SAT: GRAMMAR

Chapter 4: Shorter is better

1) Shortest answer is correct 2) Never use two synonyms to describe something when you can use one. 3) Sometimes you need to look at the non-underlined part 4) In passive voice, subject and object are flipped x does y becomes y is done by x The word by with a form of to be Active: William wrote Hamlet Passive: Hamlet was written by William Go for active answers

Chapter 18: Dangling and Misplaced Modifiers

As a rule, modifiers should be placed as close to the nouns, pronouns, or phrases they modify. When modifiers are separated from the words or phrases they modify the result is often unclear and sometimes completely absurd. Although modification errors are of course presented in the context of passages, they involve only the sentences in which they appear; It is not necessary to consider the surrounding information. There are two types of modification errors: 1) Dangling modifiers 2) Misplaced Modifiers *Danging Modifiers* Sentences that include dangling modifiers are characterized by an introductory phrase that describes (modifies) the subject but does not name it. This phrase is always followed by a comma. In addition, introductory phrases often -but not always- begin with -ing words (participles) Whenever a sentence contains an introductory phrase, the subject must appear immediately after the comma. If the subject does not appear in that place, the modifier is dangling, and the sentence is incorrect. Incorrect: Stretching from one end of the city to the other, the efficiency of the *tram system* often surprises both tourists and city residents. The above sentence contains an introductory phrase begins with an -ing word (Stretching from one end of the city to the other) and does not name the subject - it does not tell us what stretches from one end of the city to the other. We must therefore ask ourselves what stretches from one end of the city to the other. When we look at the rest of the sentence, it is clear that this description can only refer to the tram system. The words the tram system does not appear immediately after the comma, so the modifier is dangling. In order to fix the sentence, we must place the tram system (the subject) immediately after the comma. Correct: Stretching from one end of the city to the other, *the tram system* often surprises both tourists and city residents with its efficiency. ---- Some modifiers will not begin with -ing words. Incorrect: An elementary school teacher from Arkansas, increases funding and support for public libraries were what Bessie Boehm Moore advocated for. Who was the elementary school teacher? Bessie Boehm Moore, not increased funding and support. So Bessie Boehm Moore, the subject, must be placed and support for public libraries. CORRECT: An elementary school teacher from Arkansas, Bessie Boehm Moore advocated for increased funding and support for public libraries. Watch out for the possessive version of the subject placed immediately after the introductory phrase. In general, any possessive noun placed immediately after an introductory phrase will be incorrect. Incorrect: An elementary school teacher from Arkansas, Bessie Boehm Moore's goal was to achieve increased funding and support for public libraries. Who is the elementary school teacher from Arkansas? Bessie Boehm Moore, not her goal. Correct: An elementary school teacher from Arkansas, Bessie Boehm Moore had the goal of achieving increased funding and support for public libraries It is, however, acceptable to begin the main clause with a modifier describing the subject because that description is considered part of the complete subject. Correct: A native of Arkansas, *elementary school teacher* Bessie Boehm Moore had the goal of achieving increased funding and support for public libraries. Important: When fixing dangling modifiers, focus on identifying who or what the introductory phrase refers to - that is, the subject. The correct answer must b place th subject right after the introductory material. --- *Misplaced Modifiers* Misplaced Modifiers can occur anywhere in a sentence. They also involve modifiers separated from the words/phrases they are intended to modify, and they often result in unintentionally ridiculous statements. Incorrect: An allergic reaction is usually characterized by symptoms that appear at most two hours after a person has consumed a particular food such as itching or swelling. This sentence indicates that itching and swelling are particular types of food. Clearly, however, they are symptoms of an allergic reaction. To correct the sentence, we must make that fact clear. Any rearrangement of the sentence that accomplishes this goal is acceptable. Correct: An allergic reaction is usually characterized by symptoms such as itching and swelling that appear at most two hours after a person has consumed a particular food. Correct: An allergic reaction usually begins at most two after a person has consumed a particular food and is characterized by itching and swelling. Important: Which must refer to the noun that comes before it. If it does not, a misplaced modifier is created. For example, the first version of the sentence below implies that the contemporary environmental movement caused the decline in bird populations, when pesticides were clearly the culprit. Incorrect: Marine biologist Rachel Carson's 1962 book Silent Spring revealed the dangers of pesticides and initiated the contemporary environmental movement, which had caused a sharp decline in bird populations. Correct: The contemporary environmental movement was initiated when marine biologist Rachel Carson's 1962 book Silent Spring revealed the dangers of pesticides, which had caused a sharp decline in bird population. --- Information at the beginning of the parentheses must refer to the noun that immediately precedes it.

Chapter 12: Question Marks

Direct Speech: Does exactly what its name implies: it asks questions directly. Note that in this construction, the entire statement consists of the question itself. Correct: When Orson Welles' War of the Worlds was broadcast as a radio play in 1938, some listeners asked themselves the following question: *is this a piece of theater or a live broadcast?* Although the question here is clearly linked to the first part of the sentence in terms of meaning, it is a separate element that makes sense grammatically on its own. A question mark is therefore necessary. In *Indirect Speech*, however, a question is embedded in a longer sentence, and no question mark is used. Very often, *not always*, this construction involves clauses begun by whether or if. Correct: When Orson Welles' War of the Worlds was broadcast as a radio play in 1938, some listeners could not tell *whether/if it was a piece of theater or a live broadcast* In this case, the section of the sentence that expresses uncertainty cannot be detached from the larger sentence. As a result, it is a statement rather than a question, and period is needed. If you spend time in a room with people who are yawning, it is almost certain that you will eventually join them. The only question is whether you'll begin to yawn immediately or *1) or manage to resist for a minute or two?* A) NO CHANGE B) and manage to resist for a minute or two? C) or manage to resist for a minute or two. D) and manage to resist for a minute or two. Because the underlined portion is embedded in a longer sentence, a period rather than a question mark is required. A) and B) can thus be eliminated. D) Is also correct because it creates an illogical meaning: someone who begin(s) to yawn is immediately cannot also resist for a minute or two. So C) is the answer.

Chapter 15: Verbs: Agreement and Tense

That SAT contains two types of verb questions: 1) Subject-verb agreement 2) Verb tense Agreement answers the question "singular or plural". Verbs must agree with their subjects: singular subjects must take singular verbs, and plural subjects take plural verbs Tense answers the question "when"? It indicates past, present, or future. Let's consider the following sentence *The feathers* of the black-backed woodpecker *has* evolved to blend in with charred trees so that they are invisible to predators lurking in the forest. This sentence contains a disagreement between the subject and verb because the subject (feathers) is plural and the verb (has) is singular. The singular noun woodpecker, which appears immediately before the verb, is part of the prepositional phrase "of" the black-backed woodpecker and has no effect on the number of the verb. In order to correct the sentence, we must use the plural verb "have" rather than the singular verb has. *Sometimes the key is to work backwards* 1) Look at the answer choices 2) Identify the subject, and determine whether it is singular or plural. *When an underlined verb is located close to the beginning of a sentence, the subject is typically right at the beginning of the sentence. 3) Find the verb that agrees with the subject. *Subject-Verb Agreement* *Singular verbs end in -s (ex: it makes)* * Plural verbs do not end in -s (ex: they make)* Note that this is the opposite of nouns, which take an -s in the plural and no -s in the singular. For example, the book is singular, the books is plural; however he speaks is singular, and they speak is plural. Compound Subject: The student and the teacher speak. *To be:* Present: Singular = is plural = are Past: Singular = was plural = were *To have:* Present: Singular: has plural: have Past: Singular: had plural: had *Draw a line between non-essential clauses* Correct: Green mint, which is a popular drink in many Middle Eastern countries, is said to have many health benefits. Occasionally, a disagreement may also occur with a non-essential clause: Correct: Green tea with mint, which is popular drink in many Middle Eastern countries, is said to have many health benefits. Correct: A drink that is popular in many Middle Eastern countries is green tea with mint, said to have many health benefits. Correct: The black widow spider has striking red hourglass markings that make it one of the most recognizable spiders in the United States. Prepositional phrases are sometimes inserted between subjects and verbs to distract from disagreements. Cross out all prepositions. Correct: The patent for the first mechanical pencils was granted to Sampson Morgan and John Hawkins in England during the early nineteenth century. Sometimes the preposition can be the second word in a sentence. Correct: Radioactivity is generally not considered harmful when people are exposed to its low levels for brief periods, but less clear *are its long term effects* *Compound Subject:* A compound subject consists of two nouns - singular or plural - joined by the word and. Compound subjects are plural and take plural verbs. Incorrect: A park and a lake *runs* along the Loup Canal, a hydroelectric and irrigation canal located in eastern Nebraska. Incorrect: Along the Loup Canal *runs* a park and a lake, both of which are owned and operated by the Loup Power district. *There is, The was, There has been* = go with singular nouns *There are, There were, There have been* = go with plural nouns,. *Gerunds = Singular* *Gerunds (-ing words) take singular verbs when they act as subjects. *Collective nouns = Singular* Singular nouns that refer to a group of people. * That, what, or whether as a subject = singular* That = the fact that;whether/what = the question of whether. what. *Indefinite Pronouns* Refer to unspecified nouns. Indicate amounts and can take either singular or plural verbs. Usually followed by prepositional phrases. When (n)either and (n)or are paired with two nouns, the verb must agree with the noun before the verb. Correct: Neither Amy Tan nor *Maxine Hong Kingston* was raised in a literary family, but both became avid readers while growing up near San Francisco. When (n)either is not paired with (n)or and is used with two singular nouns, a singular verb should also be used. In this usage, neither is short for neither one, and one is singular by definition. Correct: Both Amy Tan and Maxine Hong Kingston* became avid readers while growing up near San Francisco, but neither was raised in a literary family. When some, more, most, and all are paired with of + singular (pro)noun, they take singular verbs. Correct: The state of Florida was the site of some of the first European settlements in North America, yet most of it was unpopulated until the nineteenth century. However when these pronouns appear alone or are paired with of + plural (pro)noun, they take plural verbs. Correct: Although members of the Algonquin tribe obtained food primarily through hunting and fishing, some(of them) were also farmers who raised corn, squash, and beans. Unless it is necessary, a verb should be placed parallel to other verbs. In addition, when a sentence includes two verbs in different tenses, each item must include a separate conjugated verb corresponding to the appropriate tense. *Present Progressive* Is/are + -ing, ex: she is throwing, they are reading, it is growing. It can be considered parallel to a verb in the simply (no -ing) present. Correct: Engines powered by ions can travel great distances and *are* currently *carrying* satellites beyond our solar system. *Present Perfect* Present Perfect = has/have + past participle, ex: has walked, has gone, have thrown Usually formed by adding -ed to the verb. Used for actions that began in the past and are continuing into the present Most important irregular verb = to be, which becomes has been and have been. For, since, over and during usually signal the *present perfect.* Correct: Since around 500 B.C people have cultivated tomatoes in Mesoamerica It describes an action that has occurred recently. * Simple Past* = verb + -ed, ex: talked, played, painted Describes a finished action in the past Usually identical to past participle Irregular verb = to be, which becomes was (sing) and were Dates and time periods usually signal simple past. *Past perfect* = Had + past participle, ex: he had gone, it had rung, they had insised When a sentence refers to two finished actions, the past perfect is used to describe only the action that happened first. The phrase "by the time" signals past perfect. *Past forms: Irregular Verbs* Irregular past participles often end in -en, -own, -ung, or -unk. Irregular simple past forms often end in -ew, -ang, or -ank *Would vs will* Future = will + verb Describes actions that have not occurred. Conditional = would + verb Would is used to describe hypothetical situations: one that could occur but have not occurred. Would + verb can also refer to a recurring action in the past. Finally, would can be used to refer to an action that, from the perspective of the past, has not yet occurred - even if, from today's perspective, that action occurred long ago. *Would have vs Will have* Answers with would have and will have usually incorrect. *Past Conditional* = would have + verb Would have is used to describe an action that could have happened, but that did not actually occur. Would have + past participle should not appear in a clause begun by if, although this construction can appear in the same sentence. *Future perfect = will have + verb* Will have is used to describe a future action that will be finished before a second action occurs. Often associated with the phrase "by the time*

Chapter 16: Word Pairs and Comparisons

There are two main types of comparisons; those that indicate similarity and those that indicate difference. Both kinds of comparisons can be formed using word pairs listed below. These words must always appear together; they cannot be mixed and matched with other. *As..as* As..as is used to indicate that two people or things are equal. Incorrect: Among pioneers of modern dance, Isadora Duncan is as renowned a dancer and choreographer than Martha Graham. Correct: Among pioneers of modern dance, Isadora Duncan is as renowned a dancer and choreographer as Martha Graham. *Not only..but(also)* Saying that something is not only x but (also) y means that it is x as well as y. Incorrect. Martha Graham was not only a great dancer she was (also) a great choreographer. Correct: Martha Graham was not only a great dancer but she was also a great choreographer. *More/-ER...than,Less...than* Incorrect: Measuring 25 feet, a python named Medusa is longer as any other snake in the world. Correct: Measuring 25 feet, a python named Medusa is longer than any other snake in the world. *(N)either...(n)or Incorrect: In the United States, neither Nikolai Tesla or James Joule is as famous as Thomas Edison Correct: In the United States, neither Nikolai nor James Joule is as famous as Thomas Edison. ( Neither goes with Nor and Either with or) *Faulty Comparison* Always use "Than" for comparisons. Also, compare people to people and things to things. *Singular Faulty Comparisons* Incorrect: Throughout the 1950s, the music of composer Charles Ives was far less popular among audiences in the United States than John Philip Sousa. In the above sentence, music(thing) is being compared to John Philip Sousa (person). In order to make correct with must compare music to music. Correct: Throughout the 1950s, Charles Ives's music was far less popular among audiences in the United States than John Philip Sousa's music. Correct: Throughout the 1950s, Charles Ives's music was far less popular among audiences in the United States than the music John Philip Sousa's music. A singular noun can also be replaced with the phrase "that of" Correct: Throughout the 1950s, Charles Ive's music was far less popular among audiences in the United States than that of John Philip *Plural Faulty Comparisons* Plural faulty comparisons can also be fixed either with nouns or with the phrase "those of" Incorrect: Although birds are not generally known for their intelligence, recent finding have established that parrots often possess skills similar to human toddlers. Correct: Although birds are not generally known for their intelligence, recent finding have established that parrots often possess skills similar to the skills of human toddlers. Correct: Although birds are not generally known for their intelligence, recent finding have established that parrots often possess skills similar to those of human toddlers. (Those of = the skills of) Alternatively, "that of" may be incorrectly used to refer to a plural noun. Incorrect: Although birds are not generally known for their intelligence, recent finding have established that parrots often possess skills similar to human toddlers. Incorrect: Although birds are not generally known for their intelligence, recent finding have established that parrots often possess skills similar to that of human toddlers. Correct: Although birds are not generally known for their intelligence, recent finding have established that parrots often possess skills similar to those of human toddlers. "Those of" may also be incorrectly used to refer to a singular noun. Incorrect: Although birds are not generally known for their intelligence, recent finding have established that parrots often possess a level of understanding *similar to those of* human toddlers. Incorrect: Although birds are not generally known for their intelligence, recent finding have established that parrots often possess a level of understanding similar to those of human toddlers. Correct: Although birds are not generally known for their intelligence, recent finding have established that parrots often possess a level of understanding similar to that of human toddlers. Furthermore, when two things are compared, they must be the same type of thing. Otherwise, a faulty comparison is created. Incorrect: Unlike a train, the length of a tram is usually limited to one or two cars, which may run either on train tracks or directly on the streets. Even though both train and length are things, they are not equivalent. We can either compare a train a train or a length to a length, but we cannot compare a train to a length. Correct: Unlike the length of a train, the length of a tram is usually limited to one or two cars, which may run either on train tracks or directly on the streets. Correct: Unlike that of a train, the length of a tram is usually limited to one or two cars, which may run either on train tracks or directly on the streets. (That of = the length of) *Comparing Amounts: Fewer vs. Less, Many vs Much) Fewer and many refer to things that are *quantifiable* - things that can be counted. They are followed by *plural nouns* Less and much refer to things that are *not quantifiable* - things that cannot be counted. They are followed by singular nouns. *Fewer Vs. less* Incorrect: Because Antarctica is characterized by extreme temperatures and harsh living conditions, it supports less *animal* species than any other continent. does. Correct: Because Antarctica is characterized by extreme temperatures and harsh living conditions, it supports fewer *animal* species than any other continent. does. (Animal species is plural and can be counted, so fewer should be used.) Incorrect: Because Antarctica is characterized by extreme temperatures and harsh living conditions, it supports fewer *animal* life than any other continent. does. Correct: Because Antarctica is characterized by extreme temperatures and harsh living conditions, it supports less *animal* life than any other continent. does. Animal life is singular and cannot be counted, so less should be used. *Many vs. Much* Incorrect: Despite blazing heat threats from predators, *much* more types of animals inhabit the African savannah than inhabit other, more moderate environments. Correct: Despite blazing heat threats from predators, *many* more types of animals inhabit the African savannah than inhabit other, more moderate environments. Types of animals is plural and can be counted, so "many" should be used. Incorrect: With over 1,100 animal species of mammals and over 2,600 species of bird, Africa hosts *many* more animal life than any other continent does. Correct: With over 1,100 animal species of mammals and over 2,600 species of bird, Africa hosts *much* more animal life than any other continent does. Animal life is singular and cannot be counted, so much should be used. Fewer and Many = Plural Less and Much = Singular

Chapter 13: Apostrophes: Plural vs Possessive

To form the plural of a noun, add -s. When a singular noun ends in -s, add -es. Do not ad an apostrophe. Correct: The *birds* are flying= More than one bird is flying Correct: The *businesses* are open= More than one business is open. To form the possessive of a singular noun, a apostrophe + -s, even for nouns whose singular ends in -s. Correct: The *bird's* wings are red = The wings of the bird are red. Correct: The *business's* new policy is new = The policy of the business is new. To form the possessive of a plural noun, add an apostrophe after the -s or -es Correct: The *birds'* wings are red= The wings of the birds are red Correct: The *businesses'* policies are new = The policies of the business are new. Some nouns are irregular, that is, their plural forms are not formed by adding -s to their singular forms *Singular* Child Fish Foot Mouse Person (Wo)man *Plural* Children Fish Feet Mice People (Wo)men To form the possessive of a singular irregular noun, ad apostrophe + -s, just as you would for a singular regular noun Correct: The *mouse's* whiskers= The whiskers of the mouse Correct: The *woman's* books= The books belonging to the woman The form the possessive of a plural irregular noun, also add apostrophe + -s. Correct: The *mice's* whiskers= The whiskers of the mice Correct: The *women's* books= The books belonging to the women Note that because the plural forms of these nouns are already different from the singular forms, the identical placement of the apostrophe + -s, does not create confusion Contraction with Verb: The construction -s + apostrophe is also used to form a *contraction* between a noun and the verb *is* or *has*. This usage is not a major focus of the SAT, but you should have a basic understanding of it. Correct: The *newspaper's* distributed nationally = The newspaper is distribute nationally. Correct: The *manager's* requested a report= The manager *has* requested a report. An artists' colony is a place where creative 1) *practitioner's* live and interact with one another. Colonies often select their artists through an application process, and residencies range from a few weeks to over a year. Since colonies such as MacDowell and Yaddo were founded in early 20th century, they have exhibited hundred of 2)*artist's works* and provided important spaces for collaboration and experimentation. 1) A) NO CHANGE B) practitioners C) Practitioners' D) practitioner's 2) A) NO CHANGE B) artists works C) artist's work's D) artist's works *SHORTCUT: A noun followed by another noun should contain an apostrophe.* When you think about it, it is only logical because a noun can only possess another noun. For example, an apostrophe is require for the phrase *researchers' results* because researchers' is followed by another noun, results. On the other hand, this phrase *researchers believe* should have no apostrophe because believe is a verb. *Number One Answer:* The word after practitioner's is live, which is a verb rather than a noun. A noun cannot possess a verb, so no apostrophe should be used. So B) is the answer. *Number Two Answer:* Artists is followed by another noun, works. An apostrophe is required. Now we need to determine if singular or plural and it is plural because of the word hundreds so the answer is D). Plural and Possessive Pronouns: A pronoun is a word such as it or their that can replace a noun in a sentence. For example, the sentence: I.M. Pei is a well-known architect can be rewritten as He is a well-known architect. Apostrophes are used differently for pronouns than they are for nouns: To form the possessive of a pronoun, add -s. *Do not ad an apostrophe.* To from a contraction with the verb is or are, add apostrophe +-s or -re. *A. It's vs. Its* *It's* = it is, it has *Its* = possessive of it. Used before a noun. *Its' an Its's* = DO NOT EXIST Easiest way is to plug it in: Incorrect: Some critics of the Internet have argued that it is a anger because *it's* ( it is) vastness threatens people's intellectual health. Incorrect: Some critics of the Internet have argued tat is a anger because *its'* vastness threatens people's intellectual health. *Correct:* Some critics of the Internet have argued tat is a anger because *its* vastness threatens people's intellectual health. *B. They're, Their, and There:* *They're* = They are *Their* = possessive of they. Used before a noun *There* = a place Think of there as separate from their and they're *They're*: Incorrect: Although *their* usually powered by rowers, canoes may also have sails or motors. Incorrect: Although *there* usually powered by rowers, canoes may also have sails or motors. *Correct:* Although *they're* usually powered by rowers, canoes may also have sails or motors. *Their:* Incorrect: Deactivated viruses form the basis of many vaccines known for *they're* effectiveness in preventing disease. Incorrect: Deactivated viruses form the basis of many vaccines known for *there* effectiveness in preventing disease. Correct: Deactivated viruses form the basis of many vaccines known for *their* effectiveness in preventing disease. *There:* Incorrect: Because Denver is located close to the Rocky Mountains, snow often falls *they're* Incorrect: Because Denver is located close to the Rocky Mountains, snow often falls *their* Correct: Because Denver is located close to the Rocky Mountains, snow often falls *there* *C. You're vs. Your* You're = you are Your = possessive form of you. Used before a noun. Incorrect: The first few hours of the workday can have a significant effect on *you're* level of productivity over the following eight hours. Correct: The first few hours of the workday can have a significant effect on *your* level of productivity over the following eight hours. *D. Who's vs. Whose* Who's = who is, who has Whose = possessive form of who. Unlike who, whose can be used to refer to both *people and things* Incorrect: Jessye Norman is an American opera singer *whose* known for her moving performances. Correct: Jessye Norman is an American opera singer *who's* known for her moving performances. *On the other hand:* Incorrect: Jessye Norman is an American opera singer *who's* performances many people find moving. Correct: Jessye Norman is an American opera singer *whose* performances many people find moving. You might see some questions testing possessive and plural with other pronouns. Same rules apply: apostrophe + -s, or -re = contraction with verb, while no apostrophe = possessive That: Pronoun + Verb = That's Possessive = Thats = Does not exist He, She: Pronoun + Verb = He's, She's Possessive = His, Her(s) We: Pronoun + Verb = We're Possessive = Our, Ours

Plural and Possessive Pronouns: A pronoun is a word such as it or their that can replace a noun in a sentence. For example, the sentence: I.M. Pei is a well-known architect can be rewritten as He is a well-known architect. Apostrophes are used differently for pronouns than they are for nouns: To form the possessive of a pronoun, add -s. *Do not ad an apostrophe.* To from a contraction with the verb is or are, add apostrophe +-s or -re.

*A. It's vs. Its* *It's* = it is, it has *Its* = possessive of it. Used before a noun. *Its' an Its's* = DO NOT EXIST Easiest way is to plug it in: Incorrect: Some critics of the Internet have argued that it is a anger because *it's* ( it is) vastness threatens people's intellectual health. Incorrect: Some critics of the Internet have argued tat is a anger because *its'* vastness threatens people's intellectual health. *Correct:* Some critics of the Internet have argued tat is a anger because *its* vastness threatens people's intellectual health. *B. They're, Their, and There:* *They're* = They are *Their* = possessive of they. Used before a noun *There* = a place Think of there as separate from their and they're *They're*: Incorrect: Although *their* usually powered by rowers, canoes may also have sails or motors. Incorrect: Although *there* usually powered by rowers, canoes may also have sails or motors. *Correct:* Although *they're* usually powered by rowers, canoes may also have sails or motors. *Their:* Incorrect: Deactivated viruses form the basis of many vaccines known for *they're* effectiveness in preventing disease. Incorrect: Deactivated viruses form the basis of many vaccines known for *there* effectiveness in preventing disease. Correct: Deactivated viruses form the basis of many vaccines known for *their* effectiveness in preventing disease. *There:* Incorrect: Because Denver is located close to the Rocky Mountains, snow often falls *they're* Incorrect: Because Denver is located close to the Rocky Mountains, snow often falls *their* Correct: Because Denver is located close to the Rocky Mountains, snow often falls *there* *C. You're vs. Your* You're = you are Your = possessive form of you. Used before a noun. Incorrect: The first few hours of the workday can have a significant effect on *you're* level of productivity over the following eight hours. Correct: The first few hours of the workday can have a significant effect on *your* level of productivity over the following eight hours. *D. Who's vs. Whose* Who's = who is, who has Whose = possessive form of who. Unlike who, whose can be used to refer to both *people and things* Incorrect: Jessye Norman is an American opera singer *whose* known for her moving performances. Correct: Jessye Norman is an American opera singer *who's* known for her moving performances. *On the other hand:* Incorrect: Jessye Norman is an American opera singer *who's* performances many people find moving. Correct: Jessye Norman is an American opera singer *whose* performances many people find moving. You might see some questions testing possessive and plural with other pronouns. Same rules apply: apostrophe + -s, or -re = contraction with verb, while no apostrophe = possessive That: Pronoun + Verb = That's Possessive = Thats = Does not exist He, She: Pronoun + Verb = He's, She's Possessive = His, Her(s) We: Pronoun + Verb = We're Possessive = Our, Ours

Chapter 7: Combining and Separating Sentences.

*A. Periods = Semicolons * 1) Periods and semicolons are identical and are used to separate independent clauses. *Strong Transitions* 2) Certain transitions known as conjunctive adverbs are considered strong enough to start a sentence. The one's to be tested can be: *however, therefore, thus, consequently, moreover, and nevertheless.* * When used to begin a clause, these transitions should always follow a period or semicolon, never a comma. Incorrect: The tomato is one of the most popular salad ingredients, however, it is actually a fruit. Correct: The tomato is one of the most popular salad ingredients; however, it is actually a fruit. Correct: The tomato is one of the most popular salad ingredients. However, it is actually a fruit. 3) Check answers with periods and look for two independent answers. * B. Comma + Coordinating (FANBOYS) Conjunction: 4) When a FANBOY is used without a comma to join a sentence, the result is a run-on sentence. A sentence does not have to be long to be a run on. Incorrect: Tomatoes are used in many different types of cooking and they are are grown around the world in both fields and greenhouses. Correct: Tomatoes are used in many different types of cooking, and they are grown around the world in both fields and greenhouses. 5) Likewise, a FANBOYS should not be used after a period or a semicolons. When the subject is the same in both clauses and is *not* repeated in the second clause, do not use a comma: Incorrect: Tomatoes are use in many different types of cooking, and are grown around the world in both fields and greenhouses. Correct: Tomatoes are used in many different types of cooking and are grown around the world in both fields and greenhouses. Because comma + and = period, simply replace comma + and with a period, and see if you have two complete sentences. Incorrect: Tomatoes are use in many different types of cooking. Are grown around the world in both fields and greenhouses. The statement after the period is not a complete sentence, so no comma should be used before and. 6) Semicolon = period = Comma + FANBOYS Since these are grammatically identical you will not be forced to choose between them. So eliminate them. *Comma Splices and How to Fix them* 7) When a comma is used to separate two independent clauses it is known as a comma splice and they are always wrong. Shortcut: Often are signaled by comma + pronoun (eg: it, she, they, one) Incorrect: Tomatoes are used in many different types of cooking, farmers around the world grow many varieties of them in both fields and greenhouses. Comma splices usually involve second clauses that begin with pronouns. Sentences don't have to make sense out of context. *Can be fixed with:* 1) Period 2) Semicolon 3) comma + FANBOYS 4) Semicolon + however 5) Another option is to turn an independent clause into a dependent clause, often by adding subordinate clauses such as (because, while, although.) When a dependent is joined with an independent a comma can be used. Correct: Although tomatoes were originally small and multicolored, they are mostly large and red today. *Combining Sentences with Participles.* When questions involve comma splices, answers that contain -ing (participles) are considerably likely to be correct because they create dependent clauses and prevent commas from separating two full sentences. Incorrect: Tomatoes were originally small multicolored, they became large and red only during the nineteenth century. Correct: Tomatoes were originally small multicolored, becoming large and red only during the nineteenth century. Be aware of conjunctions that are not FANBOYS. * With -ing* The construction with -ing can be used as an alternative to and + verb. Correct: The Mid-Autumn Festival, a popular harvest festival, dates back 3,000 years to China's Shang Dynasty, and celebrations usually taking place on the fifteenth day of the eighth month. Correct: The Mid-Autumn Festival, a popular harvest festival, dates back 3,000 years to China's Shang Dynasty, *with* celebrations usually taking place on the fifteenth day of the eighth month.

Chapter 11: Colon and Dashes

*Important* The information before a colon must be a sentence that is able to stand alone as a complete thought, but the information after a colon can be either a sentence or a fragment. *Shortcut* Any answer that places a colon before such as or including is almost certainly incorrect Colon Before a List: Incorrect: Photographer and filmmaker George Picker chronicles artists such as including: folk singers, jazz musicians, and visual artists. Correct: Photographer and filmmaker George Picker chronicles a wide variety of artists: folk singers, jazz musicians, an visual artists were all among his subjects. Colon Before an Explanation When a colon comes before an explanation, a complete sentence typically follows. As a result, a colon, a semicolon, a period, and a dash are all acceptable in some cases. Correct: The Amazon parrot does not make an ideal pet for most people: it requires much more attention and affect than many other animals do. Correct: The Amazon parrot does not make an ideal pet for most people *It (or: people; it)* requires much more attention and affection than many other animals do. Because of all of these types of punctuation are often interchangeable, you will not usually be asked to decide among then; however, there are *exceptions*. In such cases, a colon is only correct if the second clause explains the fist. Otherwise, a different form of punctuation should be used. Incorrect: Hersheypark was created in 1908 as a leisure park for the employees of the Hershey Chocolate Company*: the decision* was later made to open it to the general public. Correct: Hersheypark was created in 1908 as a leisure park for the employees of the Hershey Chocolate Company*; the decision (or: Company. The Decision)* was later made to open it to the general public. Dashes have three major uses: 1) Set off a non-essential clause 2) Introduce a list or explanation 3) Create deliberate pause Non-Essential Clause: 2 Dashes = 2 Commas As discussed earlier, two dashes are exactly equivalent to two commas. If one dash appears, so must the other. Another punctuation mark such as a comma cannot be use. Incorrect: Jamaican reggae musician Lone Ranger - born Anthony Alphonso Waldron, recorded nine albums in the 1970s and '80s Correct: Jamaican reggae musician Lone Ranger - born Anthony Alphonso Waldron- recorded nine albums in the 1970s and '80s Before a List or Explanation: Dash = Colon A dash can also be used in place of a colon, for the purpose of explaining or clarifying. When this is the case, a sentence makes sense as a complete thought must be place before the dash. Correct: Impressionist paintings have several major *characteristics - a focus* on outdoor scenes, an emphasis on the interplay of light and dark, and a sense of movement. Correct: The bowhead whale is thought to be the longest-living mammal in the *world - that is,* it can survive for up to 200 years. Create a Pause Finally, dashes can be used for stylistic purposes: to deliberately interrupt a statement or to create a dramatic pause or a sense of suspense. Correct: Universities have historically offered a wide variety of continuing education *classes -, but* the ways in which those classes are offered is rapidly changing. Correct: Only a few minerals are found in most places, but large concentrations of the rocks collect in a few *locations -Russia's Kola Peninsula, for example*

Chapter 5: Diction, Idioms, and Register

1) Diction refers to author's choice of words. 2) Idioms are not correct or incorrect for any logical reason, some phrase have just evolved. 3) If an idiom has literal definitions in answers, it is probably wrong. 4) Some verbs and nouns need to follow a specific preposition: " A familiarity" always need the preposition "with" 5) Homophones = Words that are spelled differently and have different meaning, but have same sound. Affect = Verb meaning "to impact" Effect = Noun meaning "an impact" 6) Could, should, would, might have = Right Could, should, would, might of = wrong Supposed to, used to = Right Suppose to, use to = Wrong Adverse = difficult (adj) Averse = Dislike (adj) Alude = Reference (v) Elude = to evade (v) Allusion = reference (n) Illusion = Not real (n) Assure = positively (v) Ensure = certain (v) Elicit = draw out (v) Illicit = illegal (adj) Exacerbate = MAKE WORSE Prospective = Potential * Lay = Followed by a noun; She lay the book on the table.* *Lie = Not followed by a noun; He lies down every evening.* 7) If you see an -ing word underline, plug in the to form. When switching form to -ing a preposition may be needed. Incorrect: Even brief exposure to words associated with money seems to cause people to become more independent an less inclined *helping* others. Correct: Even brief exposure to words associated with money seems to cause people to become more independent an less inclined *to help* others.. 8) Register = Refers to how formal or informal. The right answers on SAT are usually neutral or not too formal. Than = Used to form comparison, Then = Next

Chapter 9: Non-essential and Essential clauses

1) Non-essential elements can be removed without changing meaning. 2) Can begin with "w-words" such as "which or who", nouns (appositives), participles (-ing, ed) 3) Never remove one or both commas 4) By removing non-essentials, it helps spot fragments 5) Some transitions can be used within clauses. *Ex: However, therefore, in fact, indeed, moreover, for example. Must follow a colon; semicolon Can be used in middle of sentence and if crossed out sentence should still make sense.* 6) Two commas imply that however can be removed along with the commas, but if we remove commas we can end up with two independent clauses back to back. 7) The need for two commas or semicolon depends on the context (Remove the phrase in question and read it.) * If phrase makes sense then use two commas if not use a semicolon or period* (If the sentence didn't make sense then the phrase is essential and cannot be removed so you should use a semicolon or period, but if it does make sense then it proves it can be removed.) 8) Two commas do no always equal non-essential. Some commas can be a non-essential or have other purposs. 9) Two dashes = Two commas = Two parenthesis Stylistic reason, you cannot mix-match. Transitions have to use commas. 10) Do noy place both commas, and parenthesis around non-essential. 11) When a comma is needed for anothe reason you can use a parenthesis (ex: after a FANBOY) 12) If unsure check out answers and cross out to see if non-essential. 13) Parenthesis = Non essential (Byut use a comma to separae two independent sentences.) 14) "That" is essential, but can be written without. No comma before or after. When it is deleted don't use commas in its place. If a non-essential clause is used after "that" you can use a comma. 15) Who can be non-essential (2 commas) or essential ( no commas), but they give different meanings. Consider what they mean 16) Consider what the sentence refers to. 17) Names and titles are sometimes essential or non-essential. Sometimes commas before/after or not at all. When a name is in the middle: two commas or none. Treat it like any non-essential and cross out. 1) Commas around title = one person/thing 2) No commas = one of many, cross out name, if essential then no commas. *Rare exception to two commas or none rule: Comma needed to separate independent/dependent.*

Chapter 1: Adding, Deleting, and Revising

1) Reread the paragraph 2) Briefly restate the topic in your own words 3) Check each answer choice against that topic. Topic sentences and concluding sentences tend to contain main ideas therefore they include specific details which tend to be wrong. The big picture is always presented in the beginning of the passage. An idea that only shows up in one part of the passage can't be a main idea. Transitions words are mainly testing you to see what comes next not before! Understanding of main ideas can also be tested in terms of counterarguments and counterpoints. If you have two keep or two do not keep options: 1) Determine if the sentence should be kept 2) Determine why that is. If you want to keep a sentence make sure it still has something to do with the topic of the paragraph, whether or not it makes sense context wise is irrelevant. Some questions might ask you to insert or change something in emphasis to something. For these questions you should make sure your answer choice make sense in the emphasis of the question not the passage.

SAT Writing Cheat Sheet

1) Shorter is better (Grammar questions only) 2) Comma + it, this, he, she, they usually (not always)= comma splice = *WRONG* 3) Period = semicolon = comma + and/but 4) 2 commas = 2 dashes = 2 parentheses = non-essential clause . If the information between these punctuation marks is crosses out, the sentence will still make sense. BUT Commas, dashes, and parentheses cannot be mixed and matched 5) Its, their = possessive; it's = it is, they're = they are; there = a place 6) Colon = list or explanation. A complete, standalone sentence is required before but not after 7) All items in a list must match ex: noun, noun; verb,verb. 8) Comma before preposition = *WRONG* 9) Being = *Wrong* 10) Affect = verb, effect = noun; than = comparison, then = next. 11) Singular verbs end in -s; plural verbs do not end in -s, it suggests, they suggest 12) Keep verb tense/form consistent. An underlined verb should stay parallel to the surrounding verbs unless there is a clear reason for the tense to change. Check verb in the sentence/paragraph 13) Add/delete/revise: Reread the surrounding sentences, and state the topic in your own word before checking the answers. Eliminate synonyms + answers based on a big-picture understanding. 14) Transition Question: *Physically cross out* the transition and determine the relationship (continue, contradict, cause and effect) between the two sentences/halves of a sentence before checking the answer. Eliminate synonyms + answers from incorrect transition categories 15) Infographics: Take a moment and determine the "point" of the graphics before you start to answer the question. You can sometimes eliminate answers based on a big-picture understanding.

Chapter 14: Pronoun and Noun Agreement

A pronoun must agree with the noun to which it refers. ex: its antecedent or referent. Singular pronouns (eg: she, it). must agree with singular nouns, and plural pronouns (eg: they) must agree with plural nouns. It (Singular) and They (Plural) Its = Their We have to find what the pronoun refers to. The antecedent = before so sometimes we have to look at the previous lines. *A. Things* The pronouns it/it and they/their are use to refer to singular and plural things. The plural of "it" is they or them. A singular noun goes with a singular pronoun Incorrect: While the tomato is botanically a fruit, they are considered a vegetable for culinary purposes. While the tomato is botanically a fruit, it is considered a vegetable for culinary purposes. An antecedent can appear before, after, or in the same line. *B. People* Singular: A person Plural: He or She, His or Her Singular: People Plural: They When it is unclear whether a singular noun (eg: a researcher, a scientist) refers to a male or a female the phrase he or she ( or his or her) should used *Note: Each and every are singular (short for each/every one) and take the singular pronouns it and he or she. Incorrect: Each of the researchers will present their works at the conference Correct: Each of the researchers will present his or her work at the conference. *C. One vs You:* You = You One = One The above should not be mix-matched and must remain consistent in a story. Only one answer will make sense when it is parallel to the surrounding sentences. IT IS IMPORTANT TO READ THE PASSAGE IN ORDER TO SPOT INCONSISTENCIES. *D. Emphatic Pronouns:* "Self" words, eg: himself, itself, and themselves can correctly be used to emphasize either people or things. Just make sure that they agree with the noun they are intended to emphasize. Incorrect: What has been criticized is the author's refusal to discuss her work publicly, not the quality of the writing herself. Correct: What has been criticized is the author's refusal to discuss her work publicly, not the quality of the writing itself. *E. Noun Agreement:* Nouns themselves must also agree in number. Singular subjects must be paired with singular nouns, and plural subjects must be paired with plural nouns. Correct: Capitalizing on the national bicycle craze of the early 1890s, Orville and Wilbur Wright decided to open a shop and become bicycle sellers. If a non-essential clause is removed an error can be revealed and can also prove a sentence to be singular. * F. Missing or Ambiguous Antecedent:* When a pronoun refers to a noun that is missing or unclear, it is necessary to ad the specific person, place, or thing in order to remove the ambiguity. Given the choice between a pronoun and a noun naming a specific person or thing, the noun will virtually always be correct - even it appears in the longest answer. A pronoun must refer to a noun that actually appears. *G. This and That:* The pronouns this and that, along with their plural forms, these and those, should be followed by a noun. When these pronouns appear alone, they tend to be ambiguous. As a general rule, you can assume that any answer in which one of these pronouns appears alone will be incorrect. Specific is always better.

Chapter 10: Additional Comma Uses and Misuses

Comma Should(nt) be Used: 1) To separate items in a list. In any list of three or more items each one must be followed by a comma. The comma before "and" is optional and you will not be asked to choose between it. 2) Never use a comma after the word "and". 3) Semicolons should not be mix-matched with commas, but can be used in place of them 4) When the order of adjectives does not matter, a comma should be used to separate them. Alternatively, you can try placing the word "and" between the adjectives. If they make sense when separated by that word, a comma should be used. 5) Use a comma after introductory phrases/words (in fact, moreover, as a result) Subordinating conjunctions *cannot* be used like this. *Do not use a comma:* 6) Before or after a preposition (of, for, from, to, in, with, by, before, and after) Only exception is a non-essential. 7) No comma should be placed between the final adjective and noun 8) If the first adjective modifies the second adjective, OR if two adjectives could not normally be separated by the word "and", no comma should be used. 9) Unless a subject and verb are separated from one another by a non-essential clause, no comma should be placed between them. Incorrect: *Ada Lovelace and Charles Babbage*, were two of the most influential figures in the history of computer science and mathematicians. Correct: *Ada Lovelace and Charles Babbage* were two of the most influential figures in the history of computer science and mathematicians. This applies even in long and complex sentences. Correct: What is particularly remarkable about Ada Lovelace's work on Charles Babbage's "analytical engine" is that Lovelace foresaw many of the ways in which computers are used today. 10) When two nouns, verbs, adjectives, are joined by the word, "and", no comma should be used. BECAUSE comma + and = period, plug in a period in place of comma + and. If two complete sentences are not present, no comma should be used. 11) No Comma before/after a "self" word, or before and after one. (Formally: Emphatic pronouns, me, myself, it, itself, them, themselves) *However when a comma would needed such as before a FANBOYS conjunction or to set off a non-essential, it is acceptable to place a comma after.*

Chapter 3: Infographics

Infographic questions are essentially supporting evidence questions. There are essentially two types of infographic questions: detail-based questions, which ask you about a specific aspect of the graphic, and big picture questions, which ask you to identify an overall trend. Answers to infographic questions will always be right in front of you. Here are some questions to consider: 1) What is the shape of the graph? 2) Are changes steady from point to point, or is there a big jump somewhere? 3) Is there an outlier point with a value very different from the other values. Any choice that contradicts the general trend of a graph can be immediately eliminated. Watch out for: Answers that are too broad, extreme language. *Stacked Graphs* A single bar may convey information about more than one entity. When this is the case you must be able to distinguish between the points on the graph where a particular color begins and ends, and the overall quantity indicated by that color.

Parallel Structure

Is the repetition of a particular grammatical construction within a sentence or paragraph. It is used to indicate that multiple ideas have equal levels of importance. In addition, the use of parallel constructions make writing clearer and easier for readers to follower. In any given list of three or more items, each item should appear in the same format: noun, noun, and noun; gerund, gerund, and gerund; verb, verb, and verb. Any deviation is incorrect For example: *Changes* in wind circulation, *runoff* from sewage, and *to accumulate chemical fertilizers* can lead to the creation of ocean waters low in oxygen an inhospitable to marine life. A) NO CHANGE B) they accumulate chemical fertilizers C) accumulating chemical fertilizers *D) accumulation of chemical fertilizers* The underlined portion of the sentence uses an infinitive (to accumulate) to begin the third item in the list, whereas the other items in the list begin with nouns. So a noun is required, so D) is correct. If the entire list is underlined, look at the beginning of each item. Another type of parallel structure involves two items joined by a conjunction. (Repetition of the word to is optional) Both sides of the construct must be able to follow "reduced by" The time devoted to books by publishing companies has been reduced by both financial constraints and an increased emphasis on marketing considerations. Important: Two-part parallel structure questions may also double as word-pair questions. Spot the word pair. Repetition is optional. When asked to create parallel structure look for similar patterns such as the sentence beginning with a noun.

Chapter 2: Sentence and Paragraph Order

The presence of bracketed numbers at the beginning of sentences signals that a question testing sentence order will appear, and the presence of bracketed numbers at the top of each paragraph signals that a question testing paragraph order will appear. Whenever you see one of these cues, pay close attention to the order of sentences or paragraphs as you read. *Sentence Order* Determine the topic of the sentence. Ask yourself whether it follows logically from the previous sentence to the next. *Inserting Sentences* 1) When you read the sentence to be inserted, take a moment and restate the topic for yourself. This will be the key word or phrase. 2) Then, when you go back to the passage to plug in the sentence, check to see whether the surrounding sentences are consistent with that key word or phrase. 3) Eliminate any answer inconsistent with that focus. *Dividing Paragraphs* You can check each answer choice and see if it fits logically with the information behind or if it begins a new idea. Or you can read the paragraph yourself and see where a paragraph break would be needed. *Paragraph Order* 1) Reread the paragraph in question, paying particular attention to the first (topic) sentence. Reiterate the topic for yourself in a word or two, and jot it down quickly . 2) Back up and read the last sentence of the previous paragraph, and ask yourself whether it leads naturally into the topic of the paragraph in question. If it does, then you're done. If not: 3) Skim through each paragraph looking for a mention in that topic. You do not need to read, just look for word(s). The paragraph in question should belong next to that paragraph.

Chapter 8: Transitions

Types of transitions: 1) Continuers 2) Contradictors 3) Cause and Effect Add information: In addition Give example: For example/instance Compare: Likewise Sequence of events: subsequently Contradictors: However, nevertheless Cause and effect: Accordingly, therefore, Important: Cross out transition in the sentence first. Also, if two or more answer have similar transitions they can be eliminated. Transition can appear between two commas and sometimes you have to make fine distinctions. Sometimes you may need to connect to parts of a sentence and the transitions will only have one comma. Consider previous and underlined sentences. Some questions may appear to be about punctuation, but are actually about transition. There cannot be two transitions so you need to eliminate one. Sometimes there can be two transitions and can cause a comma splice if you do not have both commas.Make sure sentences correspond logically. *Glossary of transitions:* Accoridingly and Consequently = Therefore, as a result Furthermore and Moreover = In addition In fact and In indeed: Emphasize a preceding statement. "Even so", "Still", "Nevertheless" = Despite this, however Whereas = Although As such - As a + noun Correct: Dolphins are social animas. Because they are social anmals, they live in pods up to a dozen animals. Correct: Dolphins are social animals. As social anmals, they live in pods up to a dozen animals. The repetition of the world "social animals" can be weird so Correct: Dolphins are social animals. As such, they live in pods up to a dozen animals. Likewise = Similarily, In the same way Meanwhile = Literally, at the same time; often used as a synonym for however, to indicate contrast Subsequently = Afterward That = in other words; provides a definition or explanation, and often follows a dash

Chapter 6: Sentences and Fragments

Whether a statement is or is not a sentence has absolutely nothing to do with its meaning in that specific context. *Building a sentence* 1) Must have a subject 2) A conjugated verb to go with that subject A sentence can only have one word such as "Go!" because the subject you is implied or consists of many complex clauses, but if it has a subject and a verb it is a sentence regardless of context. * A. Simple Sentence:* Sentence: The tomato grows This is noun as a simple sentence because it contains only a subject (the tomato) and a verb (grows) which tells us what the subject does. Because it can stand on its own as a sentence, it can also be called an independent clause. *B. Prepositional Phrases.* If we want to make our sentence a little longer, we can add a prepositional phrase. A prepositional phrase is a phrase that begins with a prepositions, a time or location word that comes before a noun. Common prepositions include: "in, to, with, from, for, at , by, and on." Sentence: The tomato grows around the world. Sentences can contain many phrases. Sentence: The tomato grows in many shapes and varieties in greenhouses around the world. A prepositional phrase can also be placed between the subject and verb. The phrase ends before the verb. Can also be at the beginning. It cannot stand alone Fragment: In the green house *C. Pronoun as Subject:* Nouns can also be replaced with pronouns: words such as " it, she, and they". Sentence: It grows We just wouldn't know context. Sentence: They grow. "It" and "They" are common subject pronouns. (pronouns that can replace nouns as the subject of a sentence.) Some can only refer to people, things, or both. People or Things: They, all, most, more, several, any, few, both, other(s), none, one, each. *Group Pronouns*: Some, several, few, many and others. *Pronoun (of them) = Sentence In this usage, the pronoun simply acts as a subjct and is used to repalce a noun. It is often followed by the phrase "of them", but can be used by itself. Sentence: Many (of them) are grown in greenhouses Sentence: Most (of them) believe that the tomato is a vegetable. *Pronoun + "of which" or " of whom" = fragment When an indefinite pronoun is followed by of which or of whom, it creates a dependent clause, which cannot stand by itself. Fragment: Many of which are grown in greenhouses. Fragment: Most of whom beleve that the tomato is a vegetable. Which means: Incorrect: The tomato is used by cooks around the word, most of them believe that it is a vegetable rather than fruit. Correct: The tomato is used by cooks around the word. Most of them believe that it is a vegetable rather than fruit. Correct: The tomato is used by cooks around the word, most of whom believe that it is a vegetable rather than fruit. *D. Adverbs:* Adverbs modify verbs an clauses. Most adverbs are creaed by adding -ly onto adjectives. Slow ---> Slowly Current ---> Currently A second type of adverb does not end in -ly. Some of these are adverbs of time, which tell you when or how often somethings occurs. Others are transitions: * Again, Consequently, Furthermore, Meanwhile, Moreover, Nevertheless, Next, never, now, often, still, sometimes, then, today, yesterday* *Important: Adverbs have no grammatical effect on a sentence. A sentence to which an adverb is added will continue to be a sentence.* Sentence: Now, the the tmato grows in many shapes and varieties in greenhouses around the world. Sentence: The tomato currently grows in many shapes and varieties in greenhouses around the world. Sentence: The tomato grows in many shapes and varieties in greenhouses around the world today. *E. Non-essential clauses:* Information can be inserted between the subject and the form of a non-essential clause. Sentence: The tomato, which is one of the most popular sald ingredients, grows in many shapes and varieties in greenhouses around the world. Non-essential clauses describe nouns (usually the subject). They often begin with "w-words" such as who and which, and they are usually followed by a verb. *Appositives:* A non-essental clause that begins with a noun is an appositive. Can appear as descriptions in the beginning or ends of sentences. A sentence cannot stop right after a non-essential. Alternatively, you can place a main verb after a non-essential clause and continue the sentence. *Exception is when w-word functions as a subect. Where the meeting will be held.* *F. Participles and Gerunds:* Every verb has two participles: *1) Present Participle* It is formed by adding -ing to the verb Talk ---> Talking Paint ----> Painting Throw ---> Throwing *2) Past Participle* It is formed by adding -ed or -n to the verb Talk ---> Talked Paint ---> Painted Throw ---> Thrown A participal phrase begins with a participle and can be in either present or the past. Correct: Originating in South America, the tomato, one of the most popular salad ingredients, grows in many shapes and varieties. in greenhouses. To form the past, we can use the present participle having + past participle of the main verb (originated) Correct: Having originated in South America, the tomato, one of the most popular salad .... We can als use the past participle grow. Correct: Grown originally in South America, the tomato, one of the most popular salad *Participal phrases can be in the beginning, middle, or end.* Cannot stand alone. *Gerunds:* Are identical in appearance to present participles. Created by adding -ing to verbs. Whereas participles act as modifiers, gerunds act as nouns. Typically follow pronouns, ex: I was irritated y *his whistling*, or prepositions, eg: The gannet is a bird that catches fish by diving from heights of up to 100 feet. Words that end in -ing are not verbs. A clause that contains a subject and an -ing word rather than a conjugated verb is a fragment. *Important* Answer choices with BEING are usually wrong (gerund of to be) Being is also irregular - the conjuagted forms of the verb look completely differently from the gerund form. In order to correct these errors you need to know all of the conjugated (third person) forms of the verb to be. Singular: Is, Past: Was Plural: Are, Past: Were *G. Conjunctions:* Two main types: 1) Coordinating Conjunctions join two independent clauses 2) Subordinating conjunctions join an independent clause and a dependent clause. Coordinating Conjunctions: FANBOYS: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So A single clause with one of these conjunctions is not a sentence. Subordinating Conjunctions: It alright to start a sentence with Because (sometimes) Fragment: Because tomatoes are colorful and full of flavor. If, however, an independent clause is placed after the dependent clause, the whole sentence can correctly begin with a subordinating conjunction. Sentence: Because tomatoes ar colorful and full of flavor, they are one of the most popular salad ingreients. Some Subordinate Conjunctions: After, although, as, because, before, despite, if, since, though, unless, until, when, whenever, whereas, whether, while. When a clause is begun with a subordinating conjunction contains a subject, that clause must contain a conjugated verb rather than an -ing word. When no subject is present, however, an -ing word can accetably appear in the same phrase as some subordinating conjunctions, primarily ones indicatng (when, while, before, after, since) Sentence: Since becoming a central ingredient in Intalian cooking during the nineteenth century, the tomato has grown in popularity worldwide.

Chapter 19: Relative Pronouns

Which: follows a commas, sets of a non-essential clause (Which ones use no comma) That: Does not follow a comma, sets of essential clause Whose: Possessive of both who/which 1) Who is used before a verb 2) Whom is used after a preposition (A verb never comes after whom) Where: Physical locations, not times, books/films When: Times/events only Preposition + which = can replace where or when Whereby: "by which", "according to which"