was a movement found in parts of the north even before the spread of Renaissance Christian Humanism. Believed only through "unknowing" emptying oneself, could one come to experience the divine. Within each human soul there was a "little spark," an innermost essence that allowed the soul - with God's grace and Christ's redemptive action - to come to God. Claimed all people had a capacity for taking in God entirely. Frequently stressed that union with God was best accomplished through quiet detachment and simple prayer rather than pilgrimages, intensive fasts, or other activities. His unusual teachings led to heresy, which he denied, but he was put on trial, and he died during the course of the proceedings or shortly thereafter.

dissolution of monasteries

Henry VIII began confiscating the property of the monasteries in 1538. By doing this he gained wealth and power over the church.

how was each of the 5 major city-states run? (minus the Papal Stares)

Venice - technically a republic, but an oligarchy of merchant-aristocrats actually ran the city Milan - also a republic, but the condottieri-turned-signiori of the Sforza family ruled harshly and dominated Milan and several smaller cities in the north from 14447 to 1535 Florence - republic, with authority vested in several councils of state, but the city was effectively ruled by the great Medici banking family for three centuries,1434-1492. The Medici were then in and out of power for several decades, and in 1569 Florence became no longer a republic, but the hereditary Grand Duchy of Tuscany, with the Medici as the Grand Dukes until 1737. kingdom of Naples - under the control of the king of Aragon

what were four of the most successful Italian cities during the Renaissance

Venice, Genoa, Milan, Florence

what were the 5 prominent city states in Italy?

Venice, Milan, Florence, Papal States, and the kingdom of Naples

aristocracy

a government ruled by a small group of noble, landowning families

humanism

a program of study designed by Italians that emphasized the critical study of Latin and Greek literature with the goal of understanding human nature - main intellectual component of the Renaissance

courts

magnificent households and palaces where signiori ad other rulers lived, conducted business, and supported the arts, sometimes forced political business to be done there

Strozzi family

one of Florence's wealthiest families, rivals of the Medici Family - the private chapel within the palace symbolized the largest expenditure for the wealthy of the 16th century

Giovanni Pico della Mirandola

one of the most famous pieces of writing of the Renaissance called The Oration on the Dignity of Man. He combined the works of many philosophers that were all part of God's revelation to humanity. He believed in unlimited human potential (Ficino's student)

anticlericalism

opposition to the clergy