Research Methods Chapter 1 and 2

Which of the following outlines the correct order in the theory-data-cycle?

Theory, research questions, research design, hypothesis , data

1. This section describes several ways in which intuition is biased. Can you name all five?

1. Being swayed by a good story 2. Being persuaded by what comes easily to mind 3. Failing to see what you cannot see 4. Focusing on the evidence you like best Biased about being biased.

how scientists approach their work

1. they act as empiricists in their investigations( the observe the world) 2. They test their theories(revise based on results found) 3. take an empirical approach( try to contribute to benefit the general population) 4. they go deeper( why, when, whom) - Why does this work 5. makes the work public( Journals, Popular media, etc.)

Which of the following research questions best illustrates an example of basic research?

Can 2-month-old human infants discern the difference between four objects and six objects?

Describe the two ways journalists might distort the science they attempt to publicize.

Two ways the journals distort the science they attempt to publicize is by not writing about important stories, they write about stories that are appealing not important and second they do not tell the story accuratly and can be misleading with their stories and evidence. They exagerarte.

What is psychology?

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

A statement, or set of statements, that describes general principles about how variables relate to one another is a ________________.

theory

Which of the following could be considered a source of empirical evidence ?

thermometer

The cupboard theory

Is the theory that their is an mother-infant attachment because mother is valuable to the baby because it provides the infant with food. -baby experiences a sense of pleasure with the mom - over time the mom is associated with pleasure. -the mother acquires positive value for the baby because she is the "cupboard" from which food comes.

Which of the following Is true of the difference between applied and basic research

Basic and applied research have different goals

Benefits of being a good Consumer

- it will help you find better methods to things you are interested in making better - will help you analyze information and see if it good or bad - it will help you find alternatives to methods that didn't work out - will help you way out the negatives and positives of studies and help you make better decisions based on those studies.

Theory, Hypothesis, and data

- A theory is a set of statements that describes general principles about how variables relate to one another. Example: Harlow created a theory based on babies and forming attachments, his theory led him to ask certain questions and also led him to a specific hypothesis about answering those questions. - a hypothesis or prediction is the specific outcome the researcher expects to observe in a study If the theory is accurate. Example: Harlow predicted that the babies would cling more to the cloth mother than the wired mother. - a single theory can lead to a large number of hypotheses because a single study is not enough to test an entire theory. -one single theory is only intended to test part of it. -Researchers usually test their theories through a series of empirical studies, each designed to test a individual hypothesis. - Data are sets of observations Example: Harlows data were the amount of time the baby monkeys went to each mother. -The data can either support the theory or challenge it -Theories that match the data strengthen the researchers confidence in the theory -Theories that don't match the data challenge and force researcher to revise it.

experience is confounded

- basing conclusions on personal experiences is not smart because a lot of things are going on at once -in real-world situations there are several possible explanations for an outcome. -Confound: Alternative explantations for something that has occurred. -a confound occurs when you think one thing caused an outcome, but in fact other things have change in relation to the outcome.

Experience has no comparison group

- experience cannot be compared to anything, there is no comparison group. -A comparison group enable us to compare what would happen both with or without something we are interested in - basing conclusions on personal experiences is problematic because daily life usually doesn't include comparison experiences. Only a systematic comparison can tell us if something really worked or not.

Scientists Talk to the World: From Journal to Journalism

- it is a goal to be able to interrogate information we find not only in scientific journals, but also in mainstream sources(popular press articles). Journalism: —is the kind of new that we all read most, its able to reach the general public, they are easy to access, its easy to understand the context, and does not require specialized education. Example: popular press articles (scientist daily, psychology today)

Research is better than experience

- research can have a comparison group so you can understand the results of a study and decide if something works or doesn't because it can be compared to something else. -researchers can also control potential confounds; this can help people become less confused on what's factors really cause the outcome -allows for a more basic problem free answer on whether you should participate in something or not.

trusting authorities on the subject

- should always be cautious about basing your beliefs on what anyone's says even someone with authority - ask yourself about the sources; did they compare the conditions to other research?; An authority with a scientific degree can accurately understand and interpret scientific evidence better, but still be careful - if an authority refers to evidence, their evidence might be worthy of attention -but authorities can still base their advice on their own experience or intuition.

Focusing on the evidence we like best

- the tendency to look only at imformation that agrees with what we already believe in is called Confirmation Bias - we "cherry-pick" the information we take in- seeking an accepting only evidence that supports what we already think and know. - one way to enact the confirmation bias is by asking questions that are likely to give the desire or expected answers. -confimation bias operates in a way that is decidedly not scientific.

Scientists are empiricists

- they try to use evidence that involves our senses or instruments(questinnaires,timers, weight scales) that assist the senses. - they work to make their findings independently accurate by other scientists.

Roles of a Producer

- to get involved, you must know the basics such as: - APA style - randomly assigning people to a group - measure information accurately - how to interpret your results from a graph This will all help you engage in the research field an become a research producer.

Role of a Consumer

- to read about research with curiosity - to understand it - learn from it - ask questions about it Understanding research methods as a consumer can enable you to ask the appropriate questions and dive deeper to evaluate certain information correctly. -you will learn how to interpret published research with a critical eye - gain the skills to help you in your career and you will use these skills constantly in your everyday lives. - you will be able to ask the right questions, determine the answers, evaluate the study on the basis of those answers.

The Contact Comfort Theory

- was proposed by psychologist Harry Harlow -theory that infants are attached to their mothers because of the comfort of a cozy touch. - Harlow fostered two monkeys 1 mother was called the wire mother and she offered food, but no comfort and then their was the cloth mother which offered comfort, but no food -the data showed little monkeys for 12-18 hours a day would cling to the cloth mother and only go to the wired mother when it was time for nursing.

Biased about being biased

- we nevertheless conclude that those biases do not apply to us - Bias blind spot: the belief that we are unlikely to fall prey to other biases previously described. -most of us think we are less biased than others. The bias blind spot might be the sneakiest of all of the biases in human thinking./ - it makes us trust our faculty reasoning even more - it can make it difficult for us to initiate the scientific theory-data-cycle

The intuitive thinker vs. the Scientific reasoner

- when people think intuitively they make mistakes; we tend to notice and actively seek information that confirms our ideas. -try and adopt the empirical mindset of a researcher; basing beliefs on the systematic informations from the senses; also strive to interpret the data you collect in an observable way and guard it from biases Scientific Reasoner: -create comparison groups and look at all the data; they generate data through rigorous studies; they test their intuitions with systematic, empirical observations; they ask questions; collect potential disconfirming evidence. -they also allow data to to speak more loudly than their own confidently held biased ideas.

Research vs. Experience

- when you need to decide what you believe in your experiences are powerful sources of information. -we usually base our opinions on the expertise not only of yourself, but also friends and family. Example: you want to buy a car and you do your research on reliable cars and you find a honda, but your cousins honda always needs to be fixed, you will more likely base your decision off your cousins experience.

Scientists make it public: The Publication process

-1. Write a paper 2. Submit it to a Scientific Journal -The articles in a scientific journal are peer-reviewed. -The journal editor sends the article to three or four experts on the subjects, the experts tell the editor about the works virtues and flaws, and the editor takes those comments into considerations , then decides whether the paper deserves to be the published in the journal. -the process is rigorous; and the comments mostly involve how interest the work is, how well the research was done, how clear the results are. - peer-reviewers are suppose to make sure that the articles published contain innovatiove, well Done studies . -other scientists can also study your work.

theories don't prove anything

-The word prove is not used in science - the words consisten or inconsistent is used when supporting a theory. -no single confirming finding can prove a theory -new information can cause a researcher to change or improve their ideas.(doesn't need to be fully discarded) - scientist often evaluate their theories based on the weight of the evidence Example: Harlow was not able to "prove his theory on attachment and his lab conducted dozens of studies to rule out any alternative explanations and test the theories limits.

Reading with a purpose

-What is the argument? What is the evidence to support the argument? - then read introduction to find the goals and hypotheses -look for what theory is testing ;find the argument; find key results on how well the results support the hypotheses. Purpose: - what is the argument? What is the evidence to support the argument? -the argument is the purpose -argument often presents the theory Allows us to ask questions and dive deeper - what were the previous research? -how strong arte the results? -what do we still need to know?

features of good scientific theories

-[supported by data, falsifiable, parsimonious Data: - Scientist should always conduct multiple studies using multiple methods to address different aspects of their theories. -a theory that is supported by a large quantity and variety of evidence is a good theory. Falsifiable: a feature of a scientific theory, in which it is possible to collect data that will indicate the theory is wrong. - a theory must lead to hypotheses that when tested could actually fail to support the theory Example: FC was said to help people with developmental disorders communicate, but with further it showed that the facilitator was the one communicating not the client, the theory that FC works was falsifiable. Parsimony: - theories are suppose to be simple. - if two theories explain the data equally well, there is no need to make the theory more complex than it has to be. Example: Harlow proposed a simple explanation: Contact comfort drives attachment more than food. As long as the data continues to support the simple theory that it is totally fine./ If the data does not continue to support it, then the theory has to change to accommodate all the data Example: Comfort drives attachment more than food if if their are not any social isolation because that can affect the way the baby forms attachments Theory: Contact comfort for attachment is important especially in the early months of life.

Finding research in less scholarly places:

-finding other places can be good if you read with caution The retail bookshelf -be sure to choose books that contain a long list of scientific sources in their reference section. Wikis as a research source -anyone can write information on wikis so make sure they are more scientific if you use them -double-check the information found there -many psychology professors don't accept wiki as a source The popular media: -plan to use your skills as a researcher consumer to accurately read and analyze the information given -

Being persuaded by what comes easily to mind

-in thinking is the availability heuristic, which states that things that pop up easily in our mind tend to guide our thinking -events, memories, that are vivid, recent, and memorable, they come to mind more easily, leading us to overestimate how often things happen. -estimating the likelihood or importance of an event from how easy it can be imagined.

The research vs. your intuition

-intuition: using our hunches about what seems "natural" or attempting to think about things "logically" - can lead us to make less effective decisions.

Research is probabilistic

-its findings are not expected to explain all cases all of the time - the conclusions of research are meant to explain a certain proportion of the possible cases. -scientific conclusions are based on patterns that emerge only when researchers set up a comparison group and test many people. Example: even though your cousins honda was not reliable she was 1 out of 1000 people with honda fits that prove reliable; just because there is strong probability your honda will be reliable, doesn't mean the prediction will be perfect.

Consulting scientific sources

-research are mostly published as articles in scholarly journals -single chapters also within edited books - also can be in full-length scholarly books

finding scientific sources

-start by using a tool in your college or university library -use databases such as psychINFO or google scholar to conduct searches. PsychINFO: -searches include only sources in psychology Advantages: it can show you all the articles written by a single author; tells you whether the article is peer-reviewed; show articles that have cited that same information; and shows a reference list Disadvantage: cannot use PsychINFO unless school is subscribed to it; can be difficult to translate curiosity into keywords. Google Scholar:(free) Disadvantage: doesn't let you limit search to a specific field; can be time consuming; doesn't tell you if article has been peer-reviewed; but Will let you download PDF immediately.

Failing to think about what we cannot see

-the availability heuristic leads us to overestimate events, such as how frequently people encounter red lights or die of shark attack. - a related problem prevents us from seeing the relationship between an event and its outcome. - we often fail to look for absences; in contrast, it is easy to notice what is present. Present bias: our failure to consider the appropriate comparison groups. - the availability heuristic plays a huge role in the present bias because instances one the present bias cell of a comparison stand out.

Ways that intuition is biased

-we might be aware of our potential biases, but we are to busy, to unmotivated to correct and control these biases. -the formal processes of research help prevent these biases from affecting our decisions.

What is the problem with being swayed by a good story?

A good story may not be supported by data

basic research example

A study investigating whether children of divorced parents are more likely to be divorced themselves.

Seligman's proposal that animals who cannot escape an an aversive outcome don't even try to avoid the aversive experience later, when they can escape it, because they don't perceive themselves as having control would best be describes as:

A theory

Why can't theories be proved in science?

A theory cannot be proved because a theory with new information can be changed or improved. A single study cannot fully test your theory and most scientists use weight of evidence to to evaluate their theories.

applied research example

An educational psychologist who looks for a way to increase math skills in 8-year olds.

Scientists Tackle Applied and Basic Problems

Applied Research: -is done with a practical problem in mind; researcher conducts their work in a particular real-world context Example: findings out if the new ways of teaching are better than the old methods of teaching. Basic research: -the goal is to enhance the general body of knowledge; they knowledge they generate may be used applied to the real-world issues later on Example: might want to understand the structure of the visual system, the motivations of depression(and make the general public knowledgeable) Transitional Research: - uses lessons from basic research to develop and test applications to health care, psychotherapy, and other forms of treatment and intervention. -is a dynamic bridge between basic and applied research. Example: basic research on the biochemistry of cell membrane might be translated into a new drug for schizophrenia.

To be an empiricist one should:

Base one's conclusions on direct observations

Which of the following jobs most likely involves producer-of-research skills rather than consumer-of-research skills? A. Police officer B. University Professor C. Physician D. Journalists

B. University Professor

Explain the difference between basic research applied research, and describe how they interact.

Basic research is research that is put into a undertstanding for the general body, applied research allows it to be applied to real-world situations and both are created to transitional research where the questions and results you find through Basic and applied research can be used to find something new or answer a question about a topic you have been researching.

2. Why might the bias blind spot be the most sneaky of all the intuitive reasoning biases?

Because most of us think that we are less bias than others - we conclude that biases don't apply to us. - makes us trust our faculty reasoning even more.

Why is publication an important part of the empirical method?

Because publication contributes to making empirical observations independently verifiable.

Benefits and risks of journalism Coverage

Benefits: the public can learn what psychologists really do; they might find important tips for living: they might understand their children and themselves better; they also might change goals and habits -to do this properly they first need to describe the most important stories and second describe the research accurately. Is the story important: -Has the study been rigorously conducted, does it ask important questions, is it peer-reviewed (Sometimes journalists do not follow important stories, just ones that are more appealing to the public) is the story accurate: - Some stories read about don't always get the story right -not all information is accurate - some information can be misleading(misinterpreted and exaggerated) How to prevent this: 1. Read original sources 2. Maintain a skeptical mindset

What kinds of jobs would use consumer-of-research skills? What kinds of jobs would use producer-of-research skills?

Consumer: police officer, university professor, Journalist Producer: physician, psychologist, product companies

Finding research in less scholarly places

Components of a journal article: -usually in APA format - includes certain sections in the same order( abstract, introduction, methods,results, discussion, references) Abstract: -a concise summary of the article that goes into detail about the study's hypothesis, method, and major results -easy to see if that certain article fits what you are looking for Introduction: -first paragraph explains the topic of the study, middle paragraph lays out the background research; what theory is being tested? Past studies found? Why is present info important?; final paragraph states the specific research questions,goals,hypotheses for the study Method: -detail on how th researchers conducted their study -details that you could look at if you wanted to repeat the study Results: -describes quantitative or statistical tests the authors used to analyze the data Example: tables and graphs Discussion: -summarizes the study research questions, methods and indicate how well the study supported the hypotheses; also describes the importance of the study -may discuss alternative explanations for their data and pose interesting questions raised by research. References: - full bibilogdraphic listing of all the sources the authors cited in writing their articles.

1. Explain what the consumer of research and producer of research roles have in common, and describe how they differ.

Consumer research and producer research both are fascinated by research, they both ask questions, understand results, and engage with the research from a personal perspective, but consumer research allows you to apply it to your everyday lives and producer research you are the one actually asking the questions, observing, and getting results that consumer research's can use to make decisions and apply in real-world context.

Daniel's teacher tells him that his theory about dating is not strong because it is not falsifiable. What does she mean?

Daniel's theory cannot be disproven.

In this study the estrogen levels in partcipants were the

Data

Scientists are empiricists

Empiricism: involves using evidence from the senses( sight, hearing ,touch) or from instruments relating to senses (timers, photographs,weight scales) - hopes to make their work verifiable by other scientists or observers. - is the approach of collecting data, and using it to develop, support, or challenge a theory.

Empirism

Is the approach of collecting data, and using it to develop, support, and challenge a theory.

Scientists test theories: The Theory- Data Cycle

In the theory-cycle scientists collect data to test, change, or update their theories. 1. you ask a particular set of questions, all which are guided by your theory 2. you theory set you to ask certain questions and not others 3. your questions lead you to make predictions which you tested by collecting data you test your first idea by making a prediction, then you set up a situation(experiment) to test that prediction. 4. if the data told you your first prediction is wrong, you use the change in outcome to change your idea about the problem(Theory) 5. you retest using new theory and so forth

Which of the following is NOT a reason why basing one's conclusions on research is superior to basing one's conclusions on intuition?

Intuition always leads you to a conclusion that is incorrect

Journal article types:

Journal articles(most important source) - Likely to find these journals in university libraries and online databases -journal articles are often written for an audience of other psychologists and psych students -they can be empirical articles or reviewed articles Empirical Articles: report the first time results of a research study. - they contain details about the study method, statistical tests, and results of the study Reviewed Journal articles: provide a summary of all the published studies that have been done in one research area -uses a quantitative technique called meta-analysis, which combines the results of many studies and gives a number that summarizes the magnitude, or the effect size of a relationship. Chapter books : chapter books are not peer reviewed or as rigourous as empirical articles- - the editor is careful to invite only experts to write the chapters Full length books: are a common way to publish research -psychologists don't write many full length books, and usually written for a general audience

Being swayed by a good story

Our thinking is accepting a conclusion just because it makes sense or feels natural Example: you would thing that the program scared straight is affective because young children are scared and not want to go back, but the research has shown that these programs are not effective.

applied research

Research that is done specifically to solve a practical problem, like increasing memory ability or decreasing symptoms of depression.

scientists dig deeper

Scientist do not just stop after conducting a study they dive deeper, each study leads to new questions . - to dig deeper they ask why, when, whom, and what what are the limits. They asked new questions, they investigated, they compared their results.

When scientist publish their data, what are the benefits?

The benefits is it can help people improve their lives, understand the real-world issues and how to better them, and help them apply their knowledge to their careers.

What might someone get out of reading the references section of an article?

The name of an article that researched a similar topic

Which of the following is a potential confound in this study ?

The teachers have different amounts of teaching experiences

What two guiding questions can help you read any academic research source?

What is the argument? What is the evidence to support the argument?

What happens to a theory when the data do no support the theory's hypotheses? What happens to a theory when the data do support the theory hypotheses?

When a theory does not support the theory's hypothesis, it gives them time to strengthen, change, and enhance to theory with new ideas. When the theory supports the data it give the researcher the confidence to dive deeper in their study.

Research consumers

be able to find, read, and evaluate the research behind important policies, therapies, and workplace decisions - interested in reading, applying, and sharing research.

empirical evidence

information we can verify with our senses.

Research Producers

• Goal is discovery - add to existing knowledge about the world • Create new methods to obtain knowledge • Confirm and extend findings obtained by others - they are fascinated by the research process and want to study, document, administer, and observe their findings to others in the field.