Sacred places unit 7

Consequences - 2

Consequences - 2 Spain's crusade deserves some elaboration. An important point is that Columbus still had a strong crusading mentality even though Islam had lost ground in Spain. Islam's grip on Iberia weakened in the eleventh and twelfth centuries and then collapsed in the late fifteenth century. For almost eight hundred years Islam in all of its cultural complexity and claims to universalism mixed with and controlled the tempo of life in the peninsula. The end result is surprising. In the sixteenth century political and religious sentiments shifted quickly, and by the early seventeenth century the Muslim presence in Iberia was simply a memory. It's easy to point to legislation as the cause. The famous edicts of expulsion were important, but they only reflected broader cultural patterns. Spain was still Catholic. It had become more militantly Catholic with each passing decade during the Reconquista (long period between 711 1492 when Spain struggled against Muslim occupation and control). In other words, Islamic culture never supplanted Spanish culture. Another way to interpret the Crusades is to see them as pilgrimages. Thomas Merton, the Trappist monk and spiritual writer, talks about them in this way: "And yet the pilgrimage must continue, because it is an inescapable part of man's structure and program. The problem is for his pilgrimage to make sense-it must represent a complete integration of his inner and outer life, of his relation to himself and to other men." (Merton, Mystics and Zen, 111). And as Merton and others say, the pilgrimage will continue until we find ourselves in the other. The other is not an enemy but ourselves. The theological principle (for Christians) underscoring this is that the risen Christ is in or potentially in all. Keep the point of Crusade as pilgrimage in mind. We wrap up the course with an analysis of pilgrimage in Unit 15 Islam did not split Christianity, but politics and theology would with the sixteenth century turmoil known as the Reformation. Martin Luther himself thought that Christianity did not need to free Jerusalem from the Muslims in order to fulfill its mission; if the Crusades were to continue the state, not the church, should finance and coordinate them. For Luther, the indulgences promised by the church during the Crusades were one more example of the misguided behavior of the Catholic Church. The century also saw the beginnings of the Askenasic and Sephardic streams of Jewish migrants, spreading throughout Europe. What held them together was the ideal of Jerusalem, the living center of Jewish thought and history. In the late nineteenth century this sentiment sprang forth full force with the birth of Zionism and the political drive to create a Jewish state.

Al Aqsa Mosque

Al Aqsa Mosque Inside al Aqsa Mosque Inside al Aqsa Mosque Construction on this was started in the late seventh century, and it took its final form in 1033. It is known as a center for prayer and the study of the Qu'ran, and as such draws pilgrims from around the world. For Muslims it is their third holiest place. It ranks after the Kaba in Mecca and the Tomb of the Prophet in Medina. It is also a place of controversy in the Muslim world. As we have seen, tradition claims that it was the goal of the "Night Journey," or "Night Flight."(Qu'ran, 17:1). Recent analyses of the text argue that the flight was from Mecca to Medina, not from Mecca to Jerusalem. Since at the time of the Prophet there was not a mosque in Jerusalem, the al aqsa (translated as most distant) was in Medina, and this is what the Qu'ran refers to. Muhammad did for 17 months acknowledge Jerusalem as the quibla (direction of prayer, which we discuss in more detail later on), but then changed this to Mecca. Acceptance of this interpretation would weaken Islam's historical and theological claim to Jerusalem. Wall surrounding the Al-Aqsa Mosque Wall surrounding the Al-Aqsa Mosque The implications for this are of extreme importance. If it became widely accepted in the Muslim community, it could influence the politics of Jerusalem and the Holy Land. With this background we turn to the political problems of the sacred in Jerusalem.

Antecedents to the Current Crisis

Antecedents to the Current Crisis Status Quo These references to Europe and the Americas help to illustrate the important difference in Palestine, where Christians and Jews continued to live and worship alongside of Muslims. The cultural and religious plurality seldom proceeded smoothly, leading to questions-primarily among different Christian grous-of who controlled which sacred sites. Major Cities in Palestine/Israel Major Cities in Palestine/Israel The Ottoman Empire tried to resolve the issue by declaring the Status Quo in 1757. This essentially said that whoever has control over what at that time would continue to have control. Because of their position in the Ottoman Empire, the Status Quo favored the Greeks. The Status Quo gave control to the group that demonstrated that it controlled the last restoration of a holy site. Different political figures tried to alter it but with little success. For example, Napoleon III in 1852 tried to gain control over the Church of the Nativity. He ended up with the right to build a Church of St. Catherine next door to the Church of the Nativity, which was finished in 1888, but not with control over the Church of the Nativity. According to the Status Quo only Christian sites were considered holy sites. Ottoman firmans (decrees) of 1757 and 1852 listed only 7 sites. This would change after World War I under British control when Jewish sites ( the Western Wall and Rachel 's Tomb) were recognized as holy sites.

Antecedents to the Current Crisis

Antecedents to the Current Crisis With this background we can proceed with a discussion directly relevant to the current issues in Jerusalem. Our initial problem is to come to an understanding of the main historical developments of Palestine. This is difficult because perceptions and stereotypes cloud judgements. What happens is that the present always filters the past, and political programs and ideologies make it difficult to come to an approximation of the truth. Map of the Early Ottoman Empire Map of the Early Ottoman Empire As an example, the question of historical tolerance/intolerance is used to justify or to criticize current positions on the Middle Eastern questions. As you might expect, opinions vary. It is fair to say that much, though certainly not all, scholarly interpretation lines up on the side of an Islam more tolerant of non Muslims in Palestine than Christians of non Christians in Europe. These are difficult judgements to make since we are talking about long swatches of history were the evidence is scanty, but under rulers such as Omar and Saladin there was an air of openness and tolerance of people of "the book." The people of the book were Christians and Jews, faithful believers in the Bible. In contrast, Muslims and Jews faced much harsher realities under Christian regimes in Europe. The best that we can say is that minority religions, as with minority ethnic and racial groups, often faced discrimination, some of it very harsh. There was often co-existence, but the minority group-whether Christian, Muslim, or Jew-faced different laws and taxation systems that left them in an inferior position. With the expansion of the Ottoman Empire, Turks gained more control over Palestine in the early sixteenth century, but continued the practice of allowing access and use of holy places. Some of this was for economic reasons. Pilgrims to the Christian sites were charged a head tax, so the tolerance provided direct economic benefits. This tolerance for Christians by the Muslim Turks in Palestine was more effective that Christian tolerance of Muslims in Spain, where Christians politically and culturally attacked Jews and Muslims, eventually expelling them both. Jews who did not convert to Christianity were expelled from Spain in 1492, and decrees soon followed for Muslims. Spain in the sixteenth century was becoming a more closed society. Jews, Muslims, and Protestants had a difficult time practicing their faith. The same intolerance was transferred to the Americas, where Spaniards used various techniques to undermine traditional sacred places. The English and the French did the same thing. It should not be forgotten that the English were just as intolerant of Catholicism as the Spaniards were of Protestantism.

Christian Sites - 1

Christian Sites - 1 Church of the Annunciation Church of the Annunciation The early history of Christianity is rooted in the same land that is so important to Judaism. Christianity emerged from Judaism, and the places of worship so central to Jews were also important to the first Christians. More importantly, the birth, life, and death of Christ that gave added meaning to the Holy Land as a sacred place. The Holy Land is central to Christianity, but Christianity differs from Judaism in that it can survive outside of the Holy Land. There is not the sense of a covenant between the people and the land as there is between Jews and Jerusalem. The sites are important, but they do not overshadow what is more important-- the relationship between Christians and Jesus Christ, expressed in the Trinity of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. The Christian Church is the spiritual place wherever Christians come together in the name of Christ. [Think back to the definitions of sacred places in earlier units]] That said, the major sites of Christ's life are culturally and politically important, and essential to understanding the sacred in Christianity. Understanding the Christian sites of the Holy Land is easy because they are a reflection of the life of Christ. The following is a bare bones outline of the relationship between Christ's life and the sacred places.

Christian Sites - 2

Christian Sites - 2 Nazareth, the home of Jesus, and of Joseph and Mary, has the Church of the Annunciation (Greek Orthodox), where the Angel Gabriel appeared to Mary. There is also the Synagogue where Jesus studied and prayed. The Franciscans acquired the site in 1741, and then gave control over it to the Greek Orthodox church. 'Ain Karim, the town four miles from Jerusalem, was the home of Elizabeth, the cousin of Mary, who became the mother of John the Baptist. Mary visited Elizabeth there to share her news. Today the Church of the Visitation commemorates this. Bethlehem, the birthplace of Jesus, is the home of the Church of the Nativity. The River Jordan, where John the Baptist baptized Christ. Mount of the Temptation, where the devil tempted Christ. Mount of the Beatitudes, where Christ gave the Sermon on the Mount Cana, where Christ turned water into wine Jerusalem, location of the Garden of Gethsemane, Via Dolorosa (Way of the Cross), Church of the Holy Sepulchre (also known as Church of the Resurrection) Mount of Olives (Ascension of Christ) We only have time to explore the Church of the Nativity and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, but before doing so, it is important to keep two points in mind. The historical evidence for the location of these sites is good, and comes by way of the Roman occupation of the Holy Land. As Christians came back to Jerusalem after the city's destruction in 70, they naturally sought out the major places of Christ's life. Roman authorities, fearful of Jewish or Christian unrest, had the opposite objective. They hoped to eradicate the religious past. In 135 Hadrian took the city, and rebuilt it as Aelia Capitolina. In his rebuilding of the city, he constructed a shrine to Jupiter over the site of the crucifixion, and a shrine to Venus over that of the resurrection. He also planted a grove of trees over the cave known as the birthplace of Christ. Remember that trees were sacred to many people. In this case, Romans associated trees with the god Adonis . The formal construction of places of worship and pilgrimage for the sites began in the early fourth century. Due to the initiative of the Roman Emperor Constantine and his mother Helena, there was a sustained effort to locate the sites associated with the life of Christ, and to build places of worship on them. The existence of the Roman pagan sites made it much easier to confirm the location of the early Christian sites.

Church of the Holy Sepulchre

Church of the Holy Sepulchre Of the early Christian sites in Jerusalem, the location of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is one of the best documented. From the Gospel of John comes: Photograph of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, 1880s Photograph of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, 1880s "Now, in the place where he was crucified, there was a garden; and in the garden a new sepulchre wherein was never yet man laid. There they laid Jesus, therefore, because of the Jew's preparation day, for the sepulchre was nigh at hand." The place of the tomb remained a special place for the early Christian community. Even with the destruction of Jerusalem beginning in 70 it is reasonable to assume that the location of the tomb remained a part of the tradition of Christians. When Constantine assumed power he started the construction of a church at the tomb in 326. As with other sites a series of conquests, destructions, and renewals followed. Invading Persian armies destroyed the church in 614; Arab invaders did the same in 1009; almost 100 years later Crusaders began another church after they captured Jerusalem in 1099. This church was consecrated in 1149, and with some modifications is the church of today. Restored Church of the Holy Sepulchre Restored Church of the Holy Sepulchre The advent of the Crusaders in the 11th century shifted control over the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and all of Jerusalem to Christians from the west. After their defeat, the center of Christian power fell to the Armenians, and then with the rise of the Ottoman Empire, the Greek Orthodox Christian church had the most influence. The politics of the past are still being fought in the this church.. Today six Christian religious traditions claim and occupy parts of the church. Roman Catholic, Greek Orthodox, and Armenian Orthodox have what are considered to be major claims to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. The Syrian, Coptic, and Abyssinian Orthodox occupy smaller parts of the church, but are actively involved in maintaining it. This agreement dates back to the control of the Ottoman Turks in the 19th century.

Church of the Nativity

Church of the Nativity Star in the Church of Nativity, Marking Birthplace of Jesus Star in the Church of Nativity, Marking Birthplace of Jesus The Empress Helena initiated construction of the church in 325. Within a few years, believers from around the Christian world traveled to the Church of the Nativity as pilgrims. St. Jerome was one of the early pilgrims. He made a trip to Bethlehem in 386, traveling from Rome. He lived in a cave adjacent to the church and there composed his famous translation of the Bible, known as the Vulgate. This became the most widely accepted Latin version of the Bible, and remained the basic text for Christians until the Reformation in the sixteenth century, when other versions of the Bible began to appear. From this point the history of the Church of the Nativity becomes more complex. It was built, destroyed, and rebuilt through the ages. It, along with many other sacred sites in the Holy Land, was a part of the warp and woof of Mediterranean history. Romans, Gauls, Byzantines, Muslims, Tartars, and many other forces invaded and dominated the church at one time or another. Christians of different traditions continued to visit the church, and claim it as theirs. Listen to Jacques de Verone writing in 1335 about a pilgrimage. We celebrated matins [morning prayer], each nation according to its custom in different parts of the church. In the morning, each nation took the altar to which it had a right. The main altar of the inner church belongs to the Greeks; the Frank Christians have the altar in the crypt near the manger where I sang a solemn mass, for we were more than a hundred French Christians. There were present two friars preachers, two minors and several secular clergy and priests. To the left of the church (in the north transept) are three altars and a cistern near which the Virgin Mary is said to have drunk water at the time of her accouchement. At each of the three altars the Syrians, the Abyssinians and Nestorians celebrated. On the opposite side (in the south transept) there is an altar where are buried twenty four of the Innocents and it is there that the Jacobites celebrate. The Georgians and the Maronites use altars that are outside.(quoted in Hollis and Brownrigg, 92 93)

Consequences - 1

Consequences - 1 One of the great tragedies of the First Crusade was the slaughter in route of defenseless communities, beginning with Jewish towns in the Rhineland. As the crusaders began their journeys they plundered Jewish communities and killed innocent Jews, blaming them for the death of Christ. Much of this was roundly condemned at the time, but the identification of Jews as threats to Christianity continued to be held by many. Great commercial opportunities arose for the intrepid. The Italian city states of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice benefited the most, since they were already well positioned with capital, technology, and equipment to range the Mediterranean in search of opportunity. Christopher Columbus still held the Crusading spirit in his heart hundreds of years later. In a letter to Ferdinand and Isabella during his fourth voyage (1503) he wrote of his own dream to liberate Jerusalem, using the wealth from the New World. Certainly Columbus was an exception in his zeal and his medieval mentality, but few could completely escape the culture of the Crusade. During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries especially, as Portugal and Spain spread across the Americas and parts of Asia and Africa, the idea of a holy mission remained strong. A powerful motive and justification for conquest and colonization was the planting of the true faith in distant lands among the heathen.

Consequences - 3

Consequences - 3 The jihad of al Qaida in the 1990s and first part of the twenty first century echoed many of the yearnings and aspirations of the crusades. It differed, however, in several important ways. Al Qaida did not have the official sponsorship of a united Islamic church. At best, it can be seen as radical fragment of Islam, approved by some and condemned by others. Second, its attack on the United States was not an attempt to liberate land that it claimed as holy. In an indirect way, the attack can seen as opposition to the United States and Israeli presence in the Middle East, but it is not a war of religious liberation. Instead, it was a movement by a dedicated group of zealots who hoped to impose their own form of morality and religion on the rest of the world. The crusaders could accept Islam, but they could not accept its control of the Holy Land. Memories and interpretations of the crusades differ among Muslims and Christians. Muslims see the crusades as an early form of imperialism that ruthlessly tried to conquer Islam for motives of profit and power. Christians still interpret the Crusades as attempts to liberate Jerusalem from the infidel, and conveniently forget the commercial and political motives that launched the crusades. In the end, it is too easy to try and separate the religious from the secular during this -and many periods of history-but the memories do live. They are constantly taught in the medrasas (Islamic schools) of the Islamic world.

Crusades - 1

Crusades - 1 Historians now see the Crusades as mainly a matter of state and commerce, in other words a grab for power and profit, but in its beginning the Crusades were a divine mission carried out by individuals who risked and sacrificed much to undertake their own spiritual quest. Pope Gregory VII in 1074 first breathed life into the idea of a crusade when he sought to protect Constantinople from the Turks. This would have the added benefit of reuniting Christendom, which had split between the eastern and western churches in 1054. Launched by Pope Urban II, the first crusade set out to liberate Jerusalem from Turkish control. Carrying their crosses and banners, the crusaders gathered from all over Europe, driven by a holy calling that compelled them in a deeply visceral way to drive those believed impure and evil from the place of the Holy Sepulcher. The Crusades did stamp western Christianity with an air of militarism and hatred of the other. Love and charity fell to greed and might as the Crusaders sacked villages and towns in their sweep through the Holy Land, searching as much now for their own glorification as that of God. The Catholic Church symbolized power and wealth in this life as much as it did eternal goodness in the next. And at the same time, Jerusalem and the Holy Land become interwoven into Christian consciousness, a focal point of energy that represented the center of Christianity. Neither Rome nor the great pilgrimage sites of the Christian world could replace the significance of Jerusalem in the Christian mind during the late Middle Ages. Map of Islamic influence Map of Islamic influence

Crusades - 2

Crusades - 2 Crusaders Take Jerusalem (1099) Crusaders Take Jerusalem (1099) The Crusades unfolded in four great waves. Pope Urban II initiated the First Crusade (1096 1099) in response to Byzantium's (later to become Constantinople, then Istanbul) request for help in defense against Turkish attacks. Turkish threats had created widespread instability along the pilgrimage routes through Asia Minor to the Holy Land. The call went out: "God wills it! God wills it!" At first the response came only from the well healed, the knights and scions of the great families of Europe. Then came more and more, a mix of society, the artisans, the criminals, the prostitutes, hangers on, all hoping to "take the cross" and participate in one of the great adventures of history. During the four crusades, maybe 100,000 participated, though the exact numbers will never be known. The Second Crusade (1147 1149) came about out of the desire of the king of France, Louis VII, to take a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. This coincided with the Turkish advance and capture of the city of Edessa. Papal backing came in Quantum praedecessors (1145), a bull urging another crusade. They came once again, mainly by land and a few by sea, hoping to further the cause of Christianity. The result was failure to capture the city of Damascus, and eventual retreat and failure. Weakness in the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem led to the Third Crusade (1189 1192). Once conflicts were finally resolved between French and English monarchs, the crusade unfolded with an important military success at Acre. Little more was done, but the Christian hold over Jerusalem was strengthened. Finally came the Fourth Crusade (12020 1204), which did have success in taking Constantinople.

Current Legal Situation

Current Legal Situation When Israel took political control over Jerusalem in June 1967, it also began a process of assuming control over the holy sites, pledging to maintain open and equal access to all religious groups. In fact what happened was that the influence of Israeli religious authorities expanded and spread in an unprecedented way over East Jerusalem, and over Muslim and Christian sites. The Ministry of Religious Affairs was dominated by the very conservative orthodox Jewish National Religious Party. One example of this control is that the Ministry had the right to censor sermons given at Friday prayer services in the mosques in the Old City. Israel clarified its sacred places policy with the passage of three laws in 1991. The third law, the Protection of Holy Places Law, was particularly important. It stated that: The Holy Places shall be protected from desecration and any other violation and from anything likely to violate the freedom of access of the members of the different religions to the places sacred to them or their feelings with regard to those places. Whosoever desecrates or otherwise violates a Holy Place shall be liable to imprisonment for a term of seven years. Any person who does anything likely to impair freedom of access to a Holy Place or to hurt the feelings of anyone to whom a place is sacred, shall be liable to imprisonment for a term of five years. This law shall add to and derogate from any other law. The Minister of Religious Affairs is charged with the implementation of the Law, and he may, after consultation with, or upon the proposal of, representatives of the religions concerned and with the consent of the Minister of Justice, make regulations as to any matter relating to such implementation. (quoted in Dumper, 19) With this and subsequent legislation there has been an effort to regulate and control sacred sites. The problem is that the legislation failed to define the sites or to specifically list them. This leaves the question of the rights and responsibilities of sacred sites open to question. The current state of unrest stems directly from a visit of Ariel Sharon, the leader of the Likud Party, to the Haram al Sharif (Noble Sanctuary) in September 2000. The visit provoked outrage by Muslims, who proclaimed an uprising (al Aqsa intifada) against Israel. This led to the fall of the Ehud Barak government, and the election of Sharon.

Current Political Context - 1

Current Political Context - 1 The legal situation is conditioned by the political context. Unfortunately, oversimplification dominates popular discussion about the politics of Jerusalem, Israel, and Palestine. The media contribute to the distortion by talking about Israelis and Palestinians, and Jews and Muslims. As you might expect, the situation is much more complex, especially on the Jewish/Israeli side. Our basic questions are very simple. Who are the major players, what do they believe, and what do they want. Israel Israeli politics are fractured by deep divisions. One way to understand this is to consider the belief in "choseness." This awkward word refers to the belief that Jews are a chosen people, confirmed by history and by the covenant between the people and God. This "choseness" gives them the right to control the area of Palestine, not just the city of Jerusalem. This political thinking is most evident in what is known as Ultra Orthodox Judaism. It is an extreme form of fundamentalist Judaism that seeks to return to the past, and demands complete conformity to the Torah. This is the Judaism that rejects all forms of modernity, and with it the tolerance of divergent Jewish positions. It in other words cannot reconcile with secular Judaism. A theological point of this fundamentalism posits that Jews must observe all of the laws of the Torah before the return of the messiah. God will only come to earth when Jews are entirely faithful in fulfilling the law. A political expression of this is the Gush Emunim, a political religious movement committed to the idea of a chosen people. The Gush Emunim refuses to consider returning land that was taken by Israel during the 1967 and 1973 wars. These wars expanded Israeli influence and control, and to insure a Jewish presence Gush Emunim supported settlements in the controlled territory. These incursions, not supported or sanctioned by the state, led to the building of new communities. All was seen as an expression of God's will.

Current Political Context - 2

Current Political Context - 2 The historical background for this thinking extends back to late nineteenth century Zionism, and the development of a political movement to secure a homeland for Jews. As the movement gained momentum it swept much opposition aside, and became a great unifying force. After the creation of the state of Israel, Zionism became more associated with an extreme political position, one that excluded non Jews from active participation in the Israeli political mix. At the other end of the political spectrum is secular Judaism, a movement that emphasizes the historical, cultural, and ethical systems that have long been a part of Judaism. Extreme seculars have very little use for God, and it is not inconceivable to be a secular Jew and not have a belief in God. In between the ultra orthodox and the secular are the Orthodox, Conservative, and Reformed Jews. They differ in their perception of the "choseness" of Jews, their degree of adherence to the laws of the Torah, and their politics. One way to understand this is to recognize that they differ in their acceptance of change and modernity. The Orthodox resist compromise with the modern world; the reform make compromises, recognizing that Judaism has to conform to modernity in order to survive. Conservatives fall between the orthodox and the reform in their beliefs. Most of the conservative and reform Jews, like the seculars, belong to the Likud or Labor parties-the main political parties of Israel-and are more open and tolerant of different beliefs. They are also more willing to compromise on the politics of the holy places in Jerusalem.

Defining Holy Cities

Defining Holy Cities Before evaluating the politics of the very recent past, it is important to try and arrive at a more precise definition of holy cities. Michael Dumper, in his study of Jerusalem, gives a great introduction to the problem: The relationship between holy cities and central and local government is both a theoretically underdeveloped and underresearched area. While there can be little dispute that holy cities exist, such as Varanasi, Lourdes, Rome, Mecca, Medina, Qom, and Jajaf, a consistent definition is elusive, and there have been no attempts to construct a taxonomy. Is the mere quantity of holy sites-such as places of worship, mausoleums, shrines, tombs, seminaries, monasteries, and convents-an adequate indication of a holy city? If not, how does one measure 'holiness'? By the number of pilgrims, citations in religious texts, wealth derived from religious activity, the number of persons employed by religious administrations? In addition, how does one define the space between the holy sites themselves? Holy cities are sacred spaces whose holiness is derived from more than the mere accumulation of sites, that is, the holiness of a city is greater than the sum of its holy parts. Despite these difficulties, one can, nevertheless, distinguish holy cities by four main elements. First, they support an institutional religious hierarchy often graced by the presence of leading clerics who have considerable political influence, locally, nationally, and regionally. Second, holy cities have an administrative apparatus controlling large swathes of property as well as religious, welfare, and educational services that provide the clerics and senior functionaries with an important local constituency and undergird a communal identity. Third, they have an independent financial base in the form of endowments and donations. This allows holy cities to absorb external funds independent of the strength or weakness of the local economy, which, in turn, allows them to finance religious personnel and projects relatively free from state intervention. Finally, they can point to an important network of diasporic and international contacts built up through pilgrimage and educational activities. Such contacts and interactions offer a degree of protection to the clergy and their administrations and can strengthen their immunity from state intervention. Taking all these aspects together, we can see how the sovereignty of a state is to a considerable extent circumscribed in a holy city. (Dumper, 9)

Dome of the Rock (Dome over the Sacred Rock)

Dome of the Rock (Dome over the Sacred Rock) Dome of the Rock Dome of the Rock Another View of Dome of Rock Another View of Dome of Rock There is a very good history of this site, which dates from 691. The present structure is substantially unaltered from that founded in 691. It was built on the Rock of Mount Moriah. As we have seen, this was a central feature of the Jewish Temple, according to tradition the place were Abraham agreed to sacrifice his son Isaac. The rock is where Muhammad departed on his night flight. Detailed descriptions of the site have come down to us. One from Nasir i Khusran in the eleventh century is particularly useful: The Rock itself rises out of the floor to the height of a man, and a balustrade of marble goes round it, in order that none may lay his hand thereon. The Rock inclines on the side that is towards the Qiblah, and there is an appearance as though a person had walked heavily on the stone when it was soft like clay, whereby the imprint of his toes had remained thereon. There are on the Rock seven such footmarks, and I heard it stated that Abraham-peace be upon him!-was once here with Isaac-upon him be peace!-when he was a boy, and that he walked over this place, and that the footmarks were his. In the house of the Dome of the Rock men are always congregated-pilgrims and worshipers. The place is laid with fine carpets of silk and other stuffs. In the middle of the Dome, and over the Rock, there hangs from a silver chain a silver lamp; and there are in other parts of the building great numbers of silver lamps. (Quoted in Hollis and Brownrigg, 208 209) In 1099 Crusaders took control over Jerusalem, and the Dome of the Rock fell under control of the Knights Templar, who esteemed its holiness. As they returned to Europe, they carried the style of the Dome with them and built various temples modeled on the Dome of the Rock. Copyright West Virginia University

Important Unresolved Issues

Important Unresolved Issues As is now clear, the historical and political context makes it difficult to arrive at peace in the Holy Land. Further clouding the future are the following problems: The expansion of Jews in the Old City, and the consequent decline of Palestinians and Muslims. The increased Jewish control over property in the Old City. The creation of many yeshivas (Jewish schools) in the Muslim quarter. Many of these students took a hard anti-Muslim and in some cases anti-gentile attitude. The determination by radical Jewish groups to build a new temple on the site of the Dome of the Rock and the al Aqsa Mosque. In 1983 a Jewish terrorist group tried to blow both of them up. Several organizations in and out of Israel have Jewish control over the entire Noble Sanctuary as their main goal. Christian fundamentalist groups in the United States support the movement, and see the reconstruction of the temple as the prelude to the return of Jesus Christ The power and authority of the Awqaf Admistration. Muslims see this as the final authority over Muslim holy sites. The state of Israel claims authority. How to accommodate the increasing number of pilgrims to the Old City. The Middle Eastern crisis will only be resolved when the problem of control over holy places in Old Jerusalem is solved. Phrased another way, the solution to the problems of Old Jerusalem can provide the solution to the problems of the Middle East.

Introduction to Jerusalem and the Holy Land

Introduction to Jerusalem and the Holy Land Valley of the Dead Sea Valley of the Dead Sea The region known as the "Holy Land" is home to many sacred sites of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The sacred nature of the land extends far back in time to the origins of these three great religious traditions. The land itself is deep in sacred sites. Beginning with the ancient Israelites, rivers, mountains, and caves became associated with the divine. The Jewish "Covenant with God" sanctified the land, and made it indispensable for the identity the Jewish people. The Temple of Jerusalem was the center of life for Jews. Its final destruction in 70 CE did not eliminate it from memory or practice. The Western Wall remains as physical testimony to the sacred covenant between God and Jews. Christianity was born in the Holy Land. Its history there is a mirror of the life of Christ. His footsteps, sermons, miracles, passion, and resurrection gave rise to the building of churches in the fourth century under the control of the Emperor Constantine. The Church of the Nativity and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre are two of the most important. Islam, even though its origins are in Saudi Arabia, claims the Holy Land as the location of many of its most sacred sites because of Muhammad's Night Flight, and the rapid political expansion of Islam. From the late seventh century, the Haram al Sharif was the central place of Muslim worship in the Holy Land. The antiquity of religion in the Holy Land gives it special importance in the history of sacred places. God revealed himself in different ways to successive generations of inhabitants. It is this emergence of God in the lives of the people of the desert that gives the land its sacred character. In the words of Eliade again, the Holy Land becomes synonymous with hierophany. God breaks through the traditional religions, and creates a new cosmic reality. This reality takes on a specific history. It is a history of coexistence and of conflict, of respect for diverse religions and customs, and of intense hatred and political struggling to achieve dominance. The reverberations of this distant history continue as the root of discord in the Middle East today. At this point it might be helpful to review Units 1,2, and 3 to make sure that you have a good understanding of what makes the land sacred. In this unit we will first identify and define the Holy Land, then briefly review the history of Jerusalem, and finally describe and narrate the history of selected sacred places of Jews, Christians, and Moslems in the Holy Land. We then discuss the political conflicts over sacred places in Jerusalem.

Jerusalem

Jerusalem Many declarations from the Old Testament specify the importance of Jerusalem as a holy place. The prophet Isaiah stated: City Scape of Jerusalem City Scape of Jerusalem And it shall come to pass in the end of those days, That the mountain of the Lord's house shall be established at the top of the mountains, And shall be exalted above the hills; And all nations shall flow unto it. And many peoples shall go and say: 'Come ye, and let us go up to the mountain of the Lord, To the house of the God of Jacob; And he will teach us of His ways, And we will walk in His paths.' For out of Zion shall go forth the law, And the word of the Lord from Jerusalem.

Jerusalem

Jerusalem The Old Quarter of Jerusalem The Old Quarter of Jerusalem Some sense of the broad outlines of the history of Jerusalem are necessary before trying to understand the importance of sacred places in the region. Remember that most of the early dates are nothing more than rough estimates. 5,000 BCE Archaeological evidence shows habitation but we have very little knowledge of these very early groups. 2,500 BCE-Canaanites contribute to the development of the city, which becomes a Jebusite fortress. 1,000 BCE- David, the Jewish leader, takes the city and absorbs the Jebusites. 1,000 BCE-Solomon, the son of David, builds the First Temple to house the Ark of the Covenant. 586 BCE - Nebuchadnezzar II captures the city, destroys the Temple, exiles Jews to Babylonia. 573 BCE-Jews return and begin to rebuild Temple. 333 BCE- Alexander the Great conquers Jerusalem. 63 BCE-Rome conquers the city; during the rule of Herod, 40 BCE, Temple is enlarged. All of the following dates refer to the Common Era (CE): 33- Pontius Pilate, Roman governor authorizes the execution of Jesus of Nazareth. 70-Jewish revolt and destruction of Second Temple. 638 Muslim Arabs take control of city. 688 691 Muslims build the Dome of the Rock Mosque over the Temple. 1000s- Increased persecution of both Jews and Christians. 1099-Crusaders take control. 1187-Muslims regain control. 1517-Ottoman Empire absorbs the city. 1917-British take control; Jerusalem becomes capital of mandate of Palestine. 1948-Independence of Israel. Jerusalem was to become an international city, but Arabs reject this so the city is divided into a Jordanian and Israeli sector. 1967-Six Day War, the city is unified under Israel. This is a lot of history to absorb. Take a minute to reread this chronology, and try and decide what you consider are the most important turning points to explain the sacred history of the Holy Land.

Jerusalem: Politics of the Sacred

Jerusalem: Politics of the Sacred Politics and religion intersect at many times and ways in the history of sacred places. History is replete with examples of violent struggles to control sacred places, from the ancient temples of Mesoamerica to the churches and mosques of the Iberian peninsula. None of these compare to the recent history of Palestine and the Holy Land, where the politics of the sacred continues to unfold in deadly ways. To understand the political situation, we will first present a brief historical survey, then proceed to a specific discussion of the laws passed to define and protect the sacred. Following this we consider the political ideologies of the major groups involved, and then conclude with a discussion of unresolved issues. As background, it is necessary to make a long digression, and discuss the Crusades.

Jewish Sites

Jewish Sites As mentioned, all of Israel can be considered a sacred place. The fullest expression of Jewish identity is realized only in Israel. Many Biblical passages refer to the gift of the land to Israel, and their divine place in it. In Genesis (15:18), for example, we read that the Lord made a covenant with Abram, saying: 'To your descendants I have given this land." Israel is the "Promised Land, the place where God will deliver and fulfill the promise of the Torah.," According to Chaim Nachman Bilalik, a poet who spoke at the opening of the Hebrew University in 1925: "Without the land of Israel-land in the plain meaning of the word-there is neither hope nor promise for a Jewish future in any place, in any time." (Quoted in Hollis and Brownrigg, 22). This is a clear statement of the psychological and historical meaning of the land. Judaism only survives in the context of Israel. It is there that God revealed himself to the Jews, and it is there that he will fulfill his promise to them. In this way Judaism is comparable to Native American religious beliefs. The religion, and thus the people, cannot survive without the land. The entire cosmology breaks down if there is not a center, a holy place, a cultural focus that holds the people together. An extension of this is the belief that Jerusalem is a holy place. The entire city and all that it contains is holy. It is revered in this way, and held high esteem throughout the Jewish world. That said, it is obvious that some sites have more significance than others. Here are those that have had special impact in the formation of Jewish culture

Muslim Sites

Muslim Sites Some of the Muslim sites in the Holy Land are older than Islam (eg, the Tomb of Rachel) but it is only with the miraculous appearance of Muhammad in Jerusalem that it begins to achieve the status of a sacred place. According to belief, Muhammad mounted his winged horse named Al Burak, and accompanied by the Angel Gabriel traveled from Mecca to Sinai, then Bethlehem, and finally Jerusalem . Muhammad climbed the Sacred Rock, and from there climbed a ladder of light into heaven where he had visions of paradise. He then returned to Mecca before daybreak. The Haram al Sharif The Haram al Sharif The best way to understand the Muslim presence in Jerusalem is through the Noble Sanctuary, in Arabic the Al Haram al Sharif. This is a place of gardens, fountains, and the Dome of the Rock and al Aqsa Mosque. It covers some 35 acres, almost one sixth of the entire walled city of Jerusalem. The entire area, not just the two mosques, is considered a mosque by Muslims.

Overview: Unit 7

Overview: Unit 7 Objective Unit 7 is one of the most challenging of the course because of the amount and complexity of the information. It introduces the history and politics of Jerusalem and the Holy Land, tracing the story from the beginning up until the recent past. Key Concepts Jerusalem and the Holy Land Geography and History Jerusalem and the Temple Rachel's Tomb Survey of Christian Sites Church of the Nativity and Holy Sepulchre Noble Sanctuary and Dome of the Rock Jerusalem and the Politics of the Sacred Crusades and Consequences Recent Politics Administrative and Legal Issues Unresolved Questions Readings Bernard Wasserstein, "Old City, New City," 45-81. Bernard Wasserstein, "The Earthly City," 345-359. Silvio Ferrari, "The Religious Significance of Jerusalem in the Middle East Peace Process," 223-234. Bernard Wasserstein, "The Heavenly City," 1-13. Discussion Topic 7: At the end of this unit are discussion questions. You can think about it as you read through the course material for this unit. All the discussions combined will count for 20 percent of your grade. Discuss and analyze the main reasons for the claims of Jews, Christians, and Muslims to the Holy Land. Discuss Dumper's four main elements of a holy city. How can policy makers use these insights to try and arrive at peace in Jerusalem/the Holy Land? What would be your solution to the problem of sacred places in Jerusalem? Quiz 7: Please make sure to take the quiz at the end of this unit. All the quizzes combined accounts for 225 points, or 45 percent of your grade.

Current Political Context - 3

Palestine Palestinians trace their origins in the region as far back as Jews. They too have been buffeted by history, but believe that their claims to Muslim holy places are as valid as Jewish claims to theirs. In 1964 the Palestinian Liberation Organization formed, and it has been the major branch of organized resistance against Israel. Drawing its support from surrounding states, the PLO has conducted a war of terror against the Israeli population that increasingly used suicide bombings in the 1990s to achieve its objectives. The most extreme position in the PLO is the elimination of Israel, a point of view shared by many Muslim states. Along with this there is a demand for the complete Muslim control over Jerusalem. There has been splintering of the PLO through the decades. In the 1970s for example, splinter groups such as the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine broke away because they did not think that the PLO was radical enough. Moderate voices do exist, but they do not speak as loudly. They recognize that Israel has the right to exist but demand a return of territory occupied after the 1967 war, and a dismantling of the settlements that have formed in the last 30 years. They are also willing to negotiate the questions of control over the holy places in Jerusalem and the rest of Palestine. Further developments came from the "Oslo Accords" in 1993, which led to a form of Palestinian self government on the Gaza Strip and the West Bank. This government became known as the Palestinian Authority . Palestinians hoped that this would lead to a Palestinian state. As a part of these discussions Arafat issued a statement that "the PLO recognizes the right of the State of Israel to exist in peace and security." Recent events have led to a complete breakdown of negotiations, and the fate of sacred places remains uncertain.

Rachel's Tomb

Rachel's Tomb 19th century engraving of Rachel's Tomb 19th century engraving of Rachel's Tomb Located in Bethlehem, Rachel's Tomb is one of the most significant holy places outside of Jerusalem. Rachel was the wife of Jacob, and bore him two children. She is known for her integrity, wisdom, and spirituality. When she died (some estimates say that she died over 3,500 years ago) her husband built a small roadside tomb for her. For thousands of years, pilgrims have come to the tomb for prayer and reflection. The history of the tomb is intertwined with the history of the Middle East. Good documentation dates from the sixteenth century, when Muhammad, the Pasha of Jerusalem, rebuilt the tomb (thus it appears in architecture very similar to the tombs of Muslim saints) and gave Jews exclusive rights to worship there, although Muslims also continued to pray there. In the nineteenth century, Sir Moses Montefiore initiated a major restoration project, and designed a specific place for Muslims to pray. 1910 View of Rachel's Tomb 1910 View of Rachel's Tomb Conflicts over access to the tomb, and permissions to repair it became a part of the politics of the region after World War I. After the creation of the state of Israel, the tomb was within Jordanian jurisdiction, and Jordan, as it did with many of the holy sites in and around Jerusalem, curtailed Jewish access to the tomb. In 1967, after the Six Day War, Israel assumed administration of the tomb, and it continues to be open to pilgrims of all faiths.

The British Mandate

The British Mandate European Influences before Israeli Independence European Influences before Israeli Independence The British Mandate over Palestine covered the area of Palestine that had previously been a part of the Ottoman Empire. After the defeat of the Ottomans in World War I, the British assumed administrative control. It was control essentially over two territories divided by the Jordan River. The West Bank became the designation of that area west of the Jordan River. After the end of the 1948 war, Jordan took control of the West Bank. The nation of Israel was to the west of this area. After the 1967 war, Israel took this land-and more-from Jordan. It is this land that is currently referred to as the West Bank. An uneasy truce existed among the different ethnic and religious groups under the mandate (British Control). The truce did have extremely violent flare ups. In 1929 some 100 Jews were killed in the neighborhood of the Western Wall. This wall was the boundary of the Haram al Sharif, but considered by Jews to be a part of Solomon's Temple. [Muslims called it al Buraq because tradition has it that Mohammad had his horse tied there while he ascended into heaven] In the 1920s increased numbers of Jews worshiped at the Wall. The riots and deaths left bitterness on both sides. British control continued until 1948, when it surrendered authority over Palestine to the United Nations. The UN recommended the creation of two states, a Jewish one and a Palestinian one. Neither side liked the terms and rejected the agreement. Israel went further and declared its independence. Its Arab neighbors attacked in retaliation, but Israel successfully defended its independence. In 1949 the UN Conciliation Committee on Palestine added Muslim sites and additional Jewish and Christian ones to the list of sacred places. Remember the history here from the Status Quo of 1757 to the British Mandate to 1949.

The Holy Land

The Holy Land According to strongly held religious beliefs, God revealed himself in the Holy Land. His appearance to humans, his work of miracles, and his incarnation as Jesus-all give the Holy Land its significance. Its identity as a separate geographic region extends back to at least 2,000 BCE. At that time it served as a way station between the two great civilizations of the ancient world. Babylonia to the east anchored the civilization that emerged between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, today the home of Iraq. The Nile River valley to the west was the home of the ancient Egyptian civilizations. In antiquity the Holy Land was first known as the Land of Canaan. The people living there became known as Cananites. The Land of Canaan refers to a broad swatch of land known as the southern Levant (The Levant was a common term for the eastern Mediterranean that developed with the French mandate over Syria and Jordan in the 1920s. It comes from the French lever and refers to the "land where the sun rises." It is still commonly used today.) Canaan then included today's southern Lebanon, Israel, the Gaza, the West Bank, Jordan, and a part of Syria. The area is also referred to as Palestine, supposedly in reference to the Philistines. The Philistines occupied the region before the Israelites. Historical memory has treated them badly, and they are usually stereotyped as marauders, thieves, and murderers. In this sense, they are similar to Huns, Goths, and Visigoths of later European history. This land became Israel when Moses led 12 tribes from Egypt into Canaan.

The Temple (Temple Mount) - 1

The Temple (Temple Mount) - 1 Architectural recreation of the Original Temple Architectural recreation of the Original Temple Representation of the First Temple Representation of the First Temple The Western Wall The Western Wall The Temple became the center of the Jewish nation as it began to unify under Saul and David. It was David who gave to Solomon the site for the Temple. This site had a long history of meaning for Jews. It was there on Mt. Moriah that Abraham had agreed to God's commandment to sacrifice his son to show his love and obedience. The Temple was the House of Yahweh, the home of God. It consisted of a Holy Place, an outer area where people came to pray and priests performed services. Within the Holy Place was the Holy of Holies, the innermost sanctuary of the Temple. There, God himself dwelled. The Holy of Holies was the location of the Torah. Think of the tabernacle in Catholic churches for comparisons. The Book of Kings in the Old Testament describes the building of the temple. Over 7 years in construction, some 30,000 Jews assisted in the felling of timber in Lebanon to help build the temple. The temple was destroyed by the Babylonians in 587 BC. By this time, serious fissures had divided Jews, and there was not enough unity to forestall the invaders. Yet the temple would be rebuilt. When Jews returned from their Babylonian captivity they rebuilt the temple in 515. This Second Temple was the liturgical center of Jewish life. The requirement developed that Jews go to the temple at least three times a year. The invasion of Alexandrian troops did not destroy the Second Temple but it did lead to Greek influence in language and culture in Jerusalem.

The Temple (Temple Mount) - 2

The Temple (Temple Mount) - 2 19th century engraving of the Western Wall 19th century engraving of the Western Wall For centuries the Second Temple was buffeted by political conflict. Finally, the Romans arrived in 63 BC, when Pompey captured Jerusalem. Under the governorship of Herod, the temple was expanded. Jesus of Nazareth preached in this temple, and it is there that he threw the money changers out. This was Herod's Temple, sometimes referred to as the Third Temple. The Romans destroyed it in 70 CE. All that was left of the temple was the Western Wall (Wailing Wall), where Jews continued to come and pray. The destruction of the temple did change the course of Jewish history, and the importance of sacred sites. The temple had always been the center of Jewish religion, serving as the location of the Torah and the Holy of Holies. The temple had been the place of sacrifice, and the performance of other rituals sacred to the Jews. Pope John Paul II praying at the Western Wall Pope John Paul II praying at the Western Wall After its destruction, the synagogue and the rabbi emerged as important. Synagogues had long existed but they were primarily places of study and learning. The rabbi after all was a teacher, not a priest. The temple was not rebuilt, so the synagogue replaced many of its functions. Jerusalem remained the paramount holy city, but the cities of Hebron, Tiberias, and Safed claimed a special status as well.

Useful Terms

Useful Terms Crusades - Expeditions to free take control of the sacred places of Holy Lands; war or movement with religious overtones. Holy Land - Centered around Jerusalem, also referred to as Palestine, Levant, Canaan. Intifada - Armed Islamic uprising Israel - Many terms are used for Israel-Eretz Yisrael, Zion, Ha-aretz (the land). Jihad - Islamic religious crusade; also internal struggle for purification. ynagogue - Jewish house of worship, often with educational/meeting facilities; from the Greek for gathering. Temple - General term for place of worship for many religions, but essential to explaining history of Judaism. The historical temple in Jerusalem had deep cultural significance. Now often used as a synonym for synagogue. Zion - Physical and cultural place; ancestral center of Judaism; national homeland. Zionism - To repeat from last unit, political movement to create a Jewish state in Palestine.

War

War Israel and surrounding states immediately after indepencence Israel and surrounding states immediately after independence The result of the conflict was the dispersal of Palestinians who still lacked their own state. Meanwhile, the rise of Arab nationalism in the Middle East and North Africa continued to brood over the Israel situation, and directed much of its anger toward Jews and Israel, and continued to support the Palestinian cause. The most critical recent event was the 1967 War, known as the "Six Day War." During this war Israel fought against the combined forces of Egypt, Jordan, Syria, and Iraq, defeating them in a surprise attack. Many Israelis, on the eve of the war fearful for the very existence of their state, saw the hand of God at work. The victory was a sign of the special spiritual status of Jews, and a fulfillment of God's promise of a homeland for them. As a result of the war, Israel occupied much of the Sinai Peninsula, the Gaza Strip, the Golan Heights, and the entire eastern city of Jerusalem. This was the Old City, the home of the most holy sites of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. In l973 war broke out again, when Egypt attacked Israel. The war led to no clear resolution of hostilities but did lead to a treaty between Egypt and Israel in 1979. In 1982 Israel invaded Lebanon in the hopes of protecting its own northern border from attacks launched by Lebanon, but this did not resolve the situation either. Civil war continued in Lebanon, and Palestinians continued to demand the redress of their grievances. All the while Israelis continued to settle the territories that they had conquered. In 1987 Palestinians began popular and armed uprisings against the Israelis. Known as the Intifada the struggle continues today. This in brief is the background to attempts to resolve the politics of sacred places in Jerusalem.