Saga sálfræðinnar

7.3. Freud's theory of the human mind included three components, which in English are referred to as id, ego, and super-ego. What are the characteristics of each component?

- The id is present at birth and lives by the pleasure principle, contains everything inherited, operates at unconscious level and has no morality - The ego helps satisfy demands and lives by the reality principle, controls instincts of the id and is called the rational part of the mind. Develops shortly after the id. - The super-ego is the executive component of the mind, our moral compass. Develops through child's experiments, parental teaching, culture and so on.

5.9. Woodworth's textbook described the use of independent and dependent variables in psychology experiements. What did these terms mean?

- The independent variables, which are under the control of the experimenter, were viewed at the potential cause of the behaviour as measured by changes in the dependent variables.

4.16. When we view a scatterplot of two variables, what visual feature(s) of the data provide us with evidence about the strength of the correlation between them?

- The more noise that is present in the measurement in either of the variables the weaker any correlation will be

1.2. How do physiognomy and phrenology differ?

- The physiognomy based the factors on facial features, not the shape of clients head

3.3. What is introspection?

- The process of attempting to directly access one's own internal psychological processes, judgements, perceptions, or states.

6.2. Why was it important that the Hollingworths be allowed to publish the results of their study on caffeine irrespective of the outcome?

- The results made coca-cola reduce the caffeine and he found out that there was a correlation between his results and the sales data.

4.11. What sort of relationships did Cattell and Wissler find between performance on basic tests and Columbia University students' grades?

- The results were zero correlation values. That is, there was no predictive relationship between how students would do on any of Cattel's mental tests and their performance in college courses.

7.7. According to Adler, what role did early childhood experiences play in developing an individual's "style of life"?

- The style of life is reflected in the unity of an individual's way of thinking, feeling and acting. And early childhood experiences can affect our ways of thinking as we grow older.

4.8. What was the theory of recapitulation that was reflected in Hall's "genetic" psychology?

- The theory states that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny. That is, the evolutionary developments in one's animal ancestry are repeated in the development of the individual from conception through adolescence. Hall believed that recapitulation was indicated in both physiology and in psychology.

2.10. . If I stick my hands under a cold tap after being outside in freezing weather, why might it feel warm, and what does this tell us about our perception of temperature?

- The water might feel warm because it is warmer than the current state of the hands. The water might feel warmer that air of the same temperature because water is a better conductor of heat than the air. - This tells us that our perception of temperature is not absolute but depends on the loss or gain of heat to the body relevant to its current state.

1.7. How were mental processes illustrated in the Iliad?

- There were no direct references to mental processing in homeric works - Instead processes tend to be portraited in the form of dialog. Between characters and gods, characters and animals or even characters and their own bodies.

5.14. From an empiricst perspective, why would it be difficult for us to understand the mind of a species whose physiology is different to ours?

- They believed that all consciousness comes from experience not innate so that does not apply to the nature instinct of animals.

6.7. What sort of benefits did Gilbreth claim could result from "scientific management"?

- They were numerous and wide ranged: - increase output and wages and lowers cost. - eliminates waste - turns unskilled labor into skilled - provides a system of self-perpetuating welfare. - reduce the cost of living. - bridges the gap between the college trained and the apprenticeship trained worker. - forces capital and labor to cooperate and to promote industrial peace.

2.4. What method did Pierre Flourens use to investigate cortical localisation?

- Using animals, Flourens remoced brain tissue from those areas of the cortex claimed by the phrenologists to be responsible for certain behaviours

3.8. How did the three types of memory Ebbinghaus described (voluntary, involuntary, automatic) differ from one another?

- Voluntary memory: recalling something delibaretely - Involuntary memory: recalling something without intention - Automatic memory: the boundless domain of the effect of accumulated experience

3.9. Ebbinghaus pointed out that memory was limited. What does this mean?

- We are unable to remember everything because memory differs on the „attention and interest" associated with an experience.

2.5. Paul Broca treated a patient, Monsieur Leborgne, who was only able to say a single syllable, "tan". What did Broca find when examining Leborgne's brain at autopsy, and later in other patients with similar conditions?

- What Broca found was a hole in the cortex of the left frontal lobe. - Broca reasoned that this area in the frontal lobe was important for language - Broca's area, associated with the production of wpeech, but not the understanding of language.

1.12. How was physiognomy used to validate ethnic and racial stereotypes?

- With giving ethnic and racial facial features names with racist descriptions - Dæmi: „The sub-saharan African nose (nub-nose) = a nose of weakness and underdevelopment; such a shortened and flattened proboscis can not have made any legible mark on the records of the world's process"

3.11. Why did Wundt argue against the use of introspection for understanding conscious experience in longer and more complex tasks?

- Wundt argued that the introspection was not valid because the judgement task was too complex to be introspected, and the tactic would compromise the validity of the observer reports.

3.1. Apperception played an important role in Wundt's understanding of psychology. What is it?

- apperception is a general term for all mental processes in which a presentation is brought into connection with an already existent and systematized mental conception - in short, it is to perceive new experience in relation to past experience

3.2. Carl Stumpf described the phenomenon of tonal fusion. What does this involve?

- the common experience of hearing a single tone when two different tones where played together - he argued that the principal reason for this was the degree of consonance

4.15. Why was the invention of the correlation coefficient important for the development of research in individual differences psychology (e.g., in areas such as personality and intelligence)?

- Because it was used heavily in the study of individual differences and used heavily in non-experimental research.

5.11. What question was Woodworth trying to address in his 1901 study on the voluntary control of movement force?

- Is the force of a voluntary movement controlled directly, or only through the movement's extent?

2.3. From Descartes' dualist perspective, why was the brain (and, in particular, the pineal gland) important?

- He argued that the mind and body was seperate things so the body need the mind to function. He assumed that the pineal glands was the part where the mind interacted with the brain.

2.7. How did Helmholtz measure the speed of nerve conductance, and what did he discover?

- He worked with the severed leg of a frog, stimulating one end of the arrival of the impulses at the other end, as indicated by a twitch of the foot - he calculated that the impulse traveled at appriximately 90 feet per second.

7.9. What argument did Horney use to suggest that "penis envy" was a misguided idea?

- Horney argued that the envy resided instead in males in the form of womb envy

5.13. What is Lloyd Morgan's canon, and why did Washburn think it was useful in the study of non-human animals?

- Lloyd Morgan´s canon is "In no case may we interpret an action as the outcome of the exercise of a higher psychical faculty if it can be interpreted as the outcome of the exercise of one which stands lower in the psychological scale."

7.10. What effects did Horney claim that "womb envy" had on men's behaviour?

- Men unconsciously felt inferior and that they kept such sexual barriers in place so that they could maintain their illusory feeling of superiority over women

3.13. How did Donders' subtraction method work?

- One could measure the speed of certain mental problems by measuring reaction time and subtracting but the time required for the sensory.

7.2. What is repression?

- A defense mechanism as a way to cope - Waraing off anxiety by repressing any memory of the event to unconsciousness, so that the traumatic event is no longer accessible in consciousness.

4.13. What is a correlation?

- A measure of the strength of a relationship between two variables

1.3. What did "mesmerism", also known as "animal magnetism", involve?

- A mesmerist would use hypnosis to encourage changes in behaviour. - Mesmer believed that the fluids in the body were magnetized and that many conditions of physical and mental illness were caused by a misalignment of these fluids

1.1. How did a phrenologist make inferences about a person's personality, character, and intellects?

- A phrenologist would examine the shape of a clients head and, on various cranial measurements, would make pronouncements about individuals personality, abilities and intellects

3.12. Why did Bühler and Külpe think that having people complete simple tasks wasn't a suitable way to understand thinking?

- Because anybody could complete a simple task. They thought that by making the task a little bit more challenging they would see greater results.

4.5. On what basis were Mary Whiton Calkins and Christine Ladd-Franklin denied a PhD degrees?

- Because they were women, women in academics were frowned upon in those times.

6.12. Why did Münsterberg think that knowledge of perceptual illusions and memory errors would be useful in a legal context?

- Because when people give reports in court or in a interview they could forget some things or say something that is not true but they think it is true and that could change the whole part of the case, and determine who is innocent and guilty.

2.2. What was the experiment Descartes used to show that each eye projected its own, inverted image of the world to the retina?

- By setting a screen in place of the retina in a bulls excised eyeball. The image that appeared on the screen was a smaller, inverted copy of the screen in front of the bulls eye.

3.6. In addition to founding the first psychology laboratory, what important role did Wundt play in spreading psychological research throughout and beyond Germany?

- By supervising hundreds of doctoral students and other researchers from diverse logations, these students were responsible for founding other labs in Germany and around the world. - His work was important too

1.10. Cutbush, a late 18th-century medical doctor, wrote his dissertation on the topic of insanity. What reasons did he give for doing so?

- Catbush identifies mental disorders as a vitally important, yet understudied area of medicine that is vital to human wellbeing and happiness.

4.12. How did Cattell's editorship of Science influence the position of psychology within the scientific world?

- Cattel gace psychology scientific cisibility at a time when it was still struggling to establish itself in the community of sciences. - He was receptive toward publishing psychological research and enhanced the visibility/perception of psychology as a science.

3.10. Who was "Clever Hans", and why was he famous?

- Clever Hans was a horse that was supposedly able to do lots of difficult mathematical tasks, but it was later discovered that he was answering correctly based on the reaction of the people watching him

4.4. What characteristics of thought did James highlight?

- Conciousness, sensation, perception, association, memory, attention, imagination, reasoning, emotinos and will.

5.1. How do the Darwinian and Lamarckian perspectives on how species change differ?

- Darwin noticed that within any population of organism there were always individuals with different traits. Unlike Lamarck, who said that traits could develop and change during an animals lifetime - Darwin believed that individuals were simply born with different traits and that these differences were mostly random

5.2. In Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, what role does the environment play in species change?

- Darwin recognized that animals and plants always competed for limited resources, competition that threatened their survival. Conditions could change at any moment due to climate changes, introductino of a predator or another competitor, disease, and so forth. Animals developed and adapted to the environment for a long period of time and passed it on the next generation.

5.10. In what way was evolutionary theory important to the functionalist "school" of psychology?

- Darwin's evolutionary theory provided an explanation for why species, and individuals within species, differ. It provided a framework for understanding the importance of individual differences; for investigating the development of cognitive abilities and it provided a lens for viewing the existence of mental phenomena.

1.6. What was the major difference between empiricst (e.g., Locke, Berkeley) and realist (e.g., Reid) perspectives?

- Empiricism is more logical, they need scientific proofs - Realism is living by facts without prejudice

2.9. What were the three elements of the sensation of touch that Weber identified?

- First, awareness of what part of the body is experiencing touch - Second, we have an awareness of the pressure of the touch - Third, we have a sense of the temperature of a touch

7.1. According to Freud, in what way was a "neurosis" like an abscess?

- Freud said that many neurosis resulted from inappropriate resolutions of convicts during specific stages of development

7.4. Why did Freud use techniques such as free association, hypnosis, and dream analysis?

- Freud used these techniques to try to uncover problems that were producing neurotic symptoms. To get to the unconscious mind.

5.7. . In Angell's view, what three characteristics did functionalist psychology possess?

- Functionalism studies mental operations not mental elements - Functionalism seeks to identify the fundamental utilities of consciousness, that is the ways in which consciousness helps the organism adapt to the environment - Functionalism is a psychophysical psychology, acknowledging the signiface of the mind-body relationship.

6.4. What sort of contributions did Walter D. Scott make to early work in the psychology of advertising?

- He advised companies to take on the ´´direct command´´He also recommended that they use return coupons and advocate the use of illustrations. He also said they should consider the circulation and tone the advertisement portrays to the audience.

1.5. Locke, an early empiricist philosopher, denied the knowledge of all innate ideas. Where did he think our knowledge came from?

- He believed all knowledge came from sensation. - Tabula rasa

6.1. The Hollingworths' work for Coca-cola was conducted as a double-blind study. What does this mean?

- He conducted the research under conditions designed to prevent bias. That means that neither the participants themselves nor the researchers who were measuring their performace knew which condition the participant was assigned to. - A double blind study is one in which neither the participants nor the experimenter knowledge who is receiving a particular treatment. This procedure is used to prevent bias in research results.

3.5. What did Ebbinghaus discover about the relationship between time and forgetting?

- He discovered the forgetting-curve which showes that most forgetting occurs in the first few hours after learning and then levels off at a slower forgetting rate

1.4. What was the assumption underlying Phineas Quimby's "mind cure" or mental healing movement?

- He helped his clients reach a spiritual healing by helping them see how irrationality and negative thinking affected their health. - He believed some diseases had entirely mental causes and other were exacerbated by mental condition. - Shown the way of „right thinking", individuals were fully capable of curing themselves

6.3. What was the main focus of Lightner Witmer's "psychology clinic" (i.e., what sort of problems did he mostly treat)?

- He mainly focused on mental development in children, using statistical and clinical methods. He treated children with various educational problems such as deficiency in the English language

1.11. In Cutbush's view of mental illness, what is the relationship between its remote and proximal causes?

- He proposed that abnormal brain activity is the proximate cause for mental illness. - But series of remote causes in turn results in the proximate cause - Remote causes can be feelings, drug or alcohol abuse, or even studying to much etc.

7.5. How did Freud think that conflicts at various developmental stages led to neuroses?

- He thought that the fixations that occur when an issue or conflict in a psychosexual stage remains unresolved, leaving the individual focused on this stage and unable to move onto the next one.

7.6. In what way was Adler's view of the id different from Freud's initial theory?

- He viewed the id as a more generalized life force and not primarily sexual

5.4. The main research method used by Titchener was introspection. Why did he use other tools (e.g., the laryngograph in his experiment on reading-while-articulating) in addition to collecting data from introspective reports?

- He wanted to make sure that there was in fact no movement of the larynx when subjects were being asked to silently read. The laryngograph was able to monitor movement of the larynx.

6.14. Why didn't Münsterberg continue to work in legal/forensic psychology after the publication of On the Witness Stand?

- He was convinced that he did what he could in this field after the controversial murder trial in Chicago which a innocent man was executed. He had confessed but under duress and deception, and that represented false confession. Munsterberg did everything he could to convince the judge and the jury that he was innocent but the jury and the judges questioned what special expertise psychology had in decision made in the courtroom.

6.11. In class, we replicated an exercise Münsterberg completed with his students. What was he trying to demonstrate with it, and how?

- He was trying to demonstrate that what we see does not reflect what we remember. And he made a exercise (similar to what we did in class). The exercise involved some easy tasks and also more difficult.

2.11. What was Weber's key insight about the definition of a "just noticeable difference"?

- His key insight was the amount of change necessary for the subject to perceive a stimulus as different (heavier, brighter, louder, sweeter). - The point at which the subject can reliably discriminate between two stimuli.

4.9. What conclusions did Hall derive from his study of children's knowledge upon entering school?

- His main conclusion was that one cannot really assume that all children have any particular knowledge when starting school. Different children learn different things depending on the environment they have been brought up in and that is in advantage of both students and teachers to determine what the children are and arent familiar with. (kids that entered kindergarden were smarter).

2.6. What method did Fritsch and Hitzig use to infer motor specificity in dogs' cortices (i.e., that certain parts of their brains controlled certain muscles)?

- Hitzig and Fritsch used very mild electric current to stimulate various points on the cortical surface. - Stimulation in one area produced movement in the front leg; stimulation in another area resulted in the hind leg - this showed that a number of different voluntary movements occured due to the stimulation

1.9. Why did Hume suggest that we could conceive of concepts like a "virtuous horse", even if we have never directly experienced them?

- Hume said that if we know what a horse is, and we know what virtue is, then we can easily combine the two concepts.

6.9. In Terman's adaptation of Binet and Simon's test, how was the "intelligence quotient" calculated?

- IQ = (Mental age / biological age) x 100 - Mental age: if the child irrespective of whether its actual age is 6 or 15, performs as well as the average 12-year old then the mental age would be 12. - Biological age: it is the actual age of the child. Now days it is calculated by compering one's performance to a reference group from the same age. (for adults to)

2.1. Which of Hippocrates' observations indicates early evidence of contralateral motor organisation in the human brain?

- If the incision is made in the left temple, spasm seices the right side (of the body), and if the incision is made in the right temple, spasm seices the left side (of the body)

5.3. From a Darwinian perspective, how do intra- and inter-sexual selection processes work?

- Intrasexual selection: competition between members of the same sex (usually male) for access for mating - Intersexual: Where members of one sex (usually female) choose members of the oppostie sex.

6.13. According to Münsterberg, how was suggestion relevant to the proceedings in a court room?

- It is relevant to the proceedings in a court room because sometimes we tell things that are completely wrong even though we have no reason to lie. That happens often in a court room because people are stressed or under weird circumstances.

3.4. How do simple, go-no/go, and choice response tasks differ from one another?

- It is similar to the detection tasks except, rather than responding to any stimuli there is, the person that is completing the task needs to a) respond to a selective sitmuli, b) respond to some of them but withhold the response to others.

5.15. Darwin suggested that differences between the mental faculties of humans and other animals were differences in degree, rather than in kind (i.e., quantitative, rather than qualitative differences). What does this mean?

- It means that animals are also able to sense emotions and faculties such as love, memory, attention ,curiosity, imitation reason etc. but at much lower degree than humans and less quantitative.

3.7. What was Wundt's tridimensional theory of feeling?

- It placed all emotions on three seperate continua: pleasant-unpleasant, tension-relaxation, excitement-depression

4.1. What did William James mean in saying that "habit is... the enormous fly-wheel of society"?

- It suggests that with habit we can function as a society. It alone keeps us all within the bounds of ordinance.

6.5. What was involved in the the "direct command" method Scott suggested?

- It was often a headline of an ad like: „get the promotion you deserve". Scott suggested that these statemend were effective because they suggested a particular action without arousing competing actions.

4.6. Why was G. Stanley Hall's founding of the American Journal of Psychology an important event in the history of psychology in the U.S., and what sort of content did the journal contain?

- It was teh firs psychology journal in America. - With APA he began the child study movement, a nationwide effort to use psychology to enhance education, and started the first journal of applied psychology and the first journal of religious psychology

4.3. What relationship did James theorise between physiological (bodily) states and the psychological experience of emotions?

- James argued that the bodily changes result from the perception of the situation, and that recognition of the bodily changes subsequently produces the subjective feeling we label emotion.

7.12. How do the Popperian and Kuhnian views of scientific progress differ from one another?

- Kuhn: considered problem solving to be a central elimant of science - Popper: held the view that science can only progress through trial and error and the theory must be investigated to ensure that its empirical rather than rhetorical.

1.13. What were the three parts of the soul that Plato described?

- On the one hand we have what's refered to as the appetitive part of the soul, associated with basic desires and appetites - On the other hand we have reason - The third part of the soul is spirit. Spirit is responsible for things like ambition, and the desire to obtain honour and recognition from others.

7.11. What are the three ways that psychoanalytic theory can be used to analyse literary works?

- One can analyze the conscious and unconscious motivation of the characters depicted in the work - One can analyze the text as a reflection of the psychology of the author - One can analyze the actions of the audience to the work

2.12. Fechner's law, or the Weber-Fechner law, is p = k ln(S/S_0). Other than ln, which is the natural logarithm, and k, which is a constant that varies from person to person and from one modality to another, what is each of these other variables?

- P is percieved intensity - S is objective intensity (the strength of the stimuly we are receiving) - S_0 is the value as the same stimulus we are unable to detect

4.2. In what way did James think the formation of habits was analogous to changes in physical geography?

- Paths became more anymore beaten down, eventually creating paths that are simpler, easier to traverse. The first steps are always the hardest, but after repetition it gets easier. (Fly-wheel takes time to start moving but ones it's going it's hard to stop).

7.8. Jung decided that the unconscious mind was split into two parts: personal and collective. What characteristics did he think each possessed?

- Personal unconscious contained the repressed wishes, experiences, motives of the individual - Collective unconscious contained archetypes, inherited behavioral tendencies.

2.15. How do Helmholtz's place theory of pitch perception and Rutherford's frequency theory differ?

- Place theory states the perception of pitch is associated with vibrations of the basilar membrane, while the frequency of pitch is associated with the frequency at which the entire basilar membrane vibrates

4.14. What do positive, negative, and zero (or near-zero) correlations imply about the relationships between two variables?

- Positvie implies that there is a strong connection between variables. - Negative implies weak connections between the variables - Zero implies no systematic relatinoship between variables - when one variable goes up the other one goes down

3.14. What sort of problems undermine the effective application of the subtraction method?

- Processing times are not independent - Adding or removing some stages can affect the length of the others - For an example if you dont eat breakfast you will be slower doing other things like work, because of hunger. - The calculation doesnt work if two or more of the things youre doing overlap in time, eg. if youre reading the paper wile eating breakfast.

2.8. Weber and Fechner worked in an area called psychophysics. What exactly is psychophysics?

- Psychophysics is about measuring the relationships between stimuli in the external world (physical events) and the person's perception and experience of those stimuli (psychological events).

5.6. According to Titchener, what four attributes did sensations have?

- Quality (cold, red, loud, salty) - Intensity (brighter or dimmer, louder or softer) - Clearness (distinct vs indistinct, dominant vs subordinate) - Duration (time course of the sensatino)

6.8. In creating their intelligence test, Binet and Simon wished to separate prior learning from the ability to learn. Why was this separation important for their purposes?

- Rather than focusing on learned information such as math and reading, Binet concentrated on other mental abilities such as attention and memory

1.8. Aristotle suggested that there was a distinction between immediate memory and recall. What was it?

- Recollection requires that the thing being recollected is not currently foremost in the mind.

3.15. What are serial and parallel processes?

- Serial allows only one object at a time to be processed, but parallel assumes that various objects are processed stimultaneously. - Mental processes are not organised serially, that is, in succession, one after other. But occur simultaneously, which we refer as parallel processing.

6.6. What were the three types of management GIlbreth identified, and how were they related?

- She intends the tree types of management to be viewed as related to one another in a sort of developmental way. Traditional management is the more infantile form, gradually progressing to transitory management in its adolescence, and finally to fully grown scientific management. 1) Traditional: involved a clear and simple hierarchy in which each individual has one person with direct authority over and responsibility for them. At the top of this hierarchy would be a single individual. Who generally directs the operation of the organization. 2) Transitory: a form of management that was in the process of moving from the traditional to the scientific type. It may resemble traditional management more or less but the deliberate adoption of some of the principles of scientific management. 3) Scientific: she defines it in opposition to earlier approaches to management in its use of "known" formulated, and applied laws. Whereas other forms of management may be very systematic, Gilbreth argued that thee systems were based on ad hoc principles or traditions that have no clear justification. Scientific management is to systematically assess the effectiveness of the resulting methods.

5.12. Washburn described both advantages and disadvantages to the study of non-human (vs. human) animals. What were they?

- She talked about ideas based on experience, that is experience may be wholly different. Also there is no language to express conscious thoughts with non-human. And then she talked about that non-human animals lack "self-consciousness and posing" of humans.

7.13. According to the extreme social constructivist view, what influences whether scientific theories are generally accepted or rejected?

- Some theories are preferred over others as a result of social forces. Political expediency, social prestige, attractiveness of proponents.

5.8. What did Woodworth's stimulus--organism--response (S--O--R) framework for psychology involve?

- Stimulus - organism - response. That we have to acknowledge variables that are emotions, motives, personality traits, ambitions when looking at a response to stimulus.

2.13. Johannes Müller is known for discovering the law of specific nerve energies. What did this law imply?

- That each sensory nerve carries only one kind of sensory information, regardless of how the nerve is stimulated.

4.10. Cattell thought simple mental tests could provide information about people's aptitudes in more complex areas. What was the logic behind this idea?

- That people who responded better to the tests showed greater potential for learning. In five of his tests he used sensory methods and if all knowledge comes via senses, then it was reasonable to assume that the most capable people would be those with the most accurate senses. These tests give a useful indication of the progress, condition and aptitudes of the pupil.

2.14. What are the differences between the Young-Maxwell-Helmholtz theory of colour vision, and Hering's opponent processes theory?

- The Young-Helmholts theory is based on cells that translate lightwaves into three colours, blue, green and red. These colours can then be combined to create all visable colours - The Opponent-process theory states that the cone photoreceptors are linked together to form three opposing colour pairs: blue/yellow, red/green and black/white

5.5. How did the focus of functionalist psychologists differ from that of Titchener's structuralism?

- The funtionalist apporach placed strong ephasis on the causes of behaviour and on the need to use objjective measurements to test theories but structuralism was essentially involved attempting to understand the elements of conscious experience

4.7. What was the "Child Study Movement" in which Hall was involved?

- The goal of the movement was to discover allt that could be known about the child, such as sensory capabilities, physical characteristics, humor, play, memory, religious ideas and attention span. And with this movement education would be based on science. The child study movement was never successful in fulfilling its grandiose ambitions.