schools of psych ch 1-7 test

Kant's views of mental experience and the perception of time

Our mental experience Cognitions consist only of sense impression and ideas Always structured by the categories of thought. Our phenomenological experience (mental experience) is an interaction of sensations and the categories of thought. Can never know the true physical reality just appearances (phenomena) that are controlled by the categories of thought Perception of _time_- The mind adds the concept of time and space to sensory information. They are both provided by an a priori category of thought.

What is the difference between a perception and petites perception?

Perceptions- conscious; _Petites perceptions_- below consciousness As petites perceptions accumulate, their force causes conscious awareness (_apperception_). _Law of Continuity_- differences in nature (including consciousness) are characterized by small gradations. _Limen_- threshold between the conscious and unconscious mind

kunh's views on how science changes

Preparadigmatic stage Many rival schools of explanation with random fact gathering. Eventually one school succeeds and becomes a paradigm and science continues. Paradigmatic stage Science occurs until a new paradigm displaces the old one. Revolutionary stage A new paradigm displaces another one.

Sophist

Professional teachers of rhetoric and logic, _truth is relative_- _no single truth exists_ Protogoras Gorgias Xenophanes

(knowledge) nativism

Proposes that some ideas are a natural part of the mind

faculty psychology

Reasoning powers of the mind include several innate mental faculties. Active powers of the mind that influence thought and behavior.

What assumptions did Rousseau make about human nature?

Rousseau emphasized _feelings in contrast to reason_ as the important guiding force in human nature, the best guide for human conduct is a person's _honest feelings and inclinations_. For Rousseau, humans are basically good - born good ("_innate goodness_") but are made bad by societal institutions. "_Noble Savage_"- a human not contaminated by society Humans are, by nature, social animals who wished to live in harmony with other humans.

Descartes' concept of innate ideas

Through analysis of his own thoughts, he determined that some ideas are __________ (natural components of the mind). Innate ideas were of unity, infinity, perfection, axioms of geometry, and God.

Discuss Descartes' explanation of reflexes.

To account for animal behavior and for the involuntary, reflexive behavior of human beings, Descartes suggested that stimuli impinging on various sense organs were capable of setting up vibrations in those organs. Those vibrations in turn tugged on tiny fibers which Descartes imagined ran through the nerves connecting the sensory organs to the brain. In the brain, the tugging of the fibers opened small valves, which then allowed the "animal spirits" (cerebral-spinal fluid) within the brain and spinal cord to drain down the hollow tubes of nerves running to the muscles. As the fluid entered the muscles, the muscles fattened up and shortened, thus producing movement in the limbs or other structures to which the muscles were attached. In this way, a boy whose finger accidentally came into contact with a flame would instantly react to the stimulus of the fire by contracting the appropriate muscles that pulled the finger out of the flame, thus producing the response. The entire chain of events took place automatically, without conscious intervention or will, purely as a result of a physical chain of cause and effect running from stimulus, down the nerve to the brain, then back out again along another nerve to muscle, and thus to response. Descartes imagined that animal behavior could be entirely accounted for by such automatic, reflexive mechanisms. Each new stimulus impinging on the animal's senses would generate new, reflexive movements; these in turn would reorient the animal's sensory receptors, allowing new stimuli to fall upon them, initiating yet other movements, and so on. In this view, the animal was merely a biological automaton, without real consciousness and without a will. In similar fashion, Descartes proposed mechanisms to account for bodily processes ranging from digestion through growth to reproduction, and in so doing completely eliminated the need for the nutrititive (vegetative) and sensitive "souls" Aristotle had invented to account for these functions. He could not, however, bring himself to eliminate Aristotle's rational soul from his conception of the human being.

(knowledge) empiricism

the source of all knowledge is observation and experience Scientific theory

Reification

the tendency to believe that because something has a name, it also has an independent existence

Peter Abelard's dialectic method

- method of study known as the ____________ ___________- questions are raised and several possible answers are explored

List at least three factors that contributed to the reawakening of the spirit of objective inquiry.

-Thomas Aquinas' acceptance of reason and the examination of nature as a way of knowing God -Martin Luther's challenge to the established church (Reformation) -Exploration of central Asia and China by Marco Polo from 1271-95 -Discovery of the New World by Columbus in 1492 -Magellan's circumnavigation of the globe from 1519-22 -Gutenberg's invention of moveable type- literacy and scholarship grew

What are Descartes' four rules four attaining certainty?

1. Accept as true only what is indubitable. 2. Divide every question into manageable parts. 3. Begin with the simplest issues and ascend to the more complex. 4. Review frequently enough to retain the whole argument at once.

Hegel's dialectic process

A _thesis_(a point of view) and an _antithesis_ (opposite point of view) Resolved with a _synthesis_ (a compromise between the thesis and the antithesis), which is a new point of view. Becomes the thesis for the next dialectic process.

Why is Descartes considered a mechanist?

A substance dualist, he argued that reality was composed of two radically different types of substance: extended matter, on the one hand, and immaterial mind, on the other. Descartes argued that one cannot explain the conscious mind in terms of the spatial dynamics of mechanistic bits of matter cannoning off each other. Nevertheless, his understanding of biology was mechanistic in nature: "I should like you to consider that these functions (including passion, memory, and imagination) follow from the mere arrangement of the machine's organs every bit as naturally as the movements of a clock or other automaton follow from the arrangement of its counter-weights and wheels." (Descartes, Treatise on Man, p.108) His scientific work was based on the traditional mechanistic understanding that animals and humans are completely mechanistic automata. Descartes' dualism was motivated by the seeming impossibility that mechanical dynamics could yield mental experiences.

Principle of Falsifiability

A theory must make predictions specific enough to confirm or disconfirm the theory; must predict not only what will happen, but also what will not happen Theories must make 'risky' predictions that run the risk of being incorrect Postdiction is not scientific - explaining phenomena after they have already occurred (i.e.: Freud) All theories are eventually replaced by more adequate theories. Science is an unending search for better solutions to problems or better explanations of phenomena.

According to Plato, what is the nature of the soul (the three components of the mind)?

According to Plato, the _physical body_ was imperfect and ephemeral, yet the soul was the _source of all knowledge and eternal_ Entering a body in life, but existing and living on in death In Plato's Phaedo, he presents a dialogue in which Socrates argues that death frees the soul from the imprisonment of the body. When imprisoned, the soul is hindered from finding _wisdom and truth_. The soul (the mind) is comprised of three parts _rational component_ immortal, existed with the forms. _courageous (emotional or spirited) component_ mortal emotions such as fear, rage, and love _appetite component_ mortal needs such as hunger and thirst that must be satisfied. To obtain knowledge, one must _suppress bodily needs_ and _concentrate on rational pursuits_. The rational component inhibits immediate gratification when in the best long-term benefit of the person.

Determinism

All behavior has causal explanations. Biological ______________ emphasizes importance of physiological conditions and/ or genetic predispositions in explanation of behavior. Environmental _______________ emphasizes importance of environmental stimuli as determinants of behavior. Sociocultural _______________ emphasizes cultural or societal rules, regulations, customs, and beliefs that govern human behavior Directly measured by : Physical _________ - genes, environmental stimuli, and cultural customs are used to explain human behavior Psychical _____________ - mental causes, conscious or unconscious, of behavior; emphasis on the importance of cognitive and emotional experience in the explanation of behavior

Irrationalism

Emphasizes unconscious determinants of behavior which cannot be pondered rationally

Locke's empiricism

All ideas come from sensory experience There are no innate ideas as Descartes proposed These ideas can be acted upon by operations of the mind giving rise to new ideas. Operations of the mind include perception, thinking, doubting, believing, reasoning, knowing, and willing Complex ideas are formed through operations of the mind being applied to simple ideas _Operations of reflection_ (comparing, abstracting, discriminating, combining and enlarging, remembering, and reasoning). all of our knowledge and ideas arise from experience. (Essay II i 2) The initially empty room of the mind is furnished with ideas of two sorts: first, by sensation we obtain ideas of things we suppose to exist outside us in the physical world; second, by reflection we come to have ideas of our own mental operations. Thus, for example, "hard," "red," "loud," "cold," "sweet," and "aromatic" are all ideas of sensation, while "perceiving," "remembering," "abstracting," and "thinking" are all ideas of reflection. ("Pleasure," "unity," and "existence," Locke held, are ideas that come to us from both sensation and reflection.) Everything we know, everything we believe, every thought we can entertain is made up of ideas of sensation and reflection and nothing else.

What is Will to power? How does the term supermen relate?

All people have a will to power to become stronger and more complete To control one's life, tendency to gain mastery over one's self and one's destiny is the most basic human motive. Supermen are people who are approaching their full potential because standard morality does not govern their lives Satisfies the will to power, yet strives to become more

How did Parmenides use logic to defend his belief that motion was an illusion?

All things are constant; change is an illusion One reality - finite, uniform, motionless, and fixed Knowledge comes only through reason (rationalism) Sensory experience is not real, not to be trusted. Sensory experience provides only illusion

Did Kant believe psychology was a science, why or why not?

Anthropology v. Psychology Anthropology- A way of studying how people actually behave; nonscientific, but yields useful information *****Kant Psychology- Cannot be a science because subjective experience cannot be measure mathematically. not a science because it is subjective!!

Herbart's contributions to educational psychology

Applied his ideas to educational psychology by offering suggestions on how to teach effectively: Review material already learned Prepare students for new material by giving overview of upcoming material Present new material Relate new material to what has already been learned Show applications of new material Give an overview of next material to be learned

Nietzsche's aspects of human nature

Appollonian aspect Rational side Desire for tranquility, predictability and orderliness. Dionysian aspect Irrational side Attraction to creative chaos and to passionate, dynamic, experiences. wanted to fuse the two aspects

objective reality

Argued that science could only deal with ________ ________ _Consciousness could never be studied objectively_ _Psychological experiences_ have no counterparts in the physical world, therefore we cannot have true knowledge Exists independent of an individual's perception Includes what would be called primary qualities, quantity, size, shape, position, and motion of objects.

Describe Aristotle's Hierarchy of Souls. What is Aristotle's view of the mind-body relationship?

Aristotle, like Plato, believed in multiple souls which determined any living thing's potential and the development of the body. Aristotle's Hierarchy of Souls: _The vegetative_, possessed by plants and which allowed for physical growth _The sensitive_, possessed by animals and which allowed for sensations, emotions, and memory _The rational_, only possessed by humans and which allowed for all of the above, plus rational thought Yet unlike Plato, Aristotle believed that _the heart_ was the seat of the soul. He also argued that _intellect_, although part of the soul, was not contained in a _physical organ_. If it was, it would be constrained to receiving a certain kind of information, but: since intellect was capable of receiving all information, it could not be restricted. _Intellect was immaterial and immortal_- that was Aristotelian dualism

Mechanism

Behavior of all organisms can be explained as machines in terms of parts and laws.

Associationism

Belief that one or more laws of association can be used to explain the origins of ideas, memory, or how complex ideas are formed from simple ones

Goethe's view of science and psychology

Believed science was limited - many of the important human attributes were beyond the grasp of the _scientific method_ Insisted that intact, meaningful psychological experience should be the object of study, rather than meaningless isolated sensations Was an early phenomenologist- whole experiences are the proper unit when studying human nature Goethe proposed a theory of evolution before Darwin Used a form of what is now called behavior therapy.

Conceptionalism

Concepts do not have independent existence (_realism_) Concepts summarize individual experiences (_nominalism_). Concepts are formed by the intellect when abstracting similarities between perceived individual things Reconciled the debate between realism and nominalism with ____________

Hume's description of impressions, ideas, and imagination

Contents of the mind come from _mental experience_ Can be stimulated by either external or internal events. _Determinants of behavior were cognitive_ Distinguished between _impressions and ideas_ Impressions _strong, vivid perceptions_ Ideas _Weak perceptions, faint images in thinking and reasoning_ _Simple ideas_ cannot be broken down further (like Locke); _complex ideas_ are made of other ideas. Once in the mind, ideas can be rearranged in an infinite number of ways by the _imagination_

What is the difference between conviction and opinion?

Convictions are thought to reflect absolute truth, but cause fanaticism Opinions are tentative, challengeable, and easily modified in light of new information (reasonable).

5. Which Greek philosopher had the first completely naturalistic description of the universe?

Democritus ****All things were made of tiny particles called _atoms_ Characteristics of things are determined by shape, size, number, location, and arrangement of atoms.

traditional view of science

Developed as a way to answer questions about nature by directly examining nature Science has two major components: empirical evidence and theory; correlation vs. causation. goal: discover the cause of natural phenomena Empirical observations Theory formulation, testing, and revision Prediction and control Search for lawful relationships Assumption of determinism

Did Herbart believe psychology was a science, why or why not?

Did not believe psychology could be an _experimental science_ Believed that experimentation necessitated dividing up its subject matter The _mind acts as an integrated whole_, therefore it could not be fractionated.

Kant's view of truth. How do a priori categories relate?

Disagreed with Hume; Believed that _some truths were certain_ and not based on subjective experience alone The notion of causation does not come from experience - nothing in our experience proves that one things causes another This idea must exist a priori (before experience) Proposed that the mind must add 'something' to sensory data before knowledge can be attained Something was provided by _a priori category of thought_: unity, totality, time, space, cause and effect, reality, quantity, quality, negation, possibility-impossibility, and existence-nonexistence. a priori categories relate because they're all things that you would have to previously learn about before being aware that you are experiencing it-you wouldnt know about reality just by living, you would have to be aware of the word reality and the explanation behind it

Rationalism

Emphasizes logical, systematic, and intelligent thought processes in explanations of behavior

What is Plato's Theory of Forms?

Everything in the _empirical world_ is an inferior manifestation of the _pure form_ (idea), which exists in the abstract. Experience through our senses comes from interaction of the __pure form and matter of the world__ True knowledge can be attained only _through reason_; _rational thought regarding the forms_.

What is Socrates' method of inductive definition?

Examine instances of a concept Ask the question- what is it that all instances have in common? Find the essence (identifying characteristics) of the instances of the concept. Seek to find general concepts by examining specific examples.

sensationalism

French philosophers are known as sensationalists because they stress the _importance of sensations_ in explaining all conscious experience Mental activity could be explained by the _Laws of Association_ Had much in common wit the British empiricists Strongly opposed to the rationalism of Descartes

William James (determinism)

Hard determinism Causes function in an automatic, mechanistic manner; thus, the notion of personal responsibility is meaningless. Soft determinism Cognitive processes intervene between experience and behavior. Human behavior is the result of thoughtful deliberation of options; thus, a person is responsible for actions.

Uncertainty principle

Heisenberg's principle- we can never learn at least some causes of behavior because in attempting to observe them we change them. The experimental setting may act as a confounding variable in the search for causes of behavior

Describe Plato's Reminiscence Theory of Knowledge.

How do we know forms if they cannot be known through sensory experiences? All knowledge is _innate_ and can be attained only through introspection - true knowledge comes only from reminiscence, from remembering the experiences the soul had rior to entering the body. _Learning is the process of unlocking and using this innate knowledge_, already imprinted on the mind (the soul) _Sensory information serves as a reminder of what was already known_ Therefore, Plato was a rationalist - stressed mental operations to gain knowledge already in the soul.

According to St. Augustine, what is the relationship between free will and internal sense?

Humans have the ability (_free will_) to choose between good and evil If evil is chosen over good, they need not feel guilty forever By disclosing the actual or intended act, they are forgiven and once again can pursue the pure People have an _internal sense_ that provides an awareness of truth, error, personal obligation, and moral right. This helps people evaluate experience and make choices. Behavior is under internal control, not _external events and consequences._

Psychic Mechanics

Ideas had a force or energy of their own and not necessarily bound by the laws of association Ideas have the power to attract or repel other ideas, depending on their compatibility. Ideas compete to attempt to gain expression in consciousness

Summarize Plato's Allegory of the Cave. What points was Plato make with this allegory?

In the allegory, prisoners know the world only through shadows (_representing the lowest form of understanding_). The bound prisoner's _experience_ taught him what the world looked like. Demonstrates how difficult it is to deliver humans from ignorance. The escaped prisoner sees the real objects (_forms_) that were responsible for the shadows (_sensory information_), and embraces true knowledge. Although Plato suggested this represented confusion between _experience and reality_, there is learning from experience.

How do James Mill and John S. Mill differ?

James Mill The mind was sensations and ideas held together by _contiguity_ _complex ideas were made of simple ideas_. When ideas are continuously experienced together, the _association_ may become so strong that they appear as one idea. Strength of associations is determined by: Vividness of the sensations or ideas By the frequency of the associations *******disagreed that all complex ideas could be reduced to simple ideas John Mill Proposed a _mental chemistry_ in which complex ideas are not made up of aggregates of simple ideas Ideas can fuse to produce another idea that is completely different from the elements of which it is made. Mill argued for the development of a "science of the formation of character", which he called _ethology_. His ethology would explain how individual minds or characters form under specific circumstances.

Why might Hartley be considered the first modern psychologist (consider Behaviorism)?

Laws of association can be applied to behavior to describe how _voluntary behavior can develop for involuntary behavior_. Proposed that excessive nerve vibration produced pain and mild to moderate vibration produced pleasure. Objects, events, and people become associated with pain or pleasure through experience, and we learn to behave differentially to these stimuli. Demonstrative knowledge: _relates to ideas_; Empirical knowledge: _based on experience_

How does Leibniz differ from Locke?

Leibniz believed ideas do not come from experience. Ideas are nonmaterial- cannot be caused by material (sensory) activity. _The potential to have an idea is innate_; experience causes a potential idea to be _actualized_, but does not create ideas The universe consists of an infinite number of life units called _monads_- everything is living. A monad is like a living atom; all monads are active and conscious. Monads differ in clarity and distinctiveness of the thoughts they are capable of having Intelligence is arranged in a hierarchy. Locke-ideas & knowledge all come from experiences

Vitalism

Living things contain a force that does not exist in inanimate objects. In ancient times, this was called the soul.

Galileo's view of experimentation

Observation suggests that a lawful relationship exits; an experiment is performed to confirm or disconfirm the possibility

popper's views of science

Science starts with recognition of a problem, which determines what observation are to be made. Propose solutions (conjectures) and find fault with solutions (refutations). Three stages of scientific inquiry: problems, theories (proposed solutions), and criticism. Principle of falsifiability: scientific theory must be refutable

Discuss the relationship between sensory information, common sense, and passive and active reason

Sensation _From the five senses_ Perception was explained by _motion of objects_ that stimulate a particular sensory system. We can trust our senses to yield an accurate _representation of the real world environment_. Common sense, and passive and active reason. _Sensory information is only the first step in gaining knowledge_ necessary but not sufficient element in obtaining knowledge; isolated experience Information from multiple sensory systems must be combined for effective interactions with the environment. _Common sense_ Coordinates and synthesizes information from all of the senses for more meaningful and effective experience. _Passive reason_ Uses synthesized experience to function in everyday life _Active reason_ Uses synthesized experience to abstract principles and essences Highest form of thinking Active reason provides humans with their _entelechy_ _Purpose is to engage in active reason_

Nondeterminism

Some psychological researchers reject science as a way of studying humans. Human behavior is freely chosen, self generated, and independent of physical or psychical causes Humans have free will which leads to personal responsibility for behavior.

What is Thomas Aquinas' major influence on philosophy?

Sought to "Christianize" the works of Aristotle Once Aristotle's ideas were assimilated into church dogma, they were no longer challengeable. Aquinas argued effectively that reason and faith are _not incompatible_ but lead to the same thing- the truth of God's existence Influence was substantial, but had the opposite effect than what he desired. Philosophers began to argue that faith and reason could be _studied separately_, thus reason could be studied without considering its theological implications. _It made the study of nature respectable_ Argument over church dogma was possible Philosophy without religious overtones became a possibility and eventually a reality

existentialism

Stressed the meaning of human existence, freedom of choice, and the uniqueness of each individual

Define teleology, entelechy, and Aristotle's Four Causes.

Teleology- explanation by reason of purpose or function Entelechy- realization of full potential _Four causes_- to understand objects or phenomena, one must know causes. _Material cause_- matter of which it is made _Formal cause_- form or pattern of the object - what is it? _Efficient cause_- force that transforms the matter - who made it? _Final cause_- purpose - why it exists.

Compare and contrast the Enlightenment with romanticism?

The Enlightenment (_embraced by the Empiricists_) The period in which philosophy embraced the belief that _rationality, unbiased reason, or the objective method of science_ could reveal the principles governing the universe These principles could be used for the benefit of mankind versus Romanticism The philosophy that stresses the uniqueness of each person, and _emphasized the irrational components of human nature_ Jean-Jacques Rousseau Johann Wolfgang von Goethe Arthur Schopenhauer

Describe the dualistic universe according to Pythagoras.

The Pythagoreans proposed a dualistic universe _Abstract, permanent, and knowable_ (similar to Parmenides) _Empirical_, changing, and known through the senses, but _senses cannot provide knowledge_ (similar to Heraclitus) They believed that experiences in the flesh (senses) were inferior to experiences in the mind Affected Plato's views and impacted early Christian thought.

What is positivism? Describe Comte's positivism and law of three stages.

The contention that science should only study that what can be _directly experienced_ Proposed the law of three stages Societies and disciplines pass through stages defined by the way members explain natural events. 1st stage- Theological- superstition and mysticism 2nd stage- Metaphysical- unseen essences, principles, or causes 3rd stage- Scientific, description, prediction, and control of natural phenomena. Positivism equates knowledge with empirical observations

Universalism

The goal is to describe general laws and principles that govern the world and our perception of it. Universal truths are to be discovered.

the four sources of error that could hinder scientific investigation

The idols of the cave are personal biases that arise from a person's intellectual endowment, experiences, education, and feelings. Any of these things can influence how an individual perceives and interprets the world. Imagine how the stereotypical hungry cowboy and a vegetarian might each react to the prospect of seeing beef ribs served at a luncheon. ▪ The idols of the tribe are biases due to human nature. All humans have in common the abilities to imagine, to will, and to hope, and these human attributes can and usually do distort perceptions. For example, it is common for people to see events as they would like them to be rather than how they really are. The modern philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein (Chapter 20) called these innate filters upon our judgments our "form of life," and famously quipped that "If a lion could speak, we could not understand him" because the experiences of the lion would be filtered by a nonhuman form of life. ▪ The idols of the marketplace are biases that result from being overly influenced by the meaning assigned to words. Verbal labels and descriptions can influence one's understanding of the world and distort one's observations of it. Bacon believed that many philosophical disputes were over the definitions of words rather than over the nature of reality. Might you feel differently about some position if you learn it is backed by either the Democrats or the Republicans? Or, as Shakespeare's Juliet says of her Romeo—who she should not love just because he is a Montague—"What's in a name? That which we call a rose by any other name would smell as sweet." ▪ The idols of the theater are biases that result from blind allegiance to any viewpoint, whether it be philosophical or theological. An excellent demonstration of this was conducted by two American psychologists, Albert Hastorf and Hadley Cantril in 1954. Students were asked to watch a clip of the Princeton-Dartmouth football game, and then answer questions about its rough play. What they reported seeing—a hard fought game or an unnecessarily dirty event—was highly correlated with which school they attended.

Principles of Newtonian Science

The material world is governed by _natural laws_ Natural events can never be explained by postulating properties inherent in them- _no teleological explanations_ _Occam's razor should be accepted_ The universe can be explained in terms of space, time, matter, and force. Natural laws are absolute, but understanding may be imperfect, so _scientists need to settle for probabilities rather than certainty_. _Correlation is not explanation_.

Descartes' contributions to psychology

The mechanistic explanations of behavior and many bodily functions Anticipating stimulus-response explanations and behaviorism. The focus on the brain as an important mediator of behavior. Studied animals as a means to understand the functioning of human bodies Led to physiological and comparative psychology. He paved the way for the scientific study of consciousness. Focused attention on the nature of the mind-body relationship

According to Bain what are the three components of the mind? Why might he be considered the first modern psychologist?

The mind has three components: Feelings, Volition, Intellect _Intellect_ is explained by the laws of association, primarily the law of contiguity which applies to sensations, ideas, actions, and feelings. The laws had their effect in _neuronal changes_ in the nervous system. First modern psychologist bc: Goal was to describe the physiological correlates of mental and behavioral phenomena.

Discuss Descartes' view of the mind-body relationship, include his description of emotions.

The mind was nonphysical and immortal; the body was physical. theory of mind as an immaterial, nonextended substance that engages in various activities such as rational thought, imagining, feeling, and willing. Matter, or extended substance, conforms to the laws of physics in mechanistic fashion, with the important exception of the human body, which Descartes believed is causally affected by the human mind and which causally produces certain mental events. For example, willing the arm to be raised causes it to be raised, whereas being hit by a hammer on the finger causes the mind to feel pain. This part of Descartes's dualistic theory, known as interactionism, raises one of the chief problems faced by Descartes: the question how this causal interaction is possible. mind and body are really distinct—a thesis now called "mind-body dualism." He reaches this conclusion by arguing that the nature of the mind (that is, a thinking, non-extended thing) is completely different from that of the body (that is, an extended, non-thinking thing), and therefore it is possible for one to exist without the other. Descartes believed that when passions were stirred, the mind could divert itself until the 'agitation' was calmed, and then the mind could make a judgment as to how to proceed

categorical imperative

The rational principle which governs or should govern moral behavior Similar to older moral precepts such as the "golden rule"

Describe Protogoras' Summary of Position.

Truth depends on the perceiver. Perception varies from person to person because each perceiver has _different experiences_. Truth is partially determined by _culture_ To understand why a person believes as a person does, one must understand the person. Philosophy of relativity of truth is still present today in postmodernism

Kierkegaard's view on truth? Describe his stages of personal freedom

Truth is always what a person believes privately and emotionally. Truth cannot be taught logically, truth must be experieced. Truth is subjectivity- your subjectivity Personal freedom occurs in stages. Aesthetic stage People are open to many types of experiences, and do not recognize their ability to choose; live on a hedonistic level. Ethical stage People accept responsibility for making choices but use as their guide ethical principles established by others. Religious stage People recognize and accept their responsibility and have a personal relationship with God. People see possibilities in life that usually run contrary to convention, and tend to be nonconformists.

Relativism

Universal truths either do not exist, or if they do, they cannot be known. Humans influence what they observe, thus the search for universal truths independent of human existence is in vain. Truth is relative to the individual's perspectives; there is no ultimate truth- just truths.

Herbart's concept of apperceptive mass. How does limen relate

_Apperceptive Mass_ The group of compatible ideas that are in consciousness to which we are _attended_ to at given moment. Ideas outside the apperceptive mass (incompatible ideas) will be repressed by the powers of the ideas in the mass. Limen The threshold between conscious and unconscious Goal was to mathematically express the relationships among the apperceptive mass, the limen, and the conflict among ideas.

According to La Mettrie, what three factors influence intelligence?

_Brain size, brain complexity, and education_ By education, La Mettrie meant we have more complex everyday interactions with other people

What is Reid's Common Sense Philosophy? Include a definition of direct realism

_Common Sense Philosophy_ Because all humans are convinced of the existence of physical reality, it must exist. We can trust our impressions of the physical world and human reasoning because it makes common sense to do so. Direct Realism (or Naïve Realism) _Sensations are an accurate reflection of reality exactly as it is_.

What are Avicenna's interior senses?

_Common sense_- Synthesizes the information from the external senses _Retentive imagination_- Ability to remember the synthesized information _Compositive human and animal imagination_- Allows for learning of what to approach or avoid in the environment, _Estimative power_- Innate ability to make judgments about environmental objects _Ability to remember outcomes of past events_ _Ability to use this information_

What are Aristotle's Four Laws of Association?

_Law of contiguity_ (objects or events that occur closely in time or space are linked in the mind) _Law of frequency_ (the more often things are linked the closer the association) _Law of similarity_ (similar things trigger thoughts of each other) _Law of contrast_ (opposite things often trigger thoughts of each other).

Hume's three laws of association

_Law of resemblance_- ideas trigger thoughts of similar ideas _Law of contiguity_- the tendency to recall objects that were experienced at the same time _Law of cause and effect_- Must be contiguous in space and time The cause occurs prior to the effect Is a consistently observed relationship The same cause always produces the same effect and vice versa

Discuss Galen's Personality Theory by associating the four humors of with four temperaments.

_Personality Theory_ created by associating the four humors of Hippocrates with four temperaments: _Sanguine_- (blood) bold, confident, robust, cheerful _Phlegmatic_- (phlegm) aloof, cold, apathetic _Melancholic_- (black bile) depressed, anxious, pessimistic _Choleric_- (yellow bile) restless, irritable, explosive A balanced temperament was believed to be the result of an _optimal blend of the four humors_

primary qualities and secondary qualities

_Primary qualities_ create ideas in us that correspond to actual physical attributes of objects Solidarity, extension, shape, motion, and quantity _Secondary qualities_ produce ideas which do not correspond to the objects in the real world Color, sound, temperature, and taste How does the paradox of the basin demonstrate this difference? Demonstrates that temperature is a secondary quality Locke's observation that water will feel hot or cold depending on whether a hand is first placed in hot or cold water

Scholasticism

_Synthesis of Aristotle's philosophy and Christian theology_ Demonstrating what implications that synthesis had for living one's life Thomas Aquinas- the greatest Scholastic, acceptance of both _reason and faith_ as a way of knowing God Peter Abelard- dialectic method

Hegel's definition of the Absolute

_Universe is interrelated unity- true understanding is understanding the Absolute_ "No true statement can be made about any part except to assign its place in the whole"

Idealists

attempt to explain everything in terms of consciousness

Monists

believe in only one view- either materialist or idealist

Dualist

believe that there are both physical events (materialism) and mental events (idealism). Types of dualism: Interactionism: the mind and body interact. Emergentism: mental states emerge from brain states. Epiphenomenalism: mental processes are byproducts of brain processes. Psychophysical parallelism: environmental events cause both mental events and behavior simultaneously, which are independent of each other. Double aspectism: humans cannot be divided into mind and body; they are a unity of experience. Mind and body are aspects of the same person. Some dualists propose a pre-established harmony between mind and body that is coordinated by an external agent Occasionalism: suggests that when a desire occurs in the mind, God causes the body to act; when events happen to the body, God causes the corresponding mental experience.

compare & contrast rationalism & empiricism

empiricists believe the mind to be passive during an experience & act on sensations and ideas in a mechanical way (bottom up) and rationalists believe the mind to be active which interacts with and transforms information given from the senses giving it meaning (top down)

subjective reality

human perceptions were _________ _________ and outside of the realm of science _Psychological experiences, requires a sensing organ_ Includes what would be called secondary qualities, color, sound, temperature, and taste. These are relative, subjective, and fluctuating Cannot be described or understood mathematically _Excluded from science what is traditionally included in psychology_

mental chemistry

in which complex ideas are not made up of aggregates of simple ideas Ideas can fuse to produce another idea that is completely different from the elements of which it is made.

Naïve realism

posits that our subjective experience is exactly what is present in the physical world.

Materialists

matter is only reality, everything must be explained in terms of matter

(knowledge) rationalism

mental efforts and rules of logic must be used to attain true knowledge.

physis

nature, the flow of things, the rhythm of being Thales: Concluded that the physis was water Anaximander:Physis was any substance that had the capability of becoming anything; Called the "boundless" or the "indefinite."; Proposed a rudimentary theory of evolution Heraclitus: Physis is fire because it transforms all things into something else.; All things exist between polar opposites - must have opposites.

Bacon's science of induction

science be based on induction. Science should only include _facts of observation_ (data) Science should not include _deductive methods_- theories, hypotheses, mathematics

Why did Montaigne reject science?

science_ as a means of attaining reliable knowledge because _scientific "truth" is in constant flux_. _Sensations are illusory_ Did not share the optimism of human potential expressed by the earlier Renaissance humanists.

Hobbes' explanation of human motivation

self-interested, rationally calculating actor He describes or even relies on motives that go beyond or against self-interest, such as pity, a sense of honor or courage, and so on. And he frequently emphasizes that we find it difficult to judge or appreciate just what our interests are anyhow. Hobbes does not think that we are basically or reliably selfish; and he does not think we are fundamentally or reliably rational in our ideas about what is in our interests. He is rarely surprised to find human beings doing things that go against self-interest: we will cut off our noses to spite our faces, we will torture others for their eternal salvation, we will charge to our deaths for love of country. In fact, a lot of the problems that befall human beings, according to Hobbes, result from their being too littleconcerned with self-interest. Too often, he thinks, we are too much concerned with what others think of us, or inflamed by religious doctrine, or carried away by others' inflammatory words. This weakness as regards our self-interest has even led some to think that Hobbes is advocating a theory known as ethical egoism. This is to claim that Hobbes bases morality upon self-interest, claiming that we ought to do what it is most in our interest to do. Proposed a hedonistic theory of motivation seeking or maintaining pleasure avoidance or termination of pain drove human behavior ********

empiricism

the theory that all knowledge is derived from sense-experience. Stimulated by the rise of experimental science, it developed in the 17th and 18th centuries

Describe Empedocles' theory of perception.

theory of perception- perception occurs by internalizing copies of objects Each of the four elements are found in the blood Objects in the world throw off tiny copies of themselves called "emanations" or _eidola_, which enter the blood through pores, the eidola combine with like elements The fusion of _external and internal elements_ results in perception, which takes place in the _heart_

Indeterminism

there are specific causes of behavior but they cannot be accurately determined Human behavior may be determined, but the causes cannot be accurately measured.

Explain Berkley's statement "To be is to be perceived".

we exist only in being perceived by another Therefore, only secondary qualities exist because they are, by definition, perceived. Opposed materialism _Each sense provides separate information about an object_ Sensations that are consistently experienced together (_contiguity_) become associated.

Assumption of determinism

what is being studied can be understood in terms of causal laws

Occam's Razor

when several, equally effective alternatives explanation exist, the one that makes the fewest assumptions should be accepted This represents a turning point in the history of psychology because having evidence sounds a lot like science and the introduction to research methods.

Paradigm

widely accepted assumption or viewpoint