Research Methods in Psychology Exam 1

What is the primary difference between researchers and non-researchers? A. Researchers rely exclusively on logic B. Researchers rely on personal experience and intuition. C. Researchers test their intuition with systematic, empirical observations. D. Researchers are strongly influenced by authority figures

C. Researchers test their intuition with systematic, empirical observations.

Which of the following sources is most likely to contain only information that has been rigorously peer-reviewed? A. Blog posts B. Magazine articles C. Review journal articles D. Podcasts

C. Review journal articles

Manipulated variables (aka independent variable)

A variable a researcher controls or influences. Usually by assigning participants to a particular level of the variable. Some variables are impossible to manipulate, and some can't ethically be manipulated. E.X.: drug dose, environmental conditions, treatment conditions, etc. DIMIC- Dependent I Measured Independent I Changed

Research that is done specifically to add to our general understanding of psychology, like distinguishing the components of extraversion or predicting the time it takes a person to determine whether an object is a face or another object, is known as A. Basic research B. Translational research C. Empirical research D. Applied research

A. Basic research

How can you ensure that a popular media article accurately reflects the original research of a scientific study? A. Find and read the original scientific article B. Check that the popular media article included the statistical significance of the results C. Determine whether the results fit within the theories you learned in your psychology classes D. Research the credentials of the author of the popular media article

A. Find and read the original scientific article

Which of the following is a reason why it is important to be an effective producer of research? A. It is important to communicate new scientific findings that can advance the field of psychology B. It is important to know how to read an APA style research report. C. It is important to be able to synthesize previous research findings. D. It is important to understand whether the information you read is accurate.

A. It is important to communicate new scientific findings that can advance the field of psychology

What you should ask when questioning construct validity

Are the researchers really measuring what they think they are measuring? How did the researchers manipulate the variable (s) they think they were? Does the measure capture all of the behavior/variable of interest or just part of it? How well did the researchers operationally define a concept or hypothetical construct? Did the researchers check to see if they really manipulated their variable the way they believe?

What you should ask when questioning internal validity

Are there alternative explanations for this relationship? Possible confounds? Did the researchers manipulate their variable of interest while keeping all other factors constant? Did the researchers include all relevant control/comparison groups? Did the researchers use random assignment and/or within-subjects designs?

Association claims

Argues that one level of a variable is likely to be associated with a particular level of another variable. Also known as correlations or covariations. E.X.: People who are shyer are better at reading facial expressions. Video game playing is not linked to less activity in children. Children of higher SES households are more likely to be diagnosed with an anxiety disorder

Research sources and rankings

-Journal articles: good, great depending on journal quality (empirical studies, reviews, meta-analyses) -Chapters in edited scholarly books: good -Full length scholarly books: good, for the most part -Retail bookshelf: may be good, but may be bad -Wikis: questionable -Popular press: questionable

How do you know that the claim is valid?

1. Determine what questions you need to ask about the claim 2. Identify the appropriate type of information needed to answer those questions

Constant

A "thing" that does not vary (at least in your study). It only has one level. E.X.: Are dog owners happier with big dogs or little dogs? What is the constant? Dog owners.

Variable

A "thing" that varies. It must have at least two levels (values). E.X.: 60% of teens text while driving. What is the variable? Texting- present vs. absent. Depressed people make less money per year. What are the variables? Depression and income.

Scatterplot

A graph in which one variable is plotted on the y-axis and the other variable is plotted on the x-axis. Each dot represents one subject on the 2 variables. Shows the direction and strength of an association.

Weight of the evidence

All of the studies, including replications, on the same theory. E.X.: Memory test performance should be worse after 5 hours than 10 hours, etc.

Causal claims

Argues that one variable is changing another variable. E.X.: Chewing gum increases exam performance

Preregistration

Before data is collected, the study may be preregistered (usually online on a time-stamped website such as OSF).

Applied research

Conducted to find solutions for specific "real world" problems. What are the effects? How well does it work? Often difficult to distinguish between basic and applied research. E.X.: Telling jury about possible bias when watching interrogation video.

Replication

Conducting a study again to test whether the result is consistent (if the result is inconsistent, it could be due to error).

When researchers conduct and experiment comparing two different treatment conditions, they are likely to be more concerned with __________ validity than _________ validity. A. Construct; Internal B. External; Statistical C. Statistical; Construct D. Internal; External

D. Internal; External

Which of the following is a reason why it is important to be a knowledgable consumer of research? A. It is important to know why researchers protect the anonymity of participants B. It is important to know how to write in APA style C. It is important to understand how to design an effective study D. It is important to understand whether the information you read is accurate

D. It is important to understand whether the information you read is accurate

What is the primary purpose of peer review? A. to make sure that the authors have included all relevant citations of other research in the field B. To distinguish between magazines and journals C. to give scientists more practice thinking critically about research methodology D. to ensure the relevance, accuracy, and integrity of the content

D. to ensure the relevance, accuracy, and integrity of the content

Frequency claims

Describe a particular rate or degree of a SINGLE variable. Always measured. E.X.: 1 in 5 people have bad breath. 58% of KSU students visit the wellness center frequently

Bias blind spot

Even after being educated about cognitive biases, believing that those biases don't apply to us. E.X.: "I can be objective"

Confounds

Factors, that you did not originally consider, that systematically changes along with the variables of interest. Other possible explanations for an outcome.

Positive association

Higher on variable 1------>higher on variable 2

Negative association

Higher on variable 1----->lower on variable 1

What you should ask when questioning external validity

How did the researchers collect their sample (is it representative of the population)? Where did they find the participants? How did they select participants? Did they exclude anyone? Can the results from this study be generalized to other situations that exist in the "real world"? Who are they ultimately trying to understand, and where an when?

Research design

How the researcher plans to go about testing their question. E.X.: I will measure the amount of sleep I get, then take a test and measure my score.

Proof and disproof

In behavioral research, one can never prove anything or disprove anything. We can accumulate evidence for or against theories. Increase confidence in our results by replication and reducing error. Conclusions are based on the weight of the evidence.

Basic research

Primary goal is to gain knowledge. How does it work? E.X.: the two groups perspectives on who dominated the conversation.

Empirical studies

Published study

Research vs. intuition

Research findings are better than conclusions we draw from intuition because we are biased.

Research vs experience

Research findings are better than conclusions you draw from your own experience because experience has no comparison group and experience is confounded. Experience does not answer the question "compared to what?". E.X.: Listening to lofi-hip hop makes me more productive (confounding variable: you only listen when you're doing work)

What happens when your experience contradicts the research? Should you make future decisions based on experience or the research?

Research is probabilistic. Exemptions should not undermine the general research results. Research results are meant to explain a certain proportion of the possible cases.

Confirmation bias

Seeking and accepting only the evidence that supports the beliefs we already hold.

Meta-Analyses

Take all statistics from all evidence to show how strong relationship is compared. E.X.: small, medium, large

Translational research

Takes basic research findings and applies them in real world settings. Can it be applied to people/situations? E.X.: interrogation video

Validity

The appropriateness fo a conclusion or decision.

Temporal precedence

The manipulation must precede the change in behavior (i.e., cause must come before effect).

Covariance (Correlation)

The measured variable must change as the manipulated variable changes.

Empirical approach

The use of verifiable evidence as the basis for conclusions; collecting data systematically and using it to develop, support, or challenge a theory. Involves using evidence from the senses (sight, hearing, touch) or from instruments that assist the senses (thermometers, timers, questionnaires). It is NOT using opinions, logical arguments, personal experience, or gut feelings to make conclusions.

Theory-Data cycle

Theories generate questions. Theories guide the development of studies that are designed to test predictions (hypotheses) about how the data will answer our questions. Ideally, preregistration happens before data collection. To test if the hypotheses are correct, we collect data. The data inform and shape the theory.

Consumers

There are people who read/hear about research and may apply it to their daily lives.

Availability heuristic

Things that are easily brought to mind guide our thinking. Especially problematic when trying to determine how often something occurs. E.X.: shark attacks

Strong association

Values closer to +/- 1. Steeper slope

Weak association

Values closer to 0. Smaller slope

Present/Present bias

We tend not to look for absences- while it is easy to notice when something is present. It is a failure to notice appropriate comparison groups. E.X.: when I thought about them they texted me; but didn't when I thought of them before

Reviews

When a researcher goes through all the research and writes an article reviewing anything.

A research consumer_____scientific results A. Produces B. Analyzes C. Graphs D. Reads

D. Reads

Why are empirical articles, journal review articles, and meta-analyses considered prestigious publications? A. They are quantitative techniques B. They use statistical analyses to test hypotheses. C. They are written by scientists D. They are both peer-reviewed

D. They are both peer-reviewed

Tim tells you that the best way to make friends is by opening the conversation with a joke. He can easily recall all the friends he met by telling a joke and also the times he opened with chitchat and didn't befriend the person. If you were concerned that Tim was making the present/present bias, what would you ask him? A. Did you go into conversations where you opened with jokes thinking that you would make friends? B. How many people have you met and befriended? C. Do you think the times you made friends by telling jokes might come more easily to mind? D. What about the times you opened with a joke and didn't become friends with the person?

D. What about the times you opened with a joke and didn't become friends with the person?

A psychiatrist is testing a drug that treats depression. He has given the drug to all his patients, and all of them have experienced a decrease in depressive symptoms. Although this is interesting, his experience is limited because he does not have A. A hypothesis B. a reliable way to measure depressive symptoms. C. Psychotherapy to supplement the drug D. a comparison group that did not receive the drug.

D. a comparison group that did not receive the drug.

Diego is interested in examining the relationship between a person's attachment style and his or her relationship satisfaction. He finds 65 studies that have examined this topic. He combines the results of all these studies and calculates an effect size. His research is most accurately described as A. A review journal article B. Wikipedia C. A chapter in an edited book D. A meta-analysis

D. a meta-analysis

In which of the following scenarios should you be skeptical of an authority? A. When they have a scientific degree B. when they present all the evidence on a topic C. when they have conducted scientific research on the topic D. when they based their opinions on their intuition

D. when they based their opinions on their intuition

A scatterplot is a graph A. Used to show causal associations B. That shows the size of a difference on a variable between two groups C. that shows changes over time on a variable. D. with points plotted to show a possible relationship between two sets of data.

D. with points plotted to show a possible relationship between two sets of data.

Construct validity

Did the researchers actually measure/manipulate the variable they think they measured/manipulated? You are challenging the operationalization (i.e. the measure/manipulation) of the conceptual variable. E.X.: claim: People who drink alcohol are less likely to achieve success. What did they mean by success and how did they measure it? Are they really measuring all of what I would consider "success" or just a portion of it?

Statistical validity

Do the results of the statistical tests in the study back up the claim? You are challenging the strength of the statistics. E.X.: claim: Survey shows that 22% of adults are clinically depressed. What is the margin of error? (small margin of error=strong)

Data

A set of systematically collected observations. E.X.: Memory test scores over the last 7 nights were 50, 64, 65, 52, 59, 54, 54.

A common finding in the study of aggression is that exposure to television is associated with increased aggressive behavior in children. You are curious as to whether peer pressure is really to blame (peer pressure encourages you to watch television and peer pressure encourages you to be aggressive). You are questioning which of the following criteria of causation? A. The criterion of temporal precedence B. The third-variable criterion C. The criterion of covariance D. The criterion of external validity

B. The third-variable criterion

Benjamin is a social psychologist who studies marriage. He believes that marital satisfaction has two components: the ability to trust one's partner and a belief that one can be a good spouse. This is known as A. A hypothesis B. Data C. A theory D. Research

C. A theory

What is an appropriate operational definition of intellectual growth? A. Ratings of intelligence by the subjects' teachers B. Popularity of each subject in school C. IQ from the Wechsler IQ test D. More than one answer is correct

D. More than one answer is correct (A+C)

Cherry-Picking

Intentionally choosing to present others with only the evidence that supports the beliefs we hold.

Risks of scientific journalism

Is the story important? Is the story accurate? Is the whole story being told?

Zero association

Non systematic relationship between variable 1 and 2

Measured variables (aka dependent variable= always measured)

A variable whose levels are simply observed and recorded. Typically accomplished using scales, inventories, rulers, or devices. Some measured variables are hypothetical constructs that were operationalized. E.X.: mood, height, IQ, hair color, preferences, sex, demographics, anxiety, etc. DIMIC- Dependent I Measured Independent I Changed

__________ validity tends to be higher in experiments than in other types of studies. A. Internal B. Statistical C. External D. Content

A. Internal

Confounds are factors that were not originally considered and may explain the outcome A. True B. False

A. True

Every scientific journal is created equally A. True B. False

B. False

Operational definition

A particular definition of a conceptual variable that allows it to be measured or manipulated with a tangible metric. Prevents miscommunications about what the variable of interest is. We must operationally define hypothetical constructs! E.X.: 5...5 what?

Confidence interval [LB, UB]

A range designed to include the true population value a high proportion of the time (e.g., 95% of the time).

Hypothesis

A specific prediction derived from a theory and a specific research design. E.X.: Memory test performance should be worse after 4 hours of sleep when compared to 8 hours of sleep.

Theory

A statement (or set of statements) that attempts to specify the general principles for how variables relate to one another. E.X.: I think lack of sleep hurts memory performance.

Internal validity

A study's ability to rule out alternative explanations for a causal relationship between two variables. You are challenging whether A is causing B. This is typically accomplished by keeping extraneous variables constant in all conditions, using random assignment to condition, and using within-subjects manipulations. Studies that only make frequency claims and/or association claims are NOT concerned with internal validity. Internal validity is CRITICAL for making causal claims. Experiments try to MAXIMIZE internal validity. Most of the time, higher internal validity, means lower external validity. E.X.: claim: Eating grapefruit causes weight loss. What other factors (that have nothing to do with eating grapefruit) might have caused the weight loss? Are there any factors that also varied from group to group along with the amount of grapefruit consumed?

Science journalists have argued that cigarette smoking leads to a variety of health problems. What type of claim are they making? A. Causal B. Frequency C. Association D. Operational

A. Causal

Jenny reads the following headline on an online article: "If You're Sexist, People Will Think You're Racist, and Vice Versa." (This headline is based on a study conducted by Sanchez and colleagues, 2017.) This study found that members of stigmatized groups are threatened by prejudice directed at other stigmatized groups. Their results showed that White women can feel threatened by racism, men of color feel threatened by sexism, and that these perceptions made participants expect unfair treatment. The results of this study can be generalized to which of the following groups? A. White women and men of color B. Women of color C. All underrepresented groups D. Individuals receiving unfair treatment

A. White women and men of color

Hypothetical contruct

An abstract entity that we know exists but is intangible (it cannot be overtly observed). Scientists often want to measure a construct in individual subjects, but to do so, they first must define the construct using some tangible metric. We must operationally define hypothetical construcsts! E.X.: depression, anxiety, self-esteem, intelligence, knowledge, honesty, academic achievement, happiness, etc. In males, what is the relationship between height and self-esteem? What is the hypothetical construct? Self-Esteem

Point estimate

An estimate of a value in the population (e.g., a percentage; a correlation coefficient).

In the theory-data cycle, theories first lead to A. Answers B. Questions C. Data D. Research

B Questions

Translational research is best thought of as______basic research an applied research A. Superior to both B. A bridge between C. Another term for D. Inferior to both

B. A bridge between

Asking questions to get the answers we want is known as A. Overconfidence B. A confirmation bias C. A present/present bias D. The availability heuristic

B. A confirmation bias

The media always accurately describes the findings of a study. A. True B. False

B. False

You read research that found that first-born children tend to have higher IQs than their siblings. However, you typically earn higher grades than your older brother. Scientists might explain this discrepancy by saying that A. you have fallen prey to your blind spot bias. B. Research is probalistic C. you have cherry-picked information to support your conclusion. D. your intuition is better than research.

B. Research is probalistic

What are examples of tangible metrics (e.g., ways to collect data using the empirical method)? Select all that apply A. Personal experience B. Gut feelings C. Blood pressure reading D. A valid questionnaire

C. Blood pressure reading D. A valid questionnaire

What is an appropriate operational definition of self-esteem? A. Only negative feelings about oneself B. Height of each subject in centimeters C. Each subject's score on the Beddler self-esteem inventory D. All of the above

C. Each subject's score on the Beddler self-esteem inventory

Who is responsible for deciding which validity is prioritized in a study? A. The participants B. The peer reviewers C. The researcher D. The journalist

C. The researcher

Which of the following allow us to make strong predictions using association claims? A. neither strong positive associations nor strong negative associations B. Strong positive associations C. both strong positive associations and strong negative associations D. Strong negative associations

C. both strong positive associations and strong negative associations

Should you trust an expert/authority making a certain claim?

Is their expertise related to the claim they're making? Do they cite evidence/research to back their claim? Is their evidence appropriate and accurate for this particular claim? Do they have conflicts of interest to consider?

Publication process

Making research findings public is CRITICAL! Good scientific articles are published in established journals created for the distribution of scientific information. Good science undergoes rigorous peer-review. Science is self-correcting. Review process continues through replication and re-review (letters to the editor, commentaries).

Conceptual definition

Often the everyday (casual) use of a term. Used by journalists when reporting. E.X.: people have different ideas of what a "failed relationship" means

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental life.

Producers

These are people (often scientists) that conduct studies.

Research question

What specific testable questions are being asked? E.X.: Does lack fo sleep hurt memory performance? How many hours without sleep will impact my performance?

What you should ask when questioning statistical validity

What statistic did they use to analyze their results? Is this statistic the best one to analyze these results? Based on the statistical results, how large is the effect (e.g., are your 2 groups very different or just a little different)? Are the authors overstating this claim based on the size of the effect? How precise is the estimate? Did they report a confidence interval or margin of error? Would these results replicate in another study, or did they just happen as a fluke?

Another word for hypothesis is a(n) A. Outcome B. Observation C. Prediction D. Theory

C. Prediction

Dr. Klein receives an email inviting her to submit an article based on her research to The Journal of Science. The email promises a rapid publication process and charges a fee to cover the costs of expediting the process. She is not familiar with this journal and decides to look up its impact factor in Journal Citation Reports. Unfortunately, it is not listed there. What would Dr. Klein likely conclude about this journal? A. It is likely a predatory journal B. It likely has a rigorous peer-review process C. It is probably too new to be in Journal Citation Reports. D. It would be a great way to get her work out quickly to other scientists.

A. It is likely a predatory journal

Deci and Ryan have proposed that three fundamental needs are required for human growth and fulfillment: relatedness, autonomy, and competence. Susan predicts that students who have these needs met in their psychology class feel happier and more satisfied with the class. She collects data and finds the students who feel more related and confident do feel happier, but that feeling more autonomous does not seem to matter. Susan thinks that maybe autonomy is necessary only when people are in situations in which they are not being evaluated. After Susan collects and analyzes her data, which of the following is the next logical step? A. Susan designs a new study to test her hypothesis B. Susan writes a paper challenging self-determination theory because some of her data did not support it C. Susan ignores the data that did not fit the theory D. Susan recalculates her data to fit the theory

A. Susan designs a new study to test her hypothesis

Which of the following is a problem presented by the availability heuristic? A. We do not examine all of the evidence, only what we can quickly think of. B. We do not carefully examine our own experience. C. We will never be right in our conclusions. D. We rely on the opinions of others rather than on our own opinions.

A. We do not examine all of the evidence, only what we can quickly think of.

Muhammad and his friends are discussing a study he read about in his developmental psychology class. In the study, the researcher made the claim that having resilience prevents low self-esteem. Amanda questions the study, saying "I'm not sure about this. Did resilience come first or high-self-esteem? I'm not sure they can say which variable came first". Amanda is concerned with A. Failed to consider a third variable B. concluded there was not a relationship, but there really is one C. Failed to establish temporal precedence D. concluded there was a relationship, but there really isn't one.

C. Failed to establish temporal precedence

Angel reads about a study in which smartphone use is associated with migraine headaches. He says, "Well, that study is not valid because I use a smartphone more than anyone I know, and I never get migraines." Based on his comment, Angel may be forgetting which of the following? A. Science is based on empiricism B. The study did not properly define smartphone use. C. Science is probabilistic D. The study has been replicated

C. Science is probabilistic

Which of the following is true of variables? A. All variables can be manipulated B. Variables are the same as constants C. Some variables can be either manipulated or measured. D. Variables only need conceptual definitions

C. Some variables can be either manipulated or measured.

External validity

How well can we generalize the results of this study to other people, places, or contexts? You are challenging the sample, study setting, and study context (e.g., point in time). E.X.: claim: Praising children leads to low academic achievement. Did they include children from both private and public schools? Did they include a representatively diverse sample in their study? Did they conduct this study in the family home, school, or in a laboratory setting?

Scientific journalism

Not considered science per se. Scientific journalism is scientific news and commentary written by another party (usually a reporter, not a scientist) and posted to a wide readership (usually a non-expert audience). It includes newspapers, internet sites, Psychology Today, magazine articles, and popular health blogs.

Benefits of scientific journalism

People become more informed. Psychologists' research becomes well-known. May help people change for the better.