Remote Work Comps

1) Telecommuting frequency 2) Telecommuting location 3) Scheduling flexibility 4) Formalization of policies 5) Performance monitoring 6) Telecommuting initiation

According to Allen et al's (2003) framework for telecommuting, what are 6 critical features of telecommuting design?

1) Social inclusion and relationships: Social identity, social support, perceived organizational support 2) Self-regulation opportunities/requirements: Autonomy and perceived control, self-leadership opportunities, performance feedback environment 3) Role properties and boundaries: Role ambiguity, WFC

According to Allen et al's (2003) framework for telecommuting, what are the 3 types of mediators?

1) More contextual information concerning the nature of the telecommuting and context: It is important to provide features that make studies comparable, including definition of telecommuting, frequency/extent of telecommuting, degree of temporal flexibility, organizational context + reasons for telecommuting (required/voluntary), type of work, culture of the organization 2) The role of time: The majority of telecommuting research is cross-sectional. Longitudinal methodologies covering both shorter (ESM) and longer time periods are needed to determine directionality and the sustainability of telecommuting experiences. 3) Links between telecommuting and health-related behaviors and outcomes, including (a) ergonomics of the telecommuter's home workstation, (b) impact on physical activity, and (c) impact on dietary choices

According to Allen et al. (2015), what are 3 future areas of telecommuting research?

Telecommuter Coworker Relationships: 1) Gajendran & Harrison's (2007) meta-analysis found that telecommuting has no relationship with coworker relationship quality, r=0.00. However, telecommuting intensity was a moderator, such that there was no relationship under low-intensity commuting arrangements, r=0.03, but a negative effect under high-intensity arrangements, r=-0.19. Office Workers whose Coworkers Telecommute: Research has found that a higher prevalence of telecommuters in an organization was associated with less satisfaction with coworkers among employees who did not telecommute (Golden, 2007).

Describe main effect and moderator research findings of remote work and coworker relationships. Additionally, how are office workers whose coworkers telecommute impacted?

1) Anderson et al. (2015) conducted an ESM study and compared approximately 100 employees across days of office work and telecommuting. They found that employees experienced significantly greater positive affect (PA) and significantly less negative affect (NA) when working at home vs. the office. These relationships were then investigated with potential moderators measured at baseline: openness, rumination, sensation-seeking, and social connectedness outside work. Openness strengthened relations between remote work and PA, while rumination weakened relations between remote work and PA. Sensation-seeking did not moderate associations with neither PA nor NA. Social connectedness outside work strengthened the associations of remote work with both PA and NA. 2) The results of two ESM studies by Spieler et al. (2017) demonstrates that flextime use is related to greater same-day boundary strength at work and at home, which results in greater evening PA and less evening NA, as well as effects on next-day PA and NA. In other words, flextime use lets employees schedule their daily activities in line with work and nonwork goals, fostering goal completion and diminishing goal conflict, strengthening boundaries by allowing people to "leave behind" the respective domain and experience better affect.

Describe research findings of remote work and affect (emotional experiences).

Turnover Main Effects: 1) At an organizational level, Stavrou (2005) compared 2,811 organizations across 14 European countries and found that whether an organization offered telecommuting was not significantly associated with their turnover rates. 2) Quasi-experimental research based on ROWE, which includes elements of telecommuting, has suggested that turnover is significantly reduced when employees are given greater flexibility (Moen et al., 2011). 3) In a randomized experiment with Chinese call-center employees, Bloom et al. (2014) found that those randomly assigned to telecommute were less likely to leave the organization than those working under standard arrangements. Turnover Intent 1) Main Effects: Gajendran & Harrison's (2007) meta-analysis found that telecommuting has a negative but quite small correlation with turnover intent, r=-0.08. 2) Within telecommuters, professional isolation is related to turnover intent (Golden et al., 2008). Moderator: Masuda et al. (2012) found that geographic region moderates the small negative association between telecommuting and turnover intent, such that the relationship exists in Anglo but not Latin countries. CONCLUSION: There is almost no empirical research linking telecommuting with turnover, and that that exists is mixed. Two studies suggest that telecommuting may be related to lower turnover. Meta-analysis shows a small, negative correlation between telecommuting status and turnover intent, which may be due to feelings of professional isolation.

Describe research findings of remote work and turnover + turnover intent. What can we conclude from these findings?

1) Gajendran & Harrison's (2007) meta-analysis found that telecommuting has no relationship with perceived career prospects, r=0.00. 2) One longitudinal study of women associated telecommuting with lower wage growth (Glass, 2004) and cross-sectional research shows positive associations with wages (Weeden, 2005; Leslie et al., 2012), but no long-term effects with prior waves controlled (Weeden, 2005). 3) Golden & Eddleston (2020) used 6 years of objective career success data and found that extent of telecommuting was negatively associated with both promotions and salary growth. Normativeness of telecommuting in the department moderated associations with promotions. Supplemental work done moderated associations with both indicators of career success. Finally, face-to-face contact with supervisor moderated associations with salary growth, such that relationships were negative for those with low face-to-face contact. 4) In a randomized experiment with Chinese call-center employees, Bloom et al. (2014) found that those randomly assigned to telecommute were less likely to be promoted when productivity was held constant. CONCLUSION: While meta-analysis shows that telecommuting has no relationship with perceived career prospects, and there are mixed findings regarding wages and telecommuting due to variations in study design, other research has shown that promotions and salary growth may face detriments. This is particularly the case when face-to-face contact with supervisor, normativeness of telecommuting, and supplemental work done are considered as moderators.

Describe research findings of remote work and wages / wage growth, career progression outlook, and career consequences. What can we conclude from these findings?

Absenteeism: Main Effects: 1) Two studies using large databases with objective absenteeism data find that telecommuting is related to reduced absenteeism, even after controlling for firm characteristics (Dionne & Dostie, 2007; Stavrou, 2005). 2) There is indirect evidence for this association also from studies correlating commute length and absenteeism, which finds positive relationships (Van Ommeren & Gutierrez-i-Puigarnau, 2011). Withdrawal 1) Chong et al. (2020) demonstrated in a sample of Singaporian participants that daily COVID-19 task setbacks increased end-of-day emotional exhaustion. This relationship was strengthened for those high in general task interdependence. Emotional exhaustion then contributed to next-day withdrawal behaviors for those with lower organizational telework task support. CONCLUSION: Although there is not much research, that existing suggests that telecommuting is related to reduced absenteeism. Within telecommuters, research shows that task setbacks and its resulting emotional exhaustion contribute to withdrawal behaviors, particularly for those with low telework support and high task interdependence.

Describe research findings of remote work and withdrawal behaviors, including absenteeism What can we conclude from these findings?

Meta-Analyses 1) According to Gajendran & Harris (2007) meta-analysis, telecommuting is meta-analytically negatively related to WIF, r=-0.16 and FIW, r=-0.15. 2) According to Allen et al. (2013), telecommuting is meta-analytically relate to WIF, r -0.08, but not FIW, r=-0.01. Design Factors: Location: Research comparing different telecommuting locations found that while home-based workers did not have significantly different work-life balance than main office workers, their work-life balance was significantly higher than satellite office or client-based workers (Morganson et al., 2010) Frequency: Research suggests this relationship varies by direction - Golden et al. (2006) found that extent of telecommuting was negatively related to WIF but positively related to FIW. ESM Research: An ESM study found that while telecommuter status did not relate to home-to-work transitions, work-to-home transitions, WIF, or FIW, telecommuting days exhibited differences. Specifically, teleworking day status was positively related to both directions of transitions, positively to FIW, and negatively to WIF (Delanoeije et al., 2019). CONCLUSION: The relationship between simply telecommuting or not and WFC is either null or very small. However, it seems that extent of telecommuting and specific days of telecommuting may make a difference, such that WIF is reduced and FIW is increased.

Describe research findings of the association between remote work and WFC. What can we conclude from these findings?

Main effects: 1) Gajendran & Harrison's (2007) meta-analysis found that telecommuting is positively associated with supervisor-rated or objectively-measured job performance (r=0.18). However, meta-analytic correlations are not significant for self-rated job performance (r=0.01). 2) Research shows that telecommuters are rated higher in both supervisor-rated task and contextual performance (Gajendran et al., 2014). 3) In an ESM study, Vega et al. (2015) found self-rated job performance was higher during days working at home vs. at the office. Experiments: 1) In a randomized experiment with Chinese call-center employees, Bloom et al. (2014) found that those randomly assigned to telecommute were more productive based on objective data. 2) Hunton (2005) experimentally manipulated availability of telecommuting arrangements for medical coders. He found that those only allowed to work from home performed significantly worse than all other groups. 3) IBM Western assigned employees to work partially virtually or entirely in the traditional office and found that those partially virtual reported being more productive than did traditional workers. CONCLUSION: Relatively consistent evidence across meta-analysis, ESM, and experiments that telecommuting status/extent is associated with greater objective and supervisor-rated performance. While meta-analysis does not support relationship between telecommuting status and self-rated performance, ESM has shown higher self-rated performance for home vs. office days.

Describe research findings of the association between remote work and job performance. What can we conclude from these findings?

Main effects: 1) Gajendran & Harrison's (2007) meta-analysis reported that telecommuting status is positively related to satisfaction, although with a very small magnitude, r=0.09 (K=28). 2) In a randomized experiment with Chinese call-center employees, Bloom et al. (2014) found that those randomly assigned to telecommute were more satisfied. 3) Studies have found that the relationship between extent of telecommuting and job satisfaction is curvilinear, such that satisfaction and amount of telecommuting are positive at lower levels of telecommuting, plateaus at higher levels (around 15.1 hours per week) (Golden, 2006; Golden & Veiga, 2005). In other words, those who telecommute a moderate amount are most satisfied. 4) Multiple ESM studies have found that self-rated job satisfaction was higher during days working at home vs. at the office (Muller & Niessen, 2019; Vega et al., 2015). CONCLUSION: Job satisfaction is higher for telecommuters and on telecommuting days, as shown in meta-analysis, experiments, and ESM studies - small positive effect. The relationship may plateau at 15+ hours of telecommuting.

Describe research findings of the association between remote work and job satisfaction. What can we conclude from these findings?

1) In an ESM study, Biron & Van Veldhoven (2016) found that concentration was marginally significantly higher on days of telecommuting as compared to office work. 2) In an ESM study, Muller & Niessen (2019) showed that some self-leadership strategies of self-goal setting, self-reward, and visualization of successful performance were higher on days of telecommuting compared to office days. There was no variation between home and office days of strategies of self-punishment, self-cueing, and evaluation of beliefs and assumptions. 3) Both work-related and nonwork-related interruptions increased in prevalence from pre- to since-COVID. However, while work interruptions were more frequent prior to COVID, nonwork interruptions were more frequent since-COVID. Specifically, there were the largest increases for intrusions, distractions, and multitasking (Leroy et al., 2021). CONCLUSION: Concentration and use of self-leadership strategies may be slightly higher on teleworking days. COVID has decreased work-related interruptions but increased nonwork-related interruptions.

Describe research findings of the association between remote work and motivation/concentration. What can we conclude from these findings?

1) Martin & MacDonnell's (2012) meta-analysis reported a small positive correlation between telecommuting and organizational commitment, r=0.10 (k=8). 2) In a rare experiment, Hunton & Normon (2010) observed that compared to workers in a standard arrangement and those only allowed to work from home, those who had the option to work in various locations (home, satellite office, or main office) had higher commitment. This reinforces the criticality of choice. 3) An ESM study showed that days of fully working from home (but not days of partially working from home) were significantly lower in organizational commitment relative to days of work in the office (de Vries et al., 2018) 4) Research shows that those who telecommute more tend to be more committed, but the effect is small (Golden, 2006). CONCLUSION: Findings across meta-analysis, experiments, and ESM studies suggest that the relationship between organizational commitment and telecommuting status / extent is either null or very small.

Describe research findings of the association between remote work and organizational commitment. What can we conclude from these findings?

Main effects: 1) Gajendran & Harrison's (2007) meta-analysis found that telecommuting status is associated with lower work-role stress, r=-0.11. 2) Telecommuting is associated with significantly lower work exhaustion (Sardeshmukh et al., 2012). 3) Both extent of telecommuting and amount of telecommuting experience are negatively related to work exhaustion (Gajendran & Harrison, 2007; Golden, 2006). 4) One ESM study compared BP, HR, and epinephrine/ norepinephrine across days of office and telework within a small sample of white-collar workers. They found higher BP for office work (though only statistically significant in women), and no differences in other physiological measures. Self-ratings of stress and relaxation did not differ across conditions (Lundberg & Lindfors, 2002). 5) In an ESM study, Biron & Van Veldhoven (2016) found that need for recovery at end-of-day was significantly lower on days of telecommuting as compared to office work. 6) In an ESM study, Muller & Niessen (2019) found a significant direct effect (not mediated by self-leadership strategies) of telecommuting on ego depletion, such that part-time teleworkers were less depleted on work-from-home days. CONCLUSION: Findings across meta-analysis and ESM studies suggest that telecommuting status/extent is negatively related to different stress-related outcomes, including work role stress, work exhaustion, ego depletion, and need for recovery. Outcomes do not appear to differ for physiological measures.

Describe research findings of the association between remote work and stress-related outcomes. What can we conclude from these findings?

1) Chakrabarti (2018) used a national dataset to compare participants who frequently, occasionally, or do not telecommute. They compared both baseline data and also data from one random day among frequent telecommuters, comparing those who worked from home that day with those who went to the office. Using the baseline data, they found that frequent telecommuters make the most "walk trips" per week and spend about 10 mins more/day in PA, followed by occasional telecommuters and then non-telecommuters. Among frequent telecommuters, those with an home workday had 0.29 more miles active travel and 15 more minutes of PA relative to those with an office day. 2) Henke et al. (2016) used two waves of data from insurance employees with a health risk assessment. Employees were split into none, low, medium, high, and very-high intensity telecommuters. Health risk data included physical (obesity), emotional (depression, stress), behavioral (tobacco use, alcohol abuse) physical inactivity, poor nutrition), and total risk score. Findings were that employees who telecommuted were less likely to be at risk for most of the health risks studied, specifically for behavioral risks. However, the results did not substantiate the expectation that health risks would improve over time for telecommuters compared with non-telecommuters. 3) Fukushima et al. (2021) used data from Japanese participants shortly after COVID began, comparing telecommuters working 1-25%, 26-50%, 51-75%, and 76-100% of the time remotely. They measured sedentary behavior (SB), sedentary bout length, light PA, moderate-to-vigorous PA during work hours. They found that those working the greatest proportion of time remote engaged in more SB, longer SB bout length, and less light and moderate-to-vigorous PA compared to the other groups - pattern tended to be less PA and more SB as remote intensity increased across groups.

Describe the findings of three research studies on health + health behaviors and telecommuting.

Bennett et al. (2021) 1) Overview: Examined the nature of videoconference fatigue, when this phenomenon occurs, and what videoconference characteristics are associated with fatigue using a mixed-methods approach and under the guide of Attention Restoration Theory (ART). 2) Methods: Used both qualitative and quantitative methods with 9 hourly surveys throughout the workday. 3) Results: Thematic analysis validated the concept of videoconference fatigue, provided insight that fatigue was felt after multiple meetings because of extended screen time, and that difficult aspects involved videocamera use, visual demands, tech problems, and generating interpersonal connections. With the quantitative data, a quadratic growth model fit the daily fatigue pattern of initial decline in the morning and then increases throughout the rest of the day. Results showed greater fatigue for meetings in the afternoon and for one point in the morning, with a decline for fatigue for meetings after lunchtime. Controlling for prior fatigue, muting one's microphone and perceptions of group belongingness had a negative association with fatigue. Shockley et al. (2021) 1) Overview: This study used the framework of self-presentation theory and conducted a field experiment of the effect of camera (on/off) impacted videoconference fatigue, which then affects voice behavior and engagement during virtual meetings, as well as the moderating impact of gender and organizational tenure. 2) Methods: Field experiment within one company where participants turned on camera for two weeks, then turned off camera for two weeks. 3) Results: Use of cameras positively related to fatigue, while neither virtual meeting hours nor number of virtual meetings explained fatigue. Fatigue was negatively related to both voice behavior and meeting engagement, with indirect effects of camera status. The associations of camera use and fatigue was stronger for both women and those newer to the organization.

Describe the findings of two research studies on videoconference fatigue and telecommuting. Include information on the (a) Overview, (b) Methods, (c) Results

Common Ergonomic Issues: Davis et al. (2020) surveyed university employees and collected pictures of participants' home environments. They noted many issues, including for instance that almost half of workers use dining chairs or non-chairs (e.g., beds), and more than half use the laptop keyboard. In terms of office set-up, many workers' chairs were of the wrong height, with a hard seat, improper lumbar support and no/improper armrests. Monitors were of the wrong height and improperly centered, with hard edges on workstation surfaces. Relation to Body Discomfort: Gerding et al. (2021) found that factors contributing to discomfort for a number of bodily regions included screen glare and lack of back support on chair. Relation to Burnout + Physical Discomfort: Merlo et al. (2022) conducted a series of cross-lagged panel models over multiple waves of data. Driven by Balance Theory of Job Design and allostatic load literatures, they found both short-term and mediated long-term effects of acoustic privacy on emotional exhaustion. However, there were neither short- nor long-term effects for visual privacy on emotional exhaustion. They also found that decreases in workstation ergonomics had both short- and long-run effects on physical discomfort. Physical discomfort and emotional exhaustion did not have any reciprocal relationship with one another over time. Org support moderated associations of acoustic and visual privacy with emotional exhaustion such that relationships were strongest when support was low. Counter to expectations, relations between workstation ergonomics and physical discomfort were strongest when org support was high.

Describe the link between telecommuting due to COVID-19 and ergonomics risks. Specifically, what are some common ergonomic issues? How do they relate to body discomfort? How are they associated with burnout and physical discomfort?

Mediators: 1) Gajendran & Harrison's (2007) meta-analysis showed that autonomy partially mediated the relationship between telecommuting and supervisor-rated performance. Moderators: 1) Golden & Gajendran (2018) found that job complexity, interdependence, and social support moderated associations between telecommuting and job performance. Job performance improved for those with high complexity jobs in telecommuting situations but not low complexity jobs. Job performance improved for those with low interdependence who telecommuted, but not for those with high interdependence. Finally, those with low social support had considerably lower job performance in the office, however their job performance improved to levels higher than those with high social support when telecommuting.

Describe the mediators and moderators of relationships between remote work and job performance.

Mediators: 1) In Muller & Niessen's (2019) ESM study, the effects of telecommuting on daily higher self-leadership strategy use was partially mediated by autonomy. Moderators: 1) Gender moderated the associations between telecommuting due to COVID-19 and interruptions, such that women reported more interruptions of all types than men during remote work, and experienced a greater degree of increase in interruptions from pre- to since-COVID for both work- and nonwork-related interruptions. (Leroy et al., 2021)

Describe the mediators and moderators of relationships between remote work and motivation/concentration-related outcomes

There is evidence that relationships of telecommuting with work exhaustion are partially mediated by increased autonomy (Gajendran & Harrison, 2007; Sardeshmukh et al., 2012).

Describe the mediators of relationships between remote work and stress-related outcomes

Moderators: 1) Telecommuting is negatively related to WFC only in high-intensity relationships (Gajendran & Harris, 2007) 2) Autonomy, schedule control, and telecommuting strengthened negative relationships between telecommuting/extent of telecommuting and WFC (Gajendran & Harris, 2007; Golden et al., 2006). 3) Not moderators: Parental status, gender, marital status, weekly work hours (Allen et al., 2013) 4) Daily home-to-work transitions has a stronger positive relationship with WIF for those with a home protection preference (Delanoeije et al., 2019) Mediators: Home-to-work and Work-to-home transitions mediates association of teleworking days with WIF and FIW (Delanoeije et al., 2019)

Describe the moderators and mediators of relationships between remote work and WFC

Moderators: 1) Gajendran & Harris (2007) found that telecommuting intensity was a moderator, such that telecommuting benefitted WFC in high-intensity arrangement, but not low intensity. In addition, telecommuting experience was a moderator, such that more experience (>1yr) resulted in more beneficial relationships with WFC. 2) Allen et al. (2013) did not find evidence that parental status, gender, marital status, or weekly work hours acted as moderators. 3) Both autonomy and schedule control were found to moderate the relationship between extent of telecommuting and WIF. For autonomy, it was such that the relationship is negative for those with high autonomy, but even stronger negative for those with low autonomy. For schedule control, it was such that relationships were stronger for those with greater schedule flexibility (Golden et al., 2006). 4) An ESM study found that home protection preference strengthened associations of daily home-to-work transitions in the evenings and WIF. In other words, those who wanted to protect their home reported greater conflict as a result of working from home in the evenings (Delanoeije et al., 2019). Mediators: 1) An ESM study found that work-to-home transitions and home-to-work transitions mediated associations of teleworking days with WIF and FIW (Delanoeije et al., 2019).

Describe the moderators and mediators of relationships between remote work and WFC (SKIP)

Moderators: 1) The curvilinear relationship is flatter (moderated) for individuals with jobs higher in discretion and interdependence (autonomy) task interdependence, and performance-outcome orientation (Golden & Veiga, 2005; Virick et al., 2010). Telecommuters with greater autonomy report greater job satisfaction relative to those with less autonomy. Mediators: 1) Gajendran & Harrison (2007) found that WFC and coworker relationship quality both acted as partial mediators and autonomy acted as a full mediator in RW --> job sat relationship. 2) Similarly, Morganson et al. (2010) found that main office workers reported lower job satisfaction than home-based workers after accounting for WFB and inclusion perceptions. 3) Other studies have confirmed WFC as a partial mediator of this association (Fonner & Roloff, 2010; Golden, 2006). 4) Other partial mediators identified are decreased information exchange frequency, stress from interruptions, decreased involvement in office politics (Fonner & Roloff, 2010), LMX, and team-member exchange (Golden, 2006). CONCLUSION: Moderators include autonomy, task interdependence, and performance-outcome orientation. Full mediator is autonomy and partial mediators receiving consistent support are WFC and coworker relationship quality, while other mediators have also been found.

Describe the moderators and mediators of relationships between remote work and job satisfaction

Basic Premise: 6 dimensions of telecommuting design influence 3 categories of mediating mechanisms, which then influences job attitudes and behavior outcomes. The association of telecommuting design --> mediating mechanisms is moderated by a number of personal and organizational characteristics. (a) Telecommuting Design Dimensions: Telecommuting frequency, telecommuting location, flexibility of scheduling, formalization of policies, performance monitoring, and telecommuting initiation (b) Mediating Mechanisms: Social inclusion + relationships, self-regulation opportunities/requirements, and role properties and boundaries (c) Outcomes: Job performance, job satisfaction, organizational commitment (d) Moderators: A variety of personal (e.g., virtual work experience, kinship responsibilities, need for affiliation) and organizational (organizational tenure, training, communication frequency/richness, and boundary management) characteristics

Describe the theoretical framework for outcomes of telecommuting proposed by Allen et al. (2003).

Telecommuting is related to individual outcomes (i.e., job satisfaction, performance, turnover intention, role stress) both directly and via 3 psychological mediators: perceived autonomy, work-family conflict, and relationship quality with supervisor/coworkers. The relationship between telecommuting and psychological mediators is moderated by telecommuting intensity.

Describe the theoretical framework for outcomes of telecommuting proposed by Gajendran & Harrison (2007).

Predictors of WFC within telecommuting populations: 1) Raghuram & Wiesenfeld (2004) found that telecommuters who reported using more structuring behavior (proactive strategies aimed at planning + organizing the workday) reported less WIF and FIW. 2) Contrary to hypotheses, Allen et al. (2021) conducted a longitudinal study with telecommuters and found that segmentation preferences were positively related to WFB. This was speculated to occur perhaps because the mean of segmentation was so high already in the sample, or because of the use of a non-family-having sample. 3) Allen et al. (2021) also found that, as expected, having a dedicated home office was positively related to WFB and having more individuals at home was negatively related to WFB. 3) Leroy et al. (2021) found that nonwork-related intrusions, breaks, and surprises, as well as work-related multitasking, were positively associated with FIW. Meanwhile, only work-related intrusions were positively associated with WIF.

Describe what research has found as predictors of WFC within telecommuter populations (SKIP)

Predictors of WFC within telecommuting populations: 1) Using more structuring behavior (proactive strategies to plan/organize workday) is related to less WIF and FIW (Raghuram & Wiesenfeld, 2004) 2) Having a dedicated home office and having segmentation preferences are both positively related to WFB, while having more individuals at home was negatively related to WFB (Allen et al., 2021) 3) Nonwork-related intrusions, breaks, surprises, and work-related multitasking are all positively related to FIW. Work-related intrusions are positively associated with WIF (Leroy et al., 2021) Recommendations: Better WFB if you have a dedicated home office and less people at home. Less WFC if you have less intrusions and use more strategies to organize your workday.

Describe what research has found as predictors of WFC within telecommuter populations. What recommendations would you make with this information?

1) Turetken et al. (2011) reported a negative relationship between task interdependence and productivity within a sample of telecommuters. 2) Leroy et al. (2021) found that nonwork-related distractions and breaks, as well as work-related intrusions, were all negatively related to performance.

Describe what research has found as predictors of job performance within telecommuter populations.

Generic Org Factors: Feedback (Baker et al. 2007) and high-quality relationships with coworkers and supervisors (Fay & Kline, 2011; Golden, 2006) positively relate to job satisfaction. Telecommuting-Specific Org Factors: Amount of technical and HR support provided by organizations, manager's trust in the teleworker, amount of telework training others in the workplace have received, and minimal distractions from family members during worktime have all been found to relate positively to job satisfaction (Baker et al., 2007; Hartman et al., 1991). Personal factors: Telecommuters with a greater tendency to seek order and a higher need for autonomy report higher job satisfaction (O'Neill et al., 2009).

Describe what research has found as predictors of job satisfaction within telecommuter populations.

1) Within a sample of those telecommuting since COVID-19, Leroy et al. (2021) found nonwork responsibilities predicted more interruptions while having a dedicated workspace was associated with fewer interruptions.

Describe what research has found as predictors of motivation/concentration-related outcomes within telecommuter populations.

Predictors of commitment within telecommuting populations: 1) Generic Predictors: Predictors of organizational commitment include high-quality relationships with coworkers + supervisors, amount of social support received, coworker inclusionary + exclusionary behavior, and communication satisfaction + competence (Fay & Kline, 2011, 2012; Golden & Veiga, 2008; Madlock, 2013). Predictors of identification within telecommuting populations: 1) Generic Predictors: Predictors of organizational identification include amount of social support received, amount of stress from interruptions, coworker inclusionary + exclusionary behavior, and quality of relationships with coworkers (Fay & Kline, 2012; Fonner & Roloff, 2010; Wiesenfeld et al., 2001). 2) RW-specific predictors: Predictors are having a higher social presence or feeling that tech enables sense of physical presence during interactions (Fonner & Roloff, 2010). Also, relationship between types of communication (phone, electronic) and org identification is moderated by extent of telecommuting (Wiesenfeld et al., 1999). CONCLUSION: Predictors of both org commitment and identification are related to support and quality of relationships with others at work, as well as feeling that communication makes one feel included.

Describe what research has found as predictors of organizational commitment and identification within telecommuter populations.

Predictors: (a) Based on qualitative research, Cooper & Kurland (2002) reported that the extent to which telecommuters experienced professional isolation depended on the extent to which developmental activities are valued in the workplace and extent to which telecommuters miss those opportunities. Telecommuters mentioned missing idle conversations in hallways and other informal conversations that result in learning and knowledge-sharing (b) ESM research shows that days of high LMX weakens the positive associations between telecommuting and professional isolation (de Vries et al., 2018). (c) Spilker & Breaugh (2021) found that the telecommuting characteristics of (a) not having a choice, (b) shorter supervisor-telecommuter relationship length, (c) extent of telecommuting, (d) greater distance from the office, and (e) need for affiliation were all positively related to feelings of isolation. Outcomes: (a) Among telecommuters, professional isolation is linked with poorer job performance and greater intent to leave one's organization (Golden et al., 2008). (b) Spilker & Breaugh (2021) found that feelings of isolation were negatively related to both supervisor and self-ratings of performance at T1 and T2. They also found that isolation was negatively related to job satisfaction at T1 and T2.

Describe what research has found as predictors of social/professional isolation within telecommuter populations. What about outcomes associated with social/professional isolation?

1) Raghuram & Wiesenfeld (2004) found that telecommuters who reported using more structuring behavior (proactive strategies aimed at planning + organizing the workday) reported less job stress. 2) Leroy et al. (2021) found that work-related multitasking was positively associated with emotional exhaustion. 3) Windeler et al. (2017) measured associations between social interaction variables and emotional exhaustion before and after the implementation of a part-time telecommuting program. They found that telecommuting weakened the positive relationship between interpersonal interaction and work exhaustion but strengthened the positive relationship between external interaction and work exhaustion. SUMMARY: Use of planning/organizing behavior, less work-related multitasking, and less interpersonal interaction is associated with lower stress/emotional exhaustion. However, interpersonal interaction is less stressful for teleworkers than office workers.

Describe what research has found as predictors of stress-related outcomes within telecommuter populations.

Telecommuting: A work practice that involves members of an organization substituting a portion of their typical work hours (ranging from a few hours per week to nearly full-time) to work away from a central workplace - typically principally from home - using technology to interact with others as needed to conduct work tasks. Specifically, individuals who telecommute: (a) Substitute time at a central office with time at home, rather than working additional overtime hours at home after a full day at the office. (b) Do so for at least a portion of their regular work time, tending to follow a set pattern for individual telecommuters but potentially varying among telecommuters within an organization (c) Are part of a larger organization, as opposed to being independent contractors or outsourced workers (d) Work principally within their homes, with occasional periods possibly spent elsewhere (e) Use some form of information or communication technology to interact as needed with others both within and external to their central office during telecommuting periods

How does Allen et al. (2015) define telecommuting? What are 5 key components of the definition?

Telecommuting on the part of women may reinforce the gendered division of labor (Sullivan & Lewis, 2001). 1) Firstly, women are much more likely to telecommute. (a) For instance, research focused on high-potential employees graduating from prestigious MBA programs found that women (39%) used telecommuting more than men (29%; Beninger & Carter, 2013). Men were more likely to report that they'd never telecommuted over the course of their career relative to women (20% vs. 11%). (b) Research has also shown that women are less likely to have the option to telecommute, but are more likely to choose to telecommute when they do have the option (Singh et al., 2013). 2) Secondly, one identified family-related disadvantage of telecommuting is that the telecommuter might be expected to shoulder greater household responsibility because that person is "home all day." (a) Hammer et al. (2005) found that use of flextime+flexplace was not related to use of husbands' reports of WIF/FIW, but was positively related to wives' reports of WIF/FIW one year later. (b) Research suggests that women are more likely to try to work from home while also engaging in dependent care (Olsen & Primps, 1984; Sullivan & Lewis, 2001). (c) Qualitative research shows that when both spouses work from home due to COVID-19, the struggle for right to professional space in homes was gendered, with primary themes emerging related to the right to space, control of work time, and body/space via Zoom (Waismel-Manor et al., 2021)

How might telecommuting reinforce the gendered division of labor?

1) Most research thus far has said that knowledge sharing is an issue due to individuals missing the "watercooler moments" and "subtle context" of the workplace. However, for a workforce that is all or almost entirely remote, there is no "watercooler moments" to miss, and perhaps over time (e.g., BetterUp), they can find ways to substitute the natural informal nature and develop subtle context. 2) The form of remote work occurring due to COVID-19 is fundamentally distinct from prior work on telework and partial telework offered as a flexible work arrangement. This is because employees have little to no volition to decide whether to and when to telework, and their ability to access physical infrastructure, tools, and resources in their workplaces. This introduces the following research questions: (a) Telecommuting experience has been postulated prior as a moderator of telecommuting relationships (e.g., telecommuting experience strengthens negative associations of telecommuting with WIF). Do employee and organizational outcomes universally improve now that everyone has had remote work experience? (b) Differences now in norms of telecommuting, which may change its effects on career success (e.g., Golden et al., 2020).

Research Ideas

1) Relatively consistent evidence across meta-analysis, ESM, and experiments that telecommuting status/extent is associated with greater objective and supervisor-rated performance. While meta-analysis does not support relationship between telecommuting status and self-rated performance, ESM has shown higher self-rated performance for home vs. office days (Gajendran & Harrison, 2007; Gajendran et al., 2014; Bloom et al., 2014; Hunton, 2005; IBM studies; Vega et al., 2015). 2) Partial mediator of telecommuting and supervisor-rated job performance relationship is autonomy (Gajendran & Harrison, 2007) 3) Job complexity, interdependence, and social support are all moderators of telecommuting and job performance (Golden & Gajendran, 2018). 4) High task interdependence, nonwork-related distractions and breaks, and work-related intrusions all negatively impact performance (Turetken et al., 2011; Leroy et al., 2021).

SUMMARY: Provide a summary of findings on remote work and job performance.

1) Concentration and use of self-leadership strategies may be slightly higher on teleworking days. COVID has decreased work-related interruptions but increased nonwork-related interruptions (Biron & Van Veldhoven, 2016; Muller & Niessen, 2019; Leroy et al., 2021). 2) Partial mediators of use of self-leadership strategies is autonomy (Muller & Niessen, 2019). 3) Gender moderates associations between telecommuting and interruptions, such that women experience more of all interruptions and have greater increases in all interruptions from pre- to since-COVID (Leroy et al., 2021) 4) Having fewer nonwork-related responsibilities and a dedicated workspace is related with experiencing less interruptions (Leroy et al., 2021).

SUMMARY: Provide a summary of findings on remote work and motivation/concentration.

1) The relationship between simply telecommuting or not and WFC + WFB is either null or very small (Allen et al., 2013; Morganson et al., 2010). However, it seems that extent of telecommuting and specific days of telecommuting may make a difference, such that WIF is reduced and FIW is increased (Delanoeije et al., 2019; Golden et al., 2006). 2) WFC occurs due to making more home-to-work and work-to-home transitions (mediator). 3) Moderators of associations include intensity, autonomy, schedule control, and home protection preference. 4) Better WFB if you have a dedicated home office and less people at home. Less WFC if you have less intrusions and use more strategies to organize your workday.

SUMMARY: Provide a summary of findings on remote work and work-family conflict.

1) As the number of dual-earner couples climbed in the 1970s-1980s, telecommuting was touted as an option for helping individuals manage work and family responsibilities 2) Opportunities for telecommuting increased with the introduction of personal computers in the 1980s and laptops and cell phones in the 1990s. 3) The broader shift in the past few decades from a manufacturing to information economy has expanded the number of jobs that lend themselves to telecommuting. 4) Amendments to the Clean Air Act in the 1990s mandated states to revise their plans to call for employees to develop employee commute option programs. 5) The passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act in 1990 further spurred interest in telecommuting as a way to expand the hiring of disabled workers, with telecommuting as a "reasonable accommodation."

What 5 factors have increased the prevalence of remote work from the 1970s to the mid-2010s?

Generic correlates: 1) Work-family conflict 2) Job attitudes: Job satisfaction + Organizational commitment and identification 3) Stress-related outcomes 4) Motivation/concentration-related outcomes 5) Job performance 6) Wages and career potential 7) Turnover + turnover intent 8) Absenteeism and other withdrawal behaviors 9) Health + health behavior engagement 10) Affect Telecommuting-specific correlates: 1) Autonomy 2) Schedule control 3) Task interdependency 4) Interpersonal Processes: (a) Social and professional isolation, (b) Workplace relationships, (c) Knowledge sharing, (d) Innovation 5) Ergonomics 6) Videoconference fatigue

What are 10 common generic correlates of remote work? What are 6 telecommuting-specific processes and correlates of remote work?

1) Autonomy: The telecommuting environment increases employee discretion and means of completing work tasks, allowing them to alter work routines to better fit their productivity rhythms and work style 2) Reduced Commute: Telecommuting reduces the time, energy, and stress expended on commuting to and from the office, additional time and energy available for work, family, and leisure pursuits. There is evidence that at least some of the saved time is devoted to completing work tasks (Bailey & Kurland, 2002; Guimaraes & Dallow, 1999). 3) Reciprocity: Employees have an increased felt obligation to apply themselves toward work in return for receiving the work-family benefits of telecommuting. 4) Reduced Interruptions: The potential constraint of face-to-face interactions may limit interruptions that naturally occur at the office, allowing for deep thought and reflection.

What are some explanations put forth for why telecommuting would be positively associated with job performance (Golden & Gajendran, 2018)?

1) Nature of the work: Work that is physically portable and/or can b done online is most amenable to being performed remotely. As such, a disproportionate number of telecommuters are found in professional/scientific, management, information science, finance, and insurance services industries (Lister & Harnish, 2011). 2) Authority + Status: Ability to work from home is tied to authority and status in managerial and professional workers (Noonan & Glass, 2012) 3) Measurable work output: Jobs with measurable output lend themselves to telecommuting because they provide concrete information on telecommuter performance, offsetting managerial concerns with regard to lack of observation (Turetken et al., 2011). 4) Technological Resources: Research shows that organizations who adopt telecommuting policies offer significantly more training related to information and communication technologies to employees across levels of the org, use a wide variety of information and communication technologies, and invest more in R&D, new tech, and other forms of innovation (Perez-Perez et al, 2005).

What are some factors that differentiate who can and cannot or typically does not work remotely?

Social isolation has been identified as a key challenge faced by teleworkers (Feldman & Gainey, 1997). Physical absence from the workplace and subsequent reduced social participation could result in social stigmatization. Survey Research: 1) In an online poll of over 10k workers across 24 countries, 62% of respondents said they found telecommuting socially isolating, and half feared that telecommuting could harm their chances of a promotion (Reaney, 2012). 2) Sia et al. (2014) found that out of a variety of communication methods (e.g., telephone, IM, email), employees reported that face-to-face interaction is most important for maintaining workplace friendships. 3) Comparisons of main-office and remote workers found that main-office employees reported feeling a greater sense of inclusion than home-based, satellite-office, and client-based workers (Morganson et al., 2010). CONCLUSION: Online international polls, as well as comparisons of employees at different locations, has consistently found that professional isolation is a common fear among employees who are telecommuting, and that office-based employees report greater feelings of conclusion.

What are some reasons why social and professional isolation may be a problem in telecommuting? What has survey research found regarding its prevalence and its likelihood?

Limitations of most existing literature: 1) Most studies based on single-source, cross-sectional designs. It may be that those with more WFC seek out telecommuting arrangements. 2) Many studies use a dichotomous (yes/no) measure of telecommuting, failing to account for diversity within telecommuting groups. This is important in that Koh et al. (2013) found that reasons for not telecommuting among non-telecommuting were associated with meaningful variance in reports of WFB.

What are the limitations of the existing literature on remote work and WFC?

Two primary motives: 1) Productivity: The desire to telecommute in order to increase efficiency and work performance, for example by avoiding office politics and/or interruptions. (a) One study found that 30% of men, compared to 18% of women, espoused the ability to "get more done" as most important telecommuting advantage (Mokhtarian et al., 1998). (b) By contrast, another study found that women were more likely than men to declare work-related motives for using flexible work location arrangements (Shockley & Allen, 2012). 2) Personal Life: The desire to accommodate nonwork needs, for example attending to dependent care issues. (a) Shockley & Allen (2012) found no gender differences in the life-management motive.

What are the two primary reasons typically given for telecommuting? What are the gender differences in the espousal of each?

Argument for positive relationship: Telecommuting increases the permeability of boundaries in life domains, making it easier for one domain to intrude on the other (Standen et al., 1999). Such permeability could also make psychological disengagement from work more difficult, increasing likelihood of time-based conflict. Furthermore, working from home may increase the amount of family responsibility assumed by the remote worker (e.g., Hammer et al., 2005). Argument for negative relationship: Increased boundary flexibility from telecommuting can help employees regulate and synchronize demands between work and family (Duxbury et al., 1998). Further, employees can introduce greater segmentation at home through creation of a detached home office space that discourages interruptions. The reduction in commuting hours may increase temporal resources to be made available for family activities.

What are two opposing arguments for the relationship of telecommuting with WFC?

1) Some studies have suggested that those who request and/or use flexible work arrangements are viewed as less committed to their careers by others (e.g., Coltrane et al., 2013). 2) Concerns about negative career consequences have been noted as a reason why individuals do not take advantage of flexible work arrangements when available (e.g., Allen, 2001).

What are two reasons/findings related to why people may have concerns about telecommuting impacting their careers?

The authors intended to reveal the primary ways that individuals segmented work-nonwork boundaries within the remote work context. In terms of the four types of strategies: - Temporal: Overall, strategies involving temporal tactics were the most frequently reported. This included new categories emerging beyond those identified by Kreiner et al. (2009) specific to the home environment. - Behavioral: Only one of the behavioral tactics identified by Kreiner et al. (2009) was found in this sample, specifically leveraging technology. In addition, another new category was added, "emulating office routines". - Physical: Physical tactics, especially manipulating physical space, were strongly supported. - Communicative: Communicative tactics were rarely espoused.

What did Allen et al. (2021) find in their qualitative investigation of boundary management strategies in the work-from-home COVID-19 context?

A survey of 1,000 hiring managers was asked the question "What percentage of your team/department was, is, or will be working remotely at the following points?" Results were as follows: Before COVID-19: Fully/Partially/Not Remote: 12.3%/8.9%/78.8% December 2020: Fully/Partially/Not Remote: 41.8%/15.0%/43.4% Five Years from Dec 2020: Fully/Partially/Not Remote: 22.9%/14.6%/62.5%

What did Ozimek (2020) find regarding the prevalence of remote work?

1) Preference for segmentation: Findings on this variable have been mixed. (a) Kossek et al. (2006) found that integration preferences were associated with less telecommuting among a sample of professionals in information and financial-services firms. (b) Shockley & Allen (2010) reported that integration preferences were associated with greater telecommuting intensity among university professors. 2) Structuring Behavior: Raghuram & Wiesenfeld (2004) found that structuring behavior (proactive strategies aimed at planning + organizing the day) were positively related to extent of telecommuting within a sample of telecommuters. 3) Prior Day Stressors: Shao et al. (2021) modeled prior day stressors' ability to predict next-day work location. Stressors related to work-family boundaries and work coordination predicted working in the office the next day, while high workload stressors predicted working from home. COVID-19 infection-related stressors moderated the impact of technology such that tech stressors increased likelihood of going to the office only when COVID stressors were low.

What individual differences have been shown to predict who engages in (more) telecommuting?

1) Structuring Behavior: Raghuram & Wiesenfeld (2004) found that structuring behavior (proactive strategies aimed at planning + organizing the day) was related to less job stress within a sample of telecommuters. 2) Procrastination: O'Neill et al. (2014) reported that greater procrastination was associated with greater cyberslacking and lower self-reported perception of performance while working remotely, 3) Avoid distractions: Interviews with telecommuters have suggested that the ability to avoid distractions is important to being effective as a remote worker (Grant et al., 2013). 4) Spilker & Breaugh (2021) found that need for affiliation was positively related to feelings or professional isolation among telecommuters

What individual differences have been tied to effectiveness of telecommuting?

Videoconference Fatigue: The degree to which people feel exhausted, tired, or worn out attributed to engaging in a videoconference (Bennett et al., 2021) Does it differ from typical in-person meetings? A global study from the National Bureau of Economic Research found an average increase in the overall number of meetings people attended post-pandemic lockdown compared to pre-pandemic levels, but the length of these meetings was shorter, netting an overall 11.5 decrease in time spent in meetings since the start of the pandemic (DeFilippis et al., 2020). Why might it differ from typical in-person meetings? 1) Self-presentation theory: Self-presentation theory's basic premise is that people have an innate desire to be viewed in a favorable light and convey positive info about themselves; however, self-presentation is a form of self-regulation that requires actors to carefully monitor and actively manage their expressive behavior during social interactions. These demands are a precursor to fatigue and deficits in self-regulation and performance. (a) Connection to videoconference fatigue: Participants with their camera on are likely to feel a heightened sense of being watched and evaluated. 2) Attention Restoration Theory: ART is a theory about human energy that explains how energy is depleted specifically by sustained attention. It proposes that individual actions like "being away", "effortless attention" and "compatibility" can minimize fatigue or replenish depleted energy. (a) Connection to videoconference fatigue: ART posits that characteristics like "being away" (e.g., muting, turning off camera), "compatibility with environment" (e.g., higher belongingness) and "fascination" (e.g., greater voluntary attention to meeting) can minimize fatigue, corresponding with characteristics of meetings that may be used to explain why they result in fatigue.

What is videoconference fatigue? Does it differ from typical in-person meetings, and if so, why?

1) Perceptions of the family-supportiveness of organizations has been shown to relate to telecommuting use (e.g., Allen, 2001; Shockley et al., 2013; Thompson et al., 1999). 2) Support from supervisors plays a key role in the acceptance and administration of telecommuting work arrangements (Lautsch et al., 2009). This factor is important because in most organizations, employees have the right to ask to telecommute, but supervisors can exercise the right to refuse the request (Kelly & Kalev, 2006). 3) Clear expression of top management's support of telework has a trickle-down effect on managers at lower levels and demonstrates that telecommuting is viewed as a strategic goal within the broader company (Harrington & James, 2006).

What organizational factors increase the likelihood of use of telecommuting policies or its acceptance?

Effectiveness: 1) According to media richness theory, communication media vary in their ability to enable users to transmit social cues, change understanding, and resolve equivocality (Daft & Lengel, 1986). To optimize the success of remote work, communication tools that can best simulate face-to-face interactions and that inject social context are needed (Waber, 2013). Specifically, it is important to develop telepresence, or the sense of being physically present in a remote or simulated environment. This is important in that research shows that higher social richness and higher telepresence result in greater telecommuter motivation and greater sustained use of the system (Venkatesh & Johnson, 2002). 2) Counterpoint is video fatigue Limitations: 1) Although enhancing the social richness of communication systems can increase the effectiveness of planned interactions, they do not remedy the loss of random "watercooler" conversations occurring among workers who are colocated. 2) Shao et al. (2021) demonstrated that prior-day technological stressors, such as not having access to specialized infrastructure, equipment, or software, lack of resources such as high-speed internet, and need for IT staff, contribute to increased likelihood of commuting to the office the next day (although only when COVID-19 stressors were also low).

What technological factors play a role in telecommuting effectiveness? Where is technology a limitation?

An engineer at NASA is thought to have first coined the term "telecommuting" in the 1970s. The idea at the time was to move the work to workers to alleviate traffic problems and reduce energy consumption. Soon after, federal and state governments began funding demonstration projects to examine the feasibility and effectiveness. By 1997, 10,000 federal govt employees were working from home (Avery & Zabel, 2001).

Who first coined the term "telecommuting", when, and for what purpose? What factors have increased remote work over time?

Supervisors have their own set of concerns with the administration and management of telecommuting arrangements. For example... 1) Coordination of interdependent tasks may be more challenging when team members are dispersed physically (Greer & Payne, 2014). 2) Managers cannot be sure that employees are working if they cannot see them.

Why might managers be reluctant to allow employees to telecommute?

1) Expanded work opportunities: (a) Disabilities: Telecommuting can serve as a form of a reasonable accommodation under the Americans with Disabilities Act and provide work opportunities for those conditions such as environmental sensitivities, mobility impairment, chronic pain, or fatigue-related diseases. (b) Rural workers: Telecommuting can boost opportunities for those who live in rural areas and reverse the trend of outsourcing jobs overseas (Ruth & Chaudhry, 2008). Rural outsourcing sends jobs from high-wage urban areas to rural areas in which salaries are lower, enabling individuals to remain in geographic locations that provide a low cost of living (Smith, 2010). 2) Business continuity: Telecommuting policies may offer societal benefits in providing business continuity in the face of weather events, influenza outbreaks, and other emergencies disrupting business and govt operations. 3) Cost savings on office space and energy 4) Attraction and retention of desirable workers (Karnowski & White, 2002)

Why might organizations adopt telecommuting policies? In other words, what benefits might result?

Physical separation may impede the exchange of information critical to task accomplishment (Baker et al., 2006). Furthermore, knowledge transfer hinges on trust between coworkers (Alexopoulos & Buckley, 2013) and trust is more likely to occur via face-to-face over electronic communication (Rocco, 1998). Thus, telecommuting may endanger knowledge transfer within organizations (Taskin & Bridoux, 2010). Few studies have examined telecommuting and knowledge sharing. 1) Over a period of 6 months, telecommuters reporting (a) more trusting relationships with their work unit, (b) stronger interpersonal bonds, and (c) greater organizational commitment also reported greater knowledge sharing. Technological support, frequency of face-to-face interactions, and electronic tool usage moderate relationships between trust and knowledge sharing, strengthening the associations for tech support and weakening them for face-to-face communication and electronic tool usage (Golden & Raghuram, 2010). 2) Shockley et al. (2021) conducted an ESM study with new telecommuters and found that both daily communication quality and quantity were positively related job performance quality/quantity, negatively to burnout for quality, and positively to burnout for quantity, with no curvilinear effects. Supervisor-set expectations on remote communication was related to performance, but not burnout. Task interdependence moderated associations of communication quality with performance quality only, and between supervisor-set expectations with both performance quality/quantity.

Why might telecommuting impact telecommuters' receipt and transfer of knowledge? Describe main effect and moderator research findings of remote work and knowledge sharing.

Telecommuter Supervisor Relationships: Frequent face-to-face interaction is thought to facilitate the development of critical high-quality supervisory relationships (Barry & Crant, 2000). Thus, because telecommuting alters communication, there is the potential for harm to these high-quality relationships. Research indicates this fear is unfounded, however: Gajendran & Harrison's (2007) meta-analysis found that telecommuting has a small positive association with supervisor relationship quality, r=0.12. This relationship was not impacted by telecommuting intensity. Caution is needed, however, when interpreting the causal direction of this relationship. Because the meta-analysis is based primarily on cross-sectional work, it is possible that supervisors are more likely to grant telecommuting arrangements to employees with whom they have a high-quality relationship. Office Workers whose Supervisors Telecommute: Findings are mixed. 1) One study found that work experiences and outcomes are less positive for employees whose managers telecommute (Golden & Fromen, 2011). 2) Another study based on subordinates and their leaders across various organizations found that leaders' telecommuting status did not relate to subordinates' perceptions of communication effectiveness or performance (Neufeld et al., 2010).

Why might telecommuting impact telecommuters' relationships with supervisors? Describe main effect and moderator research findings of remote work and supervisor relationships. Additionally, how are office workers whose supervisors telecommute impacted?

Knowledge sharing can be critical for innovation. Multiple studies demonstrate the importance of face-to-face coworker interactions to innovative behavior. Several studies using sociometric data show that frequency of face-to-face interactions is associated with creativity (Tripathi & Burleson, 2012) and fewer negative dependencies on software code in programmers (Waber, 2013). Telecommuting Findings: 1) In an ESM study, Vega et al. (2015) found self-rated creative performance did not differ between days working at home vs. at the office. However, individuals performed better on an objective creative performance task on teleworking days relative to office days.

Why might telecommuting impact work innovation? Describe main effect and moderator research findings of remote work and creativity/innovation.

AUTONOMY: 1) Main effect: One ESM study compared self-ratings of control across days of office and telework within a small sample of white-collar workers. They found that level of control was rated as higher during telework than office days (Lundberg & Lindfors, 2002). 1) Moderator: Autonomy has been found to moderate associations between telecommuting and WIF and job satisfaction. 2) Mediator: Telecommuters report greater perceived autonomy than non-telecommuters (Gajendran & Harrison, 2007), and telecommuting intensity is positively related to perceived autonomy (Gajendran et al., 2014). It has been shown to partially or fully mediate relationships with job satisfaction, supervisor-rated performance, turnover intent, and role stress. SCHEDULE CONTROL: Moderator: Those who telecommute may or may not have control over the temporal aspect of their work, and the two are often strongly positively correlated (e.g., Shockley, 2007). Schedule control has been considered as a moderator that interacts with telecommuting in relation to outcomes, for example moderating relationships between telecommuting and WIF. TASK INTERDEPENDENCE: 1) Main effect: Task interdependence has been found to predict productivity within samples of telecommuters (Turetken et al., 2011). 2) Moderator: Task interdependence has been shown to moderate relationships of telecommuting extent with job satisfaction (Golden & Veiga, 2005). CONCLUSION: Three variables critical for remote work and its effectiveness are autonomy, schedule control, and task interdependence. Autonomy has been treated as a predictor, moderator, and mediator. Schedule control (flextime) is often a moderator. Task interdependence has been treated as both a predictor and moderator.

Work characteristics of autonomy, schedule control, and task interdependency have been studied in the telecommuting literature based on the notion that the effectiveness of telecommuting may be associated with the process in which individuals perform their work activities. How has autonomy typically been modeled in the telecommuting literature? What about schedule control? And task interdependence?